MOSCOW STATE TRANSPORT UNIVERSITY (MIIT)
Department of Russian Language
M.B. Serpikova
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH
Tutorial
for students of all university specialties
MOSCOW - 2008
MOSCOW STATE TRANSPORT UNIVERSITY (MIIT)
Department of Russian Language
M.B. Serpikova
for students of all specialties
MOSCOW – 2008
Serpikova M.B. Russian language and culture of speech. A textbook for students of all university specialties. - M.: MIIT, 2008. - 216 p.
This textbook has been compiled taking into account the requirements of the State educational standard for the training of non-humanitarian specialists and contains the necessary theoretical and normative information regarding difficult cases of pronunciation, word usage, and the use of grammatical forms of the modern literary language in situations of written and oral communication; introduces the requirements for the language of business papers and the rules for the design of written scientific text, as well as the main aspects of oratory, the culture of oral public speech and business etiquette.
Reviewers:
Mikhailova S.Yu., Ph.D., leading editor of the Russian language editorial office of OJSC Prosveshchenie Publishing House,
Uvarov I.V., Ph.D., teacher of department I - 003 “Theory and practice of second foreign languages” of the Institute of Foreign Languages of the Moscow Aviation Institute.
© Moscow State Transport University (MIIT), 2008
PREFACE
Proficiency in speech culture is an important condition for the professional success of a modern specialist; it significantly increases the rating of a business person and makes him competitive in the labor market.
The proposed textbook is compiled taking into account the requirements of the State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education of the Russian Federation (M., 2000) for the discipline “Russian Language and Speech Culture” and is intended for students of all university specialties, because knowledge of the norms of the Russian language and understanding of the principles of verbal communication, the ability to draw up business papers and conduct a conversation are the main requirements of modern professional training.
The textbook for the discipline “Russian language and culture of speech” includes nine topics that provide the necessary theoretical information about the language and its norms, about the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language; the difference between the concepts of language and speech is revealed, the specifics of speech in interpersonal and social relations are explained, both in its oral and written varieties; the features of the functional subsystems of the modern literary language are analyzed. A significant place in the textbook is occupied by material related to the culture of verbal communication and, in particular, to professional communication in the business sphere; the role of nonverbal means of communication in business communication is analyzed. In addition, the manual examines the main features of the scientific style of speech in its oral and written varieties, the structural organization of a scientific text and rules
speech behavior in the situation of oral scientific communication. The textbook also introduces the basics of oratory, some features of oral public speech, a type of which is oratory, and the rules of speech etiquette.
This textbook has a practical orientation: special attention is paid to spelling, lexical and grammatical norms and their variants; typical mistakes associated with violation of these norms in different communication situations are analyzed; guidelines are given when choosing certain language means necessary both for drawing up various kinds of documents and for writing educational and scientific works.
The theoretical knowledge acquired by students must be consolidated in practical classes provided for in the curriculum. In addition, after studying each topic, students are offered questions and assignments aimed at both testing the assimilation of theoretical information and the practical application of the acquired knowledge.
The order of passing and the volume of studied material presented in this work can be changed at the discretion of the teacher, taking into account the actual teaching time, the future specialty of the students and their interest in a particular section of the course. Some questions can be offered to students for independent study, and questions and assignments for each topic can be used for self-control.
Topic one.
Modern Russian literary language and speech culture
Issues for discussion
1. Basic concepts of the course: LANGUAGE, MODERN LANGUAGE, LITERARY LANGUAGE, CULTURE OF SPEECH, SPEECH ETIQUETTE.
2. National language and its varieties.
3. Functional varieties of modern Russian literary language.
4. Features of oral and written speech.
5. Language norms and speech culture.
1. Basic concepts of the course:
LANGUAGE, MODERN LANGUAGE, LITERARY LANGUAGE, CULTURE OF SPEECH, SPEECH ETIQUETTE
LANGUAGE is a system of signs and ways of connecting them; it serves as a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings and expression of will and is the most important means of human communication. In addition, it is also a means of cognition, which allows one to accumulate knowledge and transfer it from person to person, from generation to generation.
With the help of language we learn about the world and determine our place in it. People, receiving and processing information about objects or phenomena, operate with the help of language not with them, but with their signs, designations of concepts. There are artificial signs created in accordance with the needs of practice (traffic signs, for example). They can be replaced and improved if necessary. But natural language is constantly changing
growing like a living organism, it changes under the influence of science, everyday life, and technological progress.
Without language, human communication is impossible, and without communication there can be no society, and a full-fledged personality cannot be formed. Everyone knows of cases where children, finding themselves in Mowgli’s position, grew up outside human society, without verbal communication. Returning to people, they did not know how to speak, move correctly, behave in the company of other people, and had difficulty learning the simplest skills. Without language there can be no thinking, i.e. a person’s awareness of himself as an individual, and mastery of reality.
Language helps to store and transmit information. Written monuments and oral folk art record the life of a people, a nation, and the history of native speakers. This is the accumulative function of language. In addition, language performs an emotional function (expresses feelings and emotions) and voluntarily (the function of influence).
Thus, basic functions of the language–cognitive (cognitive), communicative(communication), accumulative, voluntary and emotional.
The term MODERN LANGUAGE is usually used in two meanings: 1) modern language is the language from Pushkin to the present day; 2) modern - the language of living generations, which developed as a system by the middle of the twentieth century and functions to this day.
Since more than 150 years have passed from the era of Pushkin to the present day and the language has changed during this time (this applies to both pronunciation and grammatical norms; the meaning of some words has become different), we will understand the term MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE as a language that has developed as a system in the middle twentieth century and exists today.
LITERARY LANGUAGE is the main means of communication (communication) between people of the same nationality, the main properties of which are processing and normalization.
The refinement of a literary language arises as a result of a purposeful selection of all the best that exists in the popular, or national, language. This selection is carried out in the process of using the language by wordsmiths (writers, poets, actors), public figures, as well as as a result of special research by philologists.
Standardization literary language is manifested in the fact that the use of its linguistic means is regulated by a single generally binding norm.
Ordering, bringing into unity, into a system, into a holistic, consistent set of linguistic phenomena is called codification, and the means of codification are dictionaries, language reference books, textbooks, scientific linguistic studies that establish the norm, as well as the example of people who have an impeccable command of Russian speech, and the best examples artistic, scientific, journalistic works. Codification is the main task of SPEECH CULTURE, which is understood as “mastery of the norms of oral and written literary language (rules of pronunciation, stress, word usage, grammar, stylistics), as well as the ability to use expressive means of language in various communication conditions in accordance with the purposes and content of speech "
So, a literary language is a consciously codified language, the highest form of a national language, used
Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. – M., 1990. –
used in science, the press, education, government agencies, radio and television. It serves a wide variety of areas of human life and activity and plays a leading role among other varieties of the national language (which will be discussed below), since it includes optimal ways of denoting concepts and objects, expressing thoughts and emotions.
The normative aspect of speech culture is one of the most important, but not the only one. Another important aspect of speech culture is ethical. Each society has its own moral standards of behavior, which apply to various communication situations and, within the framework of the culture of speech, are defined as speech etiquette.
ETIQUETTE is a set of rules of good manners accepted in a given society and establishing standards of behavior and communication of people in certain situations. Rules of communication are nationally specific and can vary significantly in different countries.
Etiquette is a special language of communication that makes it possible, while maintaining the sovereignty of each individual, to achieve mutual understanding and respect and, ultimately, success in communication.
Etiquette norms are a historical category, i.e. changing over time. In addition, as already noted, they depend on the national mentality. Each nation has its own ideas about the norms of behavior in everyday life, in professional activities, in the field of trade, diplomacy, politics, and economics.
Everyday etiquette is based on qualities accepted throughout the world: politeness, tact, naturalness, dignity. All these qualities are expressed through specific speech actions, rules of speech behavior, i.e. through SPEECH ETIQUETTE - a system of
rheotypical, stable formulas of communication, reflecting the moral state of society, national and cultural traditions.
