WITH. Reveal the social principles of physical culture.
Option IV.
1.What sequence of influence on physical qualities is most effective in the main part of the lesson on general physical training?
1. For endurance. 2. For flexibility.
3. For speed. 4. For strength.
A. 1,2,3,4. b. 2,3,1,4.
V. 3,2,4,1. g. 4,2,3,1.
2. Exercises are not effective in shaping your physique...
A. Helps increase muscle mass.
b. Helping to reduce body weight.
V. United in the form of circuit training.
d. Helping to increase the speed of movements.
When creating sets of exercises to increase muscle mass, it is recommended...
A. Completely work one muscle group and only then move on to exercises that load another muscle group.
b. Alternate series of exercises that involve different muscle groups.
V. Use exercises with relatively light weights and high repetitions.
d. Plan a large number of approaches and limit the number of repetitions in one approach.
4. A distinctive feature of the exercises used to develop strength is that...
A. The person's own weight is used as a burden.
b. They are performed until fatigue.
V. They are executed slowly.
d. They are completed quickly.
5. By speed as a physical quality we mean...
A. A set of properties that allow you to move at high speed.
b. A set of properties that allow you to perform short-term work in a minimum period of time.
V. Ability to quickly gain speed.
d. A set of properties that allow you to quickly respond to signals and perform movements with high frequency.
6. Used to train speed…
A. Outdoor and sports games.
b.Exercises in running at maximum speed over short distances.
V. Exercises for reaction speed and frequency of movements.
d. Motor actions performed at maximum speed.
7. The best conditions for developing reaction speed are created during…
A. Outdoor and sports games. b. "Shuttle" run.
V. High jump. The city of Metaniy.
8. Flexibility as a physical quality means...
A. A complex of morpho-functional properties of the musculoskeletal system that determines the depth of inclination.
b. The ability to perform movements with a large amplitude due to muscle contractions.
V. A set of properties of the motor system that determine the mobility of its parts