Spoken speech etiquette is a manifestation of respect for the interlocutor; politeness commensurate with the situation; non-imposition of one’s own judgments and assessments.
Written etiquette is based on the general principles of speech etiquette, but takes into account the following rules:
- the form of address must strictly correspond to the communication situation;
- the text must obey the norms of the genre, and a business letter must comply with the standard;
- the tone of presentation should be respectful and correct.
Speech etiquette, therefore, considers for various communication situations the possibility or impossibility of addressing you and naVy; prescribes the choice of a full or abbreviated name, addresses like
citizen, comrade, sir, master etc., as well as the choice of methods of greeting, farewell, refusal, agreement, gratitude, etc. The choice of speech formulas depends on gender, age, social status, nationality of the addressee or interlocutor. For example, the Chinese put the surname first when addressing people, but in Western practice, on the contrary, the surname is often put in second place. In Russia now there are no established forms of address. Therefore, when addressing people, they usually say: “Sorry”, “Po-
excuse me”, “Be so kind”, etc.
Issues related to the ethics of verbal communication and etiquette speech formulas will be discussed in more detail in the topic of the ninth century. benefits.
Current page: 1 (book has 14 pages total) [available reading passage: 10 pages]
Anna Alekseevna Almazova
Russian language and culture of speech. Tutorial
Introduction
This textbook is dedicated to working on the speech skills of a teacher-defectologist and corresponds to the content of the courses “Russian language and culture of speech”, “Workshop on voice production and expressiveness of reading”, designed for students of pedagogical universities and pedagogical colleges. The authors sought to select material necessary primarily for the professional activities of a teacher-defectologist.
Speech skill is the basic professional quality of a speech pathologist. It includes several components. The most important of them is the culture of speech, which is part of the general culture of a person. By the way a person speaks, one can judge the level of his spiritual development, his internal culture.
Speech culture is the ability, firstly, to speak and write correctly and, secondly, to use linguistic means in accordance with the goals and conditions of communication. Speech in which there are expressions that contradict the literary norm cannot be called cultural.
However, correctness is only the first component of genuine speech culture. You can speak (or write) without mistakes, but monotonously, colorlessly, sluggishly. Such speech lacks expressiveness. And it is achieved by skillful and appropriate use of vocabulary of different styles, a variety of syntactic structures; In oral speech, the richness of intonation is especially valuable.
Mastery of expressive means of language and the ability to use them depending on the communicative situation is the second component of speech mastery. In order for it to be realized, the speaker (writer) must have a clear idea of the stylistic gradation of linguistic elements and their different purposes.
The stylistic appropriateness of using linguistic means and their compliance with the needs of communication are important conditions for speech culture. They also underlie the normalization activities of linguists (their development of reference books and manuals on stylistics and speech culture) and the promotion of linguistic knowledge in the media.
Sound speech is the result of complex and coordinated work of many parts of the human body. The accuracy and purity of pronunciation of individual sounds, combinations, words, phrases depends not only on correct articulation (i.e. position of lips, jaw, tongue), but also on correct breathing, hearing development, and muscle freedom. The same actions, repeated many times, systematically, become consistently a skill, skill, habit, and become “stereotypical.”
The formation of speech skills involves training a teacher-defectologist who has expressive, logically clear, emotional literary speech, good diction and a flexible voice of a wide range. In this regard, this manual addresses the following tasks:
1) introduce students to the norms of the modern Russian literary language;
2) develop their ability to use expressive means of language in conditions of verbal communication;
3) help them master the technique, psychotechnics and logic of speech and reading;
4) to develop special pedagogical skills that ensure expressive reading and storytelling and allow children to be influenced by words;
5) facilitate the methodological preparation of future defectologists to work with children with developmental disabilities.
One of the main principles of organizing educational material in the manual is interdisciplinary communication for the purpose of professional training of the future speech therapist, teacher of the deaf, specialist in the field of correctional pedagogy and special psychology.
The manual consists of five chapters, each of which covers the theoretical foundations of working on individual components of speech skills, provides questions and tasks for self-test, and also offers questions and tasks for independent work.
Chapter 1 was written by Yu.P. Bogachev and Z.A. Shelestova, chapter 2 – A.A. Almazova, V.V. Nikultseva and Z.A. Shelestova, chapter 3 – Yu.P. Bogachev, chapter 4 – L.L. Timashkova, chapter 5 – Z.A. Shelestova.
Chapter 1. MODERN RUSSIAN LITERARY LANGUAGE AND ITS STYLES
1.1. The concept of modern Russian literary language
The Russian national language (native word) enters a person’s life from the cradle, awakens his mind, shapes his soul, inspires thoughts, and reveals the spiritual wealth of the people. Like other languages of the world, the Russian language is a product of human culture and at the same time a condition for its development.
From a linguistic perspective language - this is “a system of verbal and other sound means that serve to convey thoughts and express feelings, for people to communicate with each other.” People need it to communicate, exchange thoughts, store knowledge and pass it on to subsequent generations.
Language is a purely human phenomenon. It exists only in human society and serves truly human needs - thinking and communication. The native language of any people, including Russians, is the true soul of a nation, its primary and most obvious sign. In language and through language, such features as the national psychology of the people, their character, peculiarities of thinking and artistic creativity are revealed.
Language is a powerful tool of culture, the most important factor in the spiritual development of a nation. Love for it presupposes an intolerant attitude towards its impoverishment and distortion, therefore the culture of the native language is the value of every modern person and society as a whole.
In the Russian national language, its processed and standardized part is distinguished, which is called literary language. M. Gorky said about the relationship between the literary language and local dialects: “The division of a language into literary and folk means only that we have, so to speak, a “raw language” and one processed by masters.”
Modern Russian literary language is a literary form of the national language that has developed historically and establishes strict norms in the pronunciation of speech sounds and in the use of words and grammatical forms.
When speaking in a literary language, a person has the right to expect that he will be correctly understood by his interlocutor or addressee.
The term "modern" has two meanings:
1) language from Pushkin to the present day;
2) the language of recent decades.
Native speakers living in the 21st century use this term in the first (narrow) meaning.
The modern Russian literary language is the language of a people with a rich history and traditions; it is an integral part of Russian national culture, the highest form of the national language.
The masters who polished their native language were writers, scientists, and public figures. They all admired his power and wealth. So, M.V. Lomonosov wrote: “The ruler of many languages, the Russian language is not only in the vastness of the places where it dominates, but also in its own space and contentment, it is great before everyone in Europe... Charles V, the Roman emperor, used to say that the Spanish language is with God, the French - It’s decent to speak German with friends, German with enemies, Italian with women. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would have added that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would find in it the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, in addition to the richness and strength of images of the brevity of the Greek and Latin languages".
In these words M.V. Lomonosov expressed not only an ardent love for the language of his people, but also a correct assessment of the remarkable properties and practical qualities of the Russian language.
“The word of a Briton will echo with heart knowledge and wise knowledge of life,” wrote N.V. Gogol, - the short-lived word of the Frenchman will flash and scatter with a light dandy; the German will intricately come up with his own clever and thin word, which is not accessible to everyone; but there is no word that would be so sweeping, smart, would burst out from under the very heart, would tremble and tremble so vividly, like a well-spoken Russian word.”
Boundless love for the native language, a passionate desire to preserve and increase its riches are heard in the address of I.S. Turgenev to future generations of Russian people: “Take care of our language, our beautiful Russian language, this treasure, this heritage passed on to us by our predecessors, among whom Pushkin shines. Handle this powerful tool with respect; in skillful hands it is capable of performing miracles!”
The Russian literary language serves as a single means of communication between people. It absorbs all the wealth of speech and visual means created by the people over the centuries. However, the vocabulary of a literary language does not include everything that folk speech has. So, to non-literary varieties Russian languages include:
Dialects (from the Greek dialektos - dialect, adverb) are non-literary variants of the language that are used in certain territories, incomprehensible to people living in places where this dialect is unknown: smoking- house, veksha- squirrel, poneva– a type of skirt, etc. Dialectisms (local words and expressions), if they occur in speech that should be literary, can distract listeners from the content and interfere with correct understanding;
Slang vocabulary is special words and expressions characteristic of various professional groups and social strata, placed in separate conditions of life and communication;
Argotic words and expressions inherent in the language of thieves, gamblers, cheaters and swindlers;
Swearing (obscene, taboo) words and expressions.
At the same time, the literary language is closely related to the vernacular - the everyday everyday vocabulary of the people, which has enormous figurative power and precision of definitions.
A person’s manner of speech and language habits always reflect the era in which he lives and the characteristics of the social environment to which he belongs. For example, the characters of “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol speaks completely differently from the peasants in “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev. Social varieties are a historically determined and completely natural phenomenon, since different social circles, according to the conditions of their life, always have specific interests. In human society, language is used differently. Rural and urban residents, young and old, educated and semi-literate people speak differently. There are territorial differences such as local dialects (dialects), since language changes much more slowly than society. A specific manner of speech is more characteristic of the older generation of residents of a modern village, and rural youth, under the influence of the language of books, print, radio, television, and cinema, is increasingly becoming involved in the literary language. In addition, dialects have only an oral form of existence.
It is impossible to treat dialectisms with disdain, because the best Russian writers drew expressive means from folk speech, who introduced many dialect words into literary use.
There are also elements of differences in language depending on the gender of the speakers. The science of speech etiquette deals with similar gender features in language. For example, men and women greet each other differently: men, especially young men who know each other well, can use the form “great” along with the phrases “hello”, “good afternoon”, “hello”, etc. ”, which is not common for women. In a woman’s speech, there are almost no addresses such as “mom,” “dad,” or “friend,” but the words “baby” (to a child) and “darling” are more often used. In general, linguistic differences between men and women are expressed primarily in the forms of greetings, farewells, thanks, apologies, etc.
Thus, the modern Russian literary language is understood as an ideal mental phenomenon that makes verbal information accessible, excluding dialectal, abusive, slang and argotic elements, serving as a means of communication in the modern cultural space, both on the territory of the Russian Federation and in other countries.
Stylistics, based on the data of linguistic sciences, on the development trends of the modern Russian literary language and the peculiarities of the functioning of linguistic units in different types of speech, relying on linguistic and stylistic norms, taking into account its dynamism and variability, implements the principle of expediency in the practice of working on the language and style of a work ( in which it is similar to the culture of speech).
Basic subject of stylistics – language styles. Their evolution is considered in connection with the history of literary language and the language of fiction, which determines the methods of constructing works of literature, genres of communication, and expressive means of language. We can distinguish between practical stylistics, which teaches the stylistic norms of the native language, and theoretical ones, at the center of which is the problem of the speech act and the text as its result. Thus, stylistics is a branch of the science of language that studies language styles, patterns of language functioning in different spheres of use, features of the use of linguistic means depending on the situation, content and purposes of the utterance, sphere and conditions of communication, as well as the expressive properties of language. It introduces the stylistic system of language at all its levels and the stylistic organization of correct (in compliance with the norms of the literary language), accurate, logical and expressive speech. Stylistics teaches the conscious and expedient use of the laws of language and the use of linguistic means in speech, in its various styles and genres.
The main content of stylistics is theory functional types language and speech, namely: the variety of forms and their implementation in the structure of the text; text-forming factors in the communication process; expediency in the selection and combination of language means and the pattern of their use in various spheres and situations of communication; synonymy (phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic); assessment of the visual and expressive capabilities of various means of language and their stylistic properties. Stylistics studies, as G.O. believed. Vinokur, the use of that set of “language habits and norms established in a given society, by virtue of which a certain selection is made from the available stock of language means, which is not the same for different conditions of linguistic communication.”
In accordance with language levels, stylistics is divided into phonetic (phonostylistics), lexical, grammatical - morphological and syntactic (including the stylistics of the text and its units - a complex syntactic whole, period, etc.). Based linguistic stylistics as a science about the purposeful use of language means, about the stylistic role of language units in typified forms of speech actions (functional styles of language and functional types of speech) and text stylistics New concepts and terms of stylistics have been introduced into use, and already known ones have been rethought or clarified.
1) stylistic coloring, understood as additional expressive and functional properties to the expression of the main, nominative, subject-logical or grammatical meaning, which limit the possibilities of using this unit to certain spheres and conditions of communication and thereby carry stylistic information;
2) stylistic meaning– features additional to their own lexical, subject or grammatical meaning that are permanent in nature, reproduced under certain conditions and are included in the semantic structure of a language unit; stylistic meaning is inherent in units of speech in the process of their use, therefore it is realized in context;
3) stylistic means– functional (in literary-colloquial, colloquial-everyday, colloquial, scientific, artistic and other styles of speech) and expressive (in high, neutral, reduced styles).
TO functional and stylistic means are treated as book elements (words like for, to believe, to exaggerate, such constructions as participle phrases, etc.) and colloquial (phrases like what's true is true). They have a limited scope of application to functional styles.
Expressive means represented by emotional-evaluative elements (words like crybaby, scribbler). They, in addition to the nominative function (transmission of basic information), express the speaker’s attitude to what is being presented, that is, they contain additional information and have graphic features.
The subject of special interest in stylistics is the determination of functional styles of language, identification of their specificity and speech systematicity, classification, establishment of interaction between styles while maintaining their integrity, determination of stylistic norms, etc.
1.3. Functional style
The basic unit of the stylistic system is the functional style. Functional styles - these are varieties of language (in which its main functions are realized), historically established, socially conditioned, corresponding to certain spheres of human activity, characterized by a set of linguistic means (their high frequency, regularity), necessary and convenient for expressing certain content in certain conditions and spheres of communication. Essentially, it is the functional style that is the organizing principle for the selection of language means that best reflect the social practice of a given collective, a given group of people.
The interaction of functional styles opens up great opportunities in the field of compositional, speech, and stylistic creativity. The trend towards the emergence of new types of literature today is clearly manifested in the diversity of genres. However, the linguistic consciousness of society in each period of its development needs a style that would represent the literary language in its integrity. This is all the more important because some styles (mono- or narrowly thematic, for example, scientific) cover, although a wide, but fairly homogeneous zone of reality. Others (the language of fiction, spoken language) are universal in nature and can be called polythematic. The range of their thematic variations is practically unlimited.
In modern language, there are two oppositely directed trends: the interpenetration of styles (their integration) and the formation of each of them into an independent integral speech system (their differentiation).
We must not forget that the stylistic features of different languages have a nationally distinctive character (differences in volume, interconnection, place in the language system, etc.) Therefore, the study of the stylistic system is impossible without taking into account the national originality of a given language.
Depending on the goals and objectives set in the communication process, linguistic means are selected. In this case, a functional approach is required, which assumes that the linguistic means used by the author must correspond to this functional style of speech.
The term “functional style” emphasizes that varieties of literary language are distinguished on the basis of the function (role) that is performed in each specific case. The following functional styles are distinguished:
1) conversational,
2) book:
– scientific,
– technical,
– official business,
- newspaper and journalistic.
3) a style of fiction that combines elements of all styles.
The styles of a literary language are most often compared on the basis of an analysis of their vocabulary, since it is in the vocabulary that the difference between them is most noticeable.
If we compare synonymous words: guise - appearance, lack - deficiency, misfortune - misadventure, fun - entertainment, alteration - transformation, warrior - warrior, eye-saver - ophthalmologist, liar - liar, huge - gigantic, squander - squander, cry - lament, then it is easy to notice that they differ from each other not in meaning, but in their stylistic coloring. The first words of each pair are used in everyday conversation, the second - in popular science, journalistic, and official business speech.
The assignment of words to a certain style of speech is explained by the fact that the lexical meaning often, in addition to the subject-logical content, also includes emotional and stylistic coloring. Compare: mother, mother, mommy, mummy, ma; father, dad, daddy, daddy, pa. The words in each row have the same meaning, but differ stylistically. In formal business style, the words predominantly used are mother father, the rest are in colloquial and everyday language.
Conversational vocabulary is contrasted with bookish, which includes words of scientific, technical, newspaper and journalistic styles, usually presented in written form. The lexical meaning of book words, their grammatical design and pronunciation are subject to the established norms of the literary language, deviation from which is unacceptable.
Scope of distribution book vocabulary not the same. Along with words common to scientific, technical, newspaper-journalistic and official business styles, it also contains those that are assigned to any one style and constitute its specificity.
IN scientific style abstract, terminological vocabulary predominates: theory, problems, function, process, structure, mechanisms, methodology, content, principles, forms, methods, techniques. Its purpose is to provide an accurate and clear understanding of theoretical concepts. Words are used in their direct, standardized meaning; figurative means of language, emotionality are absent, verbal nouns are frequent: disconnection, application. The sentences are narrative in nature and predominantly have direct word order. Technical style is often considered as a type of scientific style. Examples of technical terms are the words bimetal, centrifuge, stabilizer; medical - X-ray, sore throat, diabetes; linguistic – morpheme, affix, inflection and etc.
Characteristic features of a text written in journalistic style, are the relevance of the content, the sharpness and brightness of the presentation, the author's passion. The purpose of the text is to influence the mind and feelings of the reader and listener. A very diverse vocabulary is used: terms of literature and art ( poet, work, image, poetry, artistic merit), common literary words ( mystery, personality, creation, reading). The journalistic style is characterized by abstract words with socio-political meaning: humanity, progress, nationality, openness, peace-loving. Many words have a high style connotation: to feel, to clothe, to anticipate, to admire. Means of verbal expressiveness are actively used, for example, artistic definition ( a true poet, living forms, a clear image, universal human content, were vaguely and vaguely sensed), inversion ( What should one do for this when studying his works?), expanded stylistic constructions predominate, interrogative and exclamatory sentences are used.
IN business style – official correspondence, government acts, speeches – vocabulary that reflects official business relations is used: plenum, session, decision, resolution, resolution. A special group within the official business vocabulary is formed by clericalisms: listen(report), read out(solution), forward, incoming(number).
A feature of the official business style is concise, compact presentation and economical use of language. Clichés are used ( We gratefully acknowledge; We inform you that...; in case of manifestation; We will inform you further), verbal nouns ( receiving, considering, manifesting). The document is characterized by “dryness” of presentation, lack of expressive means, and the use of words in their literal meaning.
Unlike colloquial and everyday vocabulary, which is characterized by concrete meaning, book vocabulary is predominantly abstract. The terms “book” and “colloquial vocabulary” are conditional, since they are not necessarily associated with the idea of only one form of speech. Book words, typical for written speech, can be used orally (scientific reports, public speaking, etc.), and colloquial words - in written form (in diaries, everyday correspondence, etc.).
Colloquial style words are distinguished by great semantic capacity and colorfulness, giving the text liveliness and expressiveness. In everyday correspondence, for example, neutral vocabulary is mainly used, although there are also colloquial words ( dad, at least you have to). Emotional connotations are created by words with evaluative suffixes ( darling, kids, week), verbs conveying the state of the author ( remembers, kisses, blesses), figurative language means, for example, comparisons ( There’s a fog in my head, like a dream and drowsiness), expressive address ( my dear friend, Anechka, dear darlings). The syntax is characterized by the use of various types of sentences and free word order. There are extremely short phrases ( Very hard), there are even unfinished ones ( … that's what).
In everyday dialogue, characteristic of oral speech, predominantly colloquial vocabulary is used. It does not violate generally accepted norms of literary speech, but it is characterized by a certain freedom. For example, expressions blotting paper, reading room, dryer instead of blotting paper, reading room, drying machine, quite acceptable in colloquial speech, but inappropriate in official business communication.
Colloquial vocabulary is adjacent to colloquial vocabulary, which is beyond the boundaries of the styles of the literary language. Colloquial words are usually used for the purpose of a reduced, rough description of phenomena and objects of reality. For example: lads, glutton, nonsense, junk, scum, throat, shabby, buzz etc. Jargons (jargon - from the French jargon) or argotisms (argo - from the French argot) are a non-literary version of the language: flyer- countermark, laces– parents, crisp pepper- good man. These words are unacceptable in official business communication; they should also be avoided in everyday speech.
In addition to denoting a concept and stylistic coloring, a word is capable of expressing feelings, as well as an assessment of various phenomena of reality. There are 2 groups emotional expressive vocabulary: words with positive and negative evaluation. Compare: excellent, wonderful, superb, wonderful, amazing, luxurious, magnificent(positive assessment) and nasty, disgusting, impudent, nasty, impudent(negative rating). Here are words with a colloquial assessment that characterize a person: clever girl, hero, eagle, lion; fool, pygmy, donkey, cow, crow.
Depending on what emotional-expressive assessment is expressed in the word, it is used in different styles. Emotionally expressive vocabulary is most fully represented in colloquial and everyday speech, which is distinguished by vividness and precision of presentation. Expressively colored words are also typical for the journalistic style, but in scientific, technical and official business they are, as a rule, inappropriate.
However, not all words are clearly distributed between different styles. So, in addition to words that constitute the specificity of colloquial speech in the entire scope of their meaning and are not found in other styles ( bastard, literalist, dumbfounded), there are also those that are colloquial only in one of the figurative meanings. Yes, word unscrewed(participle of the verb to unscrew) in its basic meaning is perceived as stylistically neutral, and in the sense of “lost the ability to restrain itself” - as colloquial.
In the Russian language there is a large group of words used in all styles without exception and characteristic of both oral and written speech. They form a background against which stylistically colored vocabulary stands out. They are called stylistically neutral. Match the neutral words below with their stylistic synonyms related to colloquial and literary vocabulary.
If speakers find it difficult to determine whether a given word can be used in a particular style of speech, they should turn to dictionaries and reference books. In explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, marks are given that indicate the stylistic characteristics of the word: “book.” – bookish, “colloquial.” – colloquial, “official.” – official, “special.” – special, “simple.” – colloquial, etc. For example, in the “Dictionary of the Russian Language” of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the article is formatted as follows:
autocrat(book) – a person with unlimited supreme power, autocrat;
spoiler(colloquial) – naughty, prankster;
outgoing(official - case) - document, paper sent from the institution;
measure(special) – to measure something;
farce(simple) - rude, vulgar buffoonery.
Stylistic characteristics of words, phrases, forms and constructions, as well as pronunciation variants are given, for example, in the “Dictionary of Difficulties of the Russian Language”, in the reference book “Difficulties of the Russian Language”, in the dictionary-reference book “Difficulties of Word Usage and Variants of Norms of the Russian Literary Language” and others publications
Each specific act of speech activity requires completely specific means of expression. Speakers must ensure that the words they use are homogeneous in their stylistic properties, so that stylistic inconsistency does not arise, and the use of stylistically colored words is justified by the purpose of the utterance.
Book and colloquial words, correctly introduced into the fabric of the statement, give speech a special flavor, increase its expressiveness. However, not everyone has sufficient linguistic flair, a sense of proportion in the use of stylistically colored vocabulary, which requires careful selection and an attentive attitude towards oneself.
Unjustified mixing of different styles of vocabulary in speech is unacceptable: colloquial, colloquial, bookish. In this case, the statement becomes discordant and loses its internal harmony. For example: “But Slavik was not surprised by this. After he left Krasnaya Polyana and went to study at a technical school, he generally ceased to be surprised at the miracles happening around him. His consciousness and all the elements of perception of the world seemed to find themselves on a different plane.” The first two sentences are written in the style of fiction, and the last one in the scientific style, which creates a difference in style. Another example: “And when in the evening they warmed up the brew that had thickened during the day—it was worth a spoonful—the sky shone in the windows with the clear tears of stars.” There are poetic words in this sentence shone, clear tears of stars do not harmonize with colloquial and colloquial as much as a brew, a spoon.
The use of diverse vocabulary, unmotivated use of colloquial and colloquial words is a fairly common stylistic error, often found in school essays. For example: “Andrei Bolkonsky, a man with progressive views, is not related to secular society”; “Pavel Vlasov unites his friends even more”; “They were active on the farm.”
Series “Textbooks for technical universities”
A.A. Dantsev, N.V. Nefyodova
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND SPEECH CULTURE FOR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES
and university specialties
Rostov-on-Don "Phoenix"
BBK A5ya 72-1 D 19
Reviewers:
Candidate of Philology, Sciences, Professor, M.V. Bulanova-Toporkova
Candidate of Philology, Sciences, Professor A.S. Kutkova
Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V.
D19 Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2002. - 320 s (series “Textbooks for technical universities”).
ISBN 5-222-01787-7
The textbook has been prepared taking into account the requirements of the State Educational Standard. It examines the features of improving spelling, punctuation and speech skills in writing, and provides algorithms for spelling work with a word and syntactic work with a sentence. The characteristics of language as a sign system for transmitting information are given.
The functions, basic units and types of communication, and its techniques are considered. Particular attention is paid to the qualities of speech, compliance with language norms, and the main functional styles of the modern Russian literary language are described. The elements of classical rhetoric are outlined, the specifics of developing skills in creating scientific and technical texts are analyzed.
For technical areas and specialties of universities.
ISBN 5-222-01787-7 | BBK A5ya 72-1 |
© Concept and development of the series: Baranchikova E.V., 2002
© Dantsev A.A., Nefedova N.V., 2002
© Decoration of "Phoenix", 2002
PREFACE
Russian language! For thousands of years the people have been creating this flexible, inexhaustibly rich, intelligent, poetic and laboring instrument of their social life, their thoughts, their feelings, their hopes, their anger, their great future.
AL. Tolstoy
We have been given possession of the richest, most accurate, powerful and truly magical Russian language.
CT. Paustovsky
In our country, historically, for a long time, the study of the Russian language was limited to secondary school for a significant part of the younger generation. It was simply not carried out in higher educational institutions with a non-philological profile. Nowadays, this kind of educational orientation has clearly demonstrated its inferiority. It became obvious that training highly qualified specialists without thorough training in the Russian language is unproductive. An engineer who has the necessary technical knowledge, but has a meager vocabulary, is unable to find the appropriate words to clearly convey thoughts and finds it difficult to correctly present the information received, will undoubtedly lose out in front of colleagues who have received serious language training.
It is no secret that the level of speech culture among the modern domestic intelligentsia has sharply decreased. Thus, her right, generally recognized in the past, to be the guardian of the purity and correctness of her native language is called into question. In other social strata of Russian society the situation is even worse. This is a kind of signal of a disaster that has not yet broken out. And if we continue to treat the Russian language as it became “fashionable” at the very end of the 20th century - intensively flooding it with vulgarisms, trying to legitimize the use of profanity, indiscriminately using borrowings, regularly demonstrating stylistic negligence in the media, then we risk witnessing the tragedy of the loss of a national identity by the Russian people.
Thinking about this, you involuntarily remember what was said as if especially for us by the great Ivan Sergeevich Tur-
Genev: “Take care of our language, our beautiful Russian language - this is a treasure, this is an asset passed on to us by our predecessors! Handle this powerful weapon with respect." In the words of the writer there is a call, a recognition, and a warning. They contain a covenant that we and our descendants can fulfill.
One of the manifestations of the general difficult situation in the sphere of speech culture of Russian society is the linguistic illiteracy of graduates of technical universities. Often they are forced to carry out their professional activities without having clear ideas about the specifics of communication as a special type of interaction between people, its ethical standards, the features of literate speech, the style of the modern Russian language, and the rules for creating an original text. Only at first glance it may seem that you can do without all this. In fact, even a cursory acquaintance with the professional activities of graduates of technical universities convinces us that low language skills are a serious obstacle in the performance of their duties, and in the conditions of the formation of a market economy, this circumstance, without a doubt, becomes a factor negatively affecting competitiveness engineering specialists. Thus, making adjustments to the educational orientation of higher education is fully justified, and the inclusion of the course “Russian language and speech culture” in the training programs for non-philological specialists meets the urgent demands of the time.
This textbook is intended for students of technical universities and takes into account the relevant specifics. It is compiled in accordance with the requirements of the new State Standard for the discipline “Russian Language and Speech Culture”. Special sections are devoted to business communication in the scientific and engineering environment, the peculiarities of the style of technical literature, and the formation of skills in creating scientific and technical text. The textbook also contains a dictionary of scientific and technical terms, a dictionary of the most commonly used linguistic terms.
The authors of this textbook set themselves the task of helping students who have language training at the level of secondary school programs to improve spelling and punctuation skills, master fundamental knowledge about the Russian language and the specifics of the culture of speech, get acquainted with the basics of the theory of eloquence, manifestations of verbal and non-verbal business communication.
No less important for the authors is the task of giving students the opportunity to comprehend their attitude to the Russian language, to this spiritual treasury, which they will have to master throughout their lives. By cultivating a respectful, reverent and caring attitude towards our native language, each of us makes our contribution to the preservation of the Russian nation and acquires the feeling of a zealous owner of countless spiritual riches.
Chapter 1. IMPROVEMENT OF SPELLING, PUNCTUATION
AND SPEECH SKILLS
1.1. Working with spellings
Literacy in written language is manifested spelling (at the word level) and punctuation (at the sentence level).
Spelling (from Greek orthos - straight, correct, grapho
I am writing) - a system of rules for writing words, scientifically based and approved by the state. The purpose of spelling is to accurately convey the content of speech and express certain thoughts. Thanks to orthography, people who speak the same language but belong to different nationalities or dialect groups are able to use the same, uniform rules of writing. Compliance with them saves time and, when mastering a written text, helps to improve a person’s linguistic culture. The spelling systems of languages can be based on sound (phonetic), morphological or historical (traditional) principles. In the first case, the pronunciation of words and their forms is reflected in the letter, the sounds of speech are recorded sequentially, letter by letter (Serbo-Croatian, partly Belarusian language). If the rules for using letters are associated not with an individual sound, but with a morpheme (root, prefix, suffix, ending), then we are dealing with the morphological principle of spelling (Ukrainian, Bulgarian, Polish, Czech languages). When spelling is based on the principle of preserving the appearance of a whole word in writing and at the same time its modern pronunciation is not lost, they speak of historical (traditional) spelling. The classic example of the latter type is English spelling - today the English write as they spoke in the 14th century.
Russian orthography is based on the morphological principle - the same spelling of morphemes, regardless of pronunciation. For example, the root dom in all related words is denoted by these three letters, although in the words “dom* [house], “domestic” [dam]ashny, “householding *[dam] mastery” the sound “o” is pronounced differently. Spelling of modern Russian
The Russian language includes the rules for transmitting sounds by letters, continuous, separate and semi-continuous (hyphenated) spellings of words and their parts, the use of upper and lowercase letters, transferring words from one line to another and graphic abbreviation of words1.
Punctuation (lat. punctum - point) - a collection of rules for placing punctuation marks, placement of punctuation marks in the text2. In the history of Russian punctuation, the question of its foundations and purpose was resolved within three directions. Logical (semantic) is represented by the works of F.I. Buslaeva, S. I. Abakumova, A.B. Shapiro. Thus, the last of the linguists finds that “the main role of punctuation is to designate those semantic relationships and implications that, while important for understanding a written text, cannot be expressed by lexical and syntactic means”3. The syntactic direction has become widespread in the practice of teaching the Russian language at school. One of its largest representatives, Y.K. Groth believed that through punctuation marks “an indication of a greater or lesser connection between sentences, and partly also between members of sentences” is given*. Proponents of intonation theory (L.B. Shcherba, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.A. Bulakhovsky) believe that punctuation marks are intended “to indicate the rhythm and melody of a phrase.”
Despite the significant divergence of views of representatives of different directions, what is common is their recognition of the communicative function of punctuation, which is an important means of formatting written speech. The level of spelling and punctuation preparation of applicants to technical universities is low. Many years of data accumulated in the course of work at the preparatory department for those entering the university show that applicants who have a grade of “4” (good) in the Russian language in the certificate of secondary education make mistakes in the following types of spelling and punctuation: unstressed and alternating vowels at the root of the word, prefixes PRE- and PRI-, O and E after sibilants in all parts of the word,
b after sibilants in all parts of speech, unstressed personal windows -
1 Rozeptal D, E., Telenkova ML. Dictionary-reference book linguistic terms. - M, 1976. P. 250.
2 Ibid. S.350
3 Rozentpal D.E., Golub I.B.. Tglenkova M.L.Modern Russian language. - M„ 2000. P. 428.
* Ibid. P. 429.
spelling of verbs, spelling of suffixes of nouns, adjectives, verbs and participles, NOT with parts of speech, spelling of adverbs, homogeneous and heterogeneous definitions, complex sentences, isolation of definitions and circumstances, introductory words and constructions, direct and indirect speech. Anyone who does not have practical skills in applying the relevant rules and makes such mistakes cannot consider himself a literate person. Let's look at some of the reasons for the current situation that seem to us the most important. Practice shows: grammar (Greek gramma - written sign) is poorly understood not because it is complex - many rules are quite simple and do not even contain exceptions. The first reason, it seems to us, is the lack of interest in working with words and sentences. When the correct spelling of a word is required, it is most often perceived as a set of sounds and letters in which students do not see the grammatical meaning. Meanwhile, the word is a living organism. It is born, develops (changes its meaning and scope of use), can become obsolete and even die. The birth, development, and life of words in their native speech should be as interesting to native speakers as the life history of their relatives and people close to them.
The second reason for speech illiteracy is a lack of understanding of the relationship and interdependence of linguistic elements. If you don't know how to isolate part of a word and determine which part of speech it belongs to, you won't be able to write it correctly. If you don’t know what parts of speech can express the main and minor members of a sentence, you won’t be able to put punctuation marks correctly. As a third reason, we would venture to name the increasingly complex school curricula for the Russian Language course and the lack of uniformity in textbooks. When a ten-year-old student is asked in an exercise to “characterize a sentence from the point of view of the presence or absence of minor members in it,” then not everyone will be able to cope with the task, since, of course, they will “stumble” over the verb “characterize” and the expression “from the point of view of the presence or absence." The authors’ desire to be “scientific” leads to a misunderstanding of educational material by children, and where there is misunderstanding, there is no interest. It is not for nothing that the great thinker of antiquity, Aristotle, emphasized: “What is written should be readable and easy to pronounce, which is the same thing.” This covenant is still relevant today.
It is unacceptable for Russian people to have a superficial knowledge of their native language. After all, he is exceptionally rich in expressive
means, many semantic shades of words, their multifaceted life. About the Russian language N.V. Gogol wrote with admiration: “You marvel at the preciousness of our language: every sound is a gift; everything is grainy, large, like the pearl itself, and, truly, another name is even more precious than the thing itself.”
No less remarkable reflections on the Russian language were left by M.V. Lomonosov, who stated: “Charles the Fifth, the Roman Emperor, used to say that it is decent to speak Spanish with God, French with friends, German with the enemy, Italian with the female sex. But if he were skilled in the Russian language, then, of course, he would have added that it is decent for them to speak with all of them, for he would have found in him the splendor of Spanish, the liveliness of French, the strength of German, the tenderness of Italian, in addition to the richness and strength in the images brevity of Greek and Latin."
Studying the Russian language is especially important for representatives of technical specialties, because language is one of the most important elements of humanitarian culture. By comprehending the life of the words of his native language, an engineer overcomes the tendentiousness of a technical orientation in thinking, gets the opportunity to express himself more deeply and fully, and better understands the plans of other people.
Many words live, changing their appearance in various forms. These are changeable parts of speech. Others are stable and unchanging, such as an adverb. A word, like any organism, has the most important (root) and simply important parts - morphemes, and they must be handled with care, for example, not tearing a letter away from the root when transferring. Each of the words carries a special meaning. A noun denotes an object, an adjective is its attribute, using a verb we express the action of an object, a number or order when counting denotes a numeral, a attribute by action is a participle, an additional action is a gerund, an action attribute is an adverb. The pronoun indicates one of these meanings. And this is important to know both for working with words and for working with sentences.
A sentence is born from words, and this is also a living organism. In the grammatical basis of a Russian sentence, most often we see an actor (subject) and an action (predicate) that was performed by this actor. The secondary members of the sentence are grouped around them. The agent may be implied (definitely personal and indefinitely personal sentences), or may not exist (impersonal sentences).
One way or another, highlighting the grammatical basis of a sentence is a key point in the correct placement of punctuation marks. In real practice, it is the inability to highlight the grammatical basis that leads to numerous punctuation errors.
The interdependence of language knowledge and students’ assimilation of material as a whole, in our opinion, represents a difficult problem, primarily due to their age characteristics at the time of assimilation of this or that element of knowledge. The rule in such a situation is learned mechanically and “does not work” in practice; it exists on its own, and a difficult word or sentence exists on its own.
To bridge the gap between knowledge of a rule and its productive use, it is necessary to apply an algorithm of the rule, a certain system of actions. The term “algorithm” came into Russian from Latin: it is the Latin form of the name of the Central Asian mathematician al-Khwarizmi - “Algorithmi”, meaning “system of operations”. Applying a rule algorithm means restoring the chain “spelling (jaunctogram) - learned rule - method of its application - productively used knowledge.” School practice focuses on mastering the second and fourth links, without paying due attention to the first (most high school graduates cannot answer the question “What is a spelling, punctogram?”) and the third - the way of applying the rule. Let's find out what the essence of such an algorithm is when it comes to spelling? How to work with a word that contains it? Let us first remember what an orthogram is.
Spelling (from the Greek orthos + gramma - correct + written sign, line, line) - a letter, the spelling of which is determined by one or another rule1. There are spelling patterns in all words of the language, except for monosyllabic pronouns in the nominative case (I, you, you, he), monosyllabic and monosyllabic conjunctions (and, but, yes), prepositions (in, to, for) and interjections (ah, oh, Ouch). An orthogram can be a letter denoting a vowel sound, a consonant sound and not denoting a sound (b and b), continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of a word, an uppercase and lowercase letter, the transfer of a letter from one line to another in a divided word.
So, we start working with the word by identifying spellings that denote vowel sounds. In Russian, vowels can be
1 Rozentpal D.E., Telenkova M.L. Dictionary-reference book linguistic terms. P. 249.
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Reviewers:
D. M. Gzgzyan, Ph.D. Philol. Sciences, Head of the Department of Theological Disciplines and Liturgics SFI
A. M. Kopirovsky, Ph.D. ped. Sciences, Professor SFI
Preface
The textbook for the course “Russian language and culture of speech” is intended for students of humanitarian specialties and areas of higher educational institutions.
Goals and objectives
The study of the discipline “Russian Language and Speech Culture” is designed to help students increase their level of practical knowledge of the modern Russian literary language in various communication situations. The course contributes to a better understanding of the structure of the Russian language and its main features, allows you to gain a general understanding of the history of the Russian literary language, and expand your scientific and cultural horizons.
Course Objectives
TO FORM APPROPRIATE KNOWLEDGE, ABILITIES AND SKILLS IN STUDENTS. IN PARTICULAR!
The ability to build and implement promising lines of intellectual, cultural and professional self-development and self-improvement;
Basic knowledge in the field of social sciences and humanities;
Willingness for written and oral communication in Russian;
Ability to formalize and introduce into scientific circulation the results of theological research;
The ability to use specialized knowledge of fundamental sections of philology to master specialized theological disciplines.
AS A RESULT OF STUDYING THE DISCIPLINE, THE STUDENT SHOULD HAVE AN AWARENESS OF:
About the Russian language as a system;
On the basic concepts of speech culture;
On the stylistic system of the modern Russian literary language.
AS A RESULT OF STUDYING THE DISCIPLINE, THE STUDENT SHOULD KNOW:
Principles of using an expanded range of linguistic means.
AS A RESULT OF STUDYING THE DISCIPLINE, THE STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Create statements in oral and written form, choosing genre, style and linguistic means depending on the situation and goals of communication;
Apply knowledge of the history and theory of the Russian language to solve professional problems.
AS A RESULT OF STUDYING THE DISCIPLINE, THE STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
The norm of the Russian literary language;
Practical communication skills in various speech situations;
The skill of creating coherent, correctly constructed monologue texts in accordance with the communicative intentions of the speaker and the communication situation;
Communication skills in dialogical and polylogical situations.
Thus, the goal of this course is to contribute to the formation and education of a modern personality who knows the system of norms of the modern Russian literary language. The course is aimed at increasing the level of communicative competence of students, improving their linguistic abilities, allowing them to use the entire wealth of Russian language means in various communication situations.
The textbook contains theoretical material on go topics.
Of these, the first two are “Basic levels and units of language. Modern Russian literary language. Linguistic norm as a central category of speech culture" and "Basic concepts of stylistics. Functional styles of the modern Russian literary language” are devoted to such basic concepts of speech culture as “language norm”, “literary language” and “style”. Then the system of functional styles of the Russian literary language is studied: chapters 3–7 are devoted to literary-artistic, scientific, official-business, journalistic and colloquial styles. The focus is on scientific and artistic styles.
Chapter 8 examines non-literary varieties of the Russian language (dialect, jargon, vernacular); familiarization with them is intended to teach students to evaluate from a scientific point of view and consciously use or reject linguistic phenomena. Chapter 9 is aimed at considering the lexical subsystem of the Russian literary language in its historical development.
The last chapter of the textbook is “Current problems of linguistic culture of society. The current state of the Russian literary language and the main trends in its development. Language and speech in the spiritual life of a person and in the life of the church” is dedicated to the problems of linguistic culture.
In addition to theoretical material, the textbook contains practical tasks and exercises. Particular attention is paid to practical stylistics, philological analysis of the text and the creation of original texts in various genres and styles. The latter makes it possible to improve both literate writing skills and the development of creative abilities, “revitalizing” a person’s relationship with words.
The textbook is intended for use both in classroom lessons and for independent work. It includes “thought questions” to make the textbook interactive.
1. Familiarize yourself with the theoretical material, make the necessary notes; pay attention to the basic concepts; answer the self-test questions (see Appendix i).
2. Answer the reflection questions, using reference literature as necessary.
3. Full-time education – complete assignments and exercises orally; Full-time and correspondence courses – it is recommended to complete assignments and exercises in writing.
4. Pay special attention to completing creative tasks. Write and edit your text, referring to a dictionary if necessary.
Active use of scientific and reference literature, as well as electronic resources from the list given in the “Recommended Literature” section is expected.
Introduction
THE TERM “SPEECH CULTURE” HAS SEVERAL MEANINGS
1. In part, “speech culture” coincides with such concepts as “following the norm,” “correctness,” and “literacy.” This is knowledge of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form and adherence to them, as well as the degree of proficiency in these norms (for example, a person’s speech can be cultural to a greater or lesser extent).
At the same time, the culture of speech does not boil down to the absence of errors.
The normative nature of speech also includes such qualities as accuracy, clarity, purity. The criterion for the accuracy of speech is its correspondence to the thoughts of the speaker and writer, the correct selection of linguistic means for adequate expression of the content of the statement. The criterion for clarity of speech is its intelligibility and accessibility for those to whom it is addressed. The criterion for the purity of speech is the exclusion of non-literary elements (dialect words, colloquial vocabulary, professional jargon), the appropriateness of using certain means in a specific situation of speech communication, etc. Cultural speech is distinguished by a rich vocabulary, a variety of grammatical structures, artistic expressiveness, and logical harmony . Correct speech is cultivated in the process of language learning. These qualities of speech presuppose a fairly high level of general human culture, a developed culture of thinking, and a conscious love of language. An indicator of speech culture is proficiency in the literary language, in which the cultural traditions of the people are consolidated and accumulated.
Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia: In 2 volumes / Ed. V. G. Panova. T. 1. M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1993. P. 487
2. Speech culture is mastery of the entire variety of linguistic means, the ability to select them depending on the communication situation. This aspect of speech culture is associated with the development of practical stylistics of a literary language, as well as the ability to navigate non-literary varieties of language (dialect, jargon, vernacular).
3. The concept of “speech culture” is associated with the desire for the most effective use of language and is synonymous with what is called “communicative excellence.” Speech culture is understood as a system of communicative properties and qualities of speech that indicate its most appropriate use.
4. Speech culture is understood as speech mastery. Language and speech are the most important manifestations of creativity. Mastery of speech is one of the ways to demonstrate human freedom and responsibility. We can say that speech culture is an active love of language.
5. The branch of linguistics that studies speech in its communicative perfection. “A positive program for language policy and improvement of speech culture can only be built on the basis of a scientific understanding of language as a continuously developing phenomenon” (Russian Humanitarian Encyclopedic Dictionary. Vol. 2).
The study of theoretical material is necessary and important, but not the main task of the speech culture course. The main thing is to learn the practical application of knowledge about the language, to make its use more free and conscious, be it reading, writing scientific papers or private letters, giving a report or informal conversation. M. L. Gasparov in his book “Records and Extracts” writes about a discipline so close to the culture of speech as rhetoric: “It is in vain to think that this is the ability to say what you don’t really mean. This is the ability to say exactly what you think, but in such a way that you are not surprised or indignant” (Gasparov M. L. Notes and extracts. M.: New Literary Review, 2001. P. 54). Improving this skill is especially important for students studying the humanities. In this case, the word is the main “working tool” that you need to learn to use consciously and creatively.
Chapter 1
Basic concepts of speech culture
Literature
1. Bozhenkova = Bozhenkova R.K., Bozhenkova N.A. Russian language and speech culture: a textbook for university students. M.: Verbum-M, 2004. 560 p.
2. Reformed = Reformatsky A. A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Aspect Press, 1996. 536 p.
3. Eagle owl = Russian language: encyclopedia / Ch. ed. F. P. Filin.
M.: Sov. encycl., 1979– 432 p. (any edition).
Russian language and speech culture is one of the modern linguistic disciplines that studies the speech activity of society, establishes a language norm and monitors its compliance.
For thought
Whose speech do you perceive as a model that you want to follow? This could be the speech of a person or group of people (for example, television announcers), or the language of literature of a certain era... Try, using your examples of “ideal” or “almost ideal” speech, to determine which properties of speech are especially valuable to you.
Basic levels and units of language
What is language? How is it built?
Here is one of the well-known definitions of language: “language is the most important means of human communication.” what more can we say about language?
Language is not a natural phenomenon, although this understanding of language was popular in the 19th century. According to the naturalistic concept, language lives and evolves like biological objects. Indeed, language tends to change. These changes may occur under the influence of external factors, but may also represent internal processes, some of which are explainable and some not.
Only humans have language. In modern linguistics it is understood as a special social phenomenon.
“Since language, being a tool of communication, is also a means of exchanging thoughts, the question naturally arises about the relationship between language and thinking. There are two opposing and equally incorrect tendencies regarding this issue:
1. separation of language from thinking
2. identification of language and thinking" [Reformatsky, 24];
“Thoughts are born on the basis of language and are fixed in it.
However, this does not mean that language and thinking are identical.<…>Language and thinking form a unity, since without thinking there can be no language and thinking without language is impossible. Language and thinking arose historically simultaneously in the process of human labor development.” [Ibid.].
That is, even if language and thinking did not arise entirely “in the process of labor development,” language is a means of communication between a person and himself.
In linguistics, language is defined as a sign system. For example, there is the following definition: “Language is a system of discrete (articulate) sound signs that spontaneously arose in human society and is developing, serving for the purposes of communication and capable of expressing the entire body of human knowledge and ideas about the world.” [Owl, 410].
To determine which elements are included in the structure of language, A. A. Reformatsky gives the following example.
Two Romans argued who would say (or write) the shorter phrase; one said (wrote):
Ео rus - “I’m going to the village,” and the other answered: I - Go.<… >
I. [i] is the sound of speech, i.e., an audio material sign accessible to perception by the ear, or i is a letter, i.e., a graphic material sign accessible to perception by the eye;
2. i is the root of a word, a morpheme, that is, an element expressing some concept;
3. i is a word (a verb in the imperative mood in the singular) that names a certain phenomenon of reality;
4. I is a sentence, that is, an element that contains a message.
“Small” i, it turns out, contains everything that makes up language in general:
1. sounds - phonetics (or letters - graphics);
2. morphemes (roots, suffixes, endings) – morphology;
3. words - vocabulary;
4. sentences - syntax.
Nothing else happens and cannot exist in language [ Reformatsky, 35].
Thus, at each level of language (phonetics, morphology, vocabulary, syntax) there is its own basic unit (sound, morpheme, word, sentence). The word is the basic unit of language.
Each level of language corresponds to a section of the science of language with a similar name (phonetics - morphology - vocabulary - syntax).
Spelling and punctuation are neither levels of language nor branches of the science of language. These are two sets of rules, one of which is devoted to the spelling of words, the other to the placement of punctuation marks.
Modern Russian literary language
Language is a system of signs that really exists only in speech activity.
Speech is the use of linguistic units in a particular communication situation.
Speech is the specific use of language (language acts as the “material” that is used to create “speech”).
Not all linguists share the point of view according to which the concepts of “language” and “speech” are distinguished. In many philological works these words are used as synonyms.
For thought
Where did language come from? This is a mystery, since no data on the “primitive language” has been preserved. Since ancient times, scientists have been interested in this issue and created hypotheses, which can be found in any textbook on linguistics (for example, A. A. Reformatsky, “Introduction to Linguistics”). As the source of the appearance of language, they pointed to the sounds of nature, imitating which a person began to speak, and to the work that made a man out of a monkey who spoke in this process...
What does Holy Scripture say about the origin of language?
“And the Lord God said: It is not good for the man to be alone; Let us make him a helper suitable for him.
The Lord God formed from the ground every animal of the field and every bird of the air, and brought it to man to see what he would call them, and that whatever he called every living soul, that would be its name.
And the man gave names to all the livestock, and to the birds of the air, and to every beast of the field; but man was not found to have a helper like him” (Gen. 2:19-20).
Please note: language is associated with communication and cognition; tongue is a gift from God; language is an area of human creativity.
Linguistic norm as a central category of speech culture
Russian language (national Russian language) is the language spoken by the Russian people.
The unity of language, along with territorial and economic unity, determines the preservation of the nation, its very existence.
Highest form of the national language -literary language, which obeys the norms, rules established in society (as opposed to vernacular), and these norms are “fixed” in dictionaries and grammar; it is taught in schools. The norm changes, but extremely slowly, which makes it possible to create and maintain cultural continuity between generations. Literary language serves a wide variety of spheres of human activity (in contrast to jargon, the use of which always has age, social or professional restrictions). Literary language is internally differentiated, has varieties of use used in various communication situations (functional styles). Its use is not limited to any particular range of topics. Unlike dialects, a standard language does not serve just one region of the country; it is supra-dialectal. Literary language is characterized by high social prestige, which is recognized by all members of society, regardless of their own level of proficiency in the literary language.
For thought
What is literary language? Give a descriptive definition, listing its characteristic features.
Please note that literary language and the language of fiction are not the same thing. In a work of art, the author can use not only literary language, but also turn to those varieties of language that are outside its literary form (dialects, jargon, vernacular). Literary language is not a special means of creating literary works; it is spoken and written not only when engaged in creativity, but in various communication situations.
The Russian literary language developed in the 16th–17th centuries. in connection with the formation of the Moscow State and was normalized in the 18th century. It is based on the Moscow dialect. The Old Church Slavonic (later Church Slavonic) language significantly influenced the formation of the Russian literary language.
For thought
What does "has been normalized" mean?
What do you know about the first dictionaries and grammars of the Russian language? Consult reference literature.
Any nation has its own literary norm of the language, stable and obligatory for speakers of this language. In modern Russian there are:
Spelling,
Punctuation,
Orthoepic (phonetic),
Lexical and phraseological,
Morphological (word formation and inflection),
Syntactic,
Stylistic norms.
The spelling norm is violated if the word is spelled incorrectly, for example, “living room” instead of “living room.” Violation of the punctuation norm is associated with incorrect placement of punctuation marks (for example, in the sentence “Hello Ivan Ivanovich!” there is a punctuation error - there is no comma when addressing), orthoepic (phonetic) norm is the norm for the pronunciation of words, including the placement of stress. If we don’t know which is correct – “otherwise” or “and?otherwise”, “cottage cheese” or “cottage cheese”, we need to turn to a spelling dictionary.
The lexical and phraseological norm is associated with the meaning of words (the use of a word or phraseological unit must correspond to the meaning). For example, “sufficient” means “to be sufficient” (cf. “enough” in the meaning “enough”). At the same time, it is very common to incorrectly use this word as a synonym for “to influence, influence”, “to put pressure”, for example, “Circumstances weigh on him” - this is a typical case of violation of a lexical norm.
The morphological norm regulates the formation of grammatical forms. For example, “My birthday is coming soon!” is the wrong option; correct - my (m. r.) day of (what?) birth, genitive case.
Syntactic norm is the norm for constructing phrases and sentences. It is violated, in particular, when the order of words is violated (for example: “We often read very classical literature”).
Stylistic norm is the correspondence of the stylistic coloring of the speech situation. For example, the style of the phrase “Dear Lucy! Taking into account your achievements, congratulations on your name day!” does not correspond to the situation of informal communication; the stylistic norm is violated here.
Properties of cultural speech
There are two forms of the Russian literary language: oral and written. They have different means of expression, which is especially important to know when preparing oral statements: what is perfectly perceived when reading may not be perceived well by ear.
Features of oral speech:
1. Oral speech is designed to be perceived by listeners; therefore, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of the audience, real or expected, as well as the reaction of the listener or interlocutor.
2. Oral speech is emotional, improvisation is acceptable and often desirable.
3. The speaker can use intonation, tone and timbre of the voice and non-verbal means of communication (facial expressions, gestures).
4. Oral speech should be easily understandable, therefore it is characterized by simplicity of vocabulary and syntax, repetitions are acceptable.
Feature of oral speech: it is impossible to simply read an oral message “from a piece of paper”. When preparing for such a statement, it makes sense not to write the text verbatim, but to draw up a plan, prepare abstracts, write out the necessary quotes so that you can “peep”, freely communicating with your listeners.
When we write, we must accurately express in words what we want to say. We have the opportunity to think about and perhaps change what we have written several times. You can more actively use book vocabulary and complex syntactic structures (expanded, “long” sentences). The writer must take into account that the reader will not hear his intonation and tone, or see his facial expressions. Emotions will have to be expressed only through words.
For thought
In modern private (informal) correspondence, “emoticons” are used - schematic images of facial expressions using punctuation marks and other graphic signs. It is useful for those who use them to conduct an experiment: try to do without “emoticons” completely for a while. Observe: were they able to be replaced with words? Was it difficult? Did the recipients notice this?
Both oral and written speech are subject to general requirements. D. E. Rosenthal notes such properties of cultural speech as national identity, semantic accuracy, richness and versatility of vocabulary, grammatical correctness, logical harmony, artistic ingenuity and emotionality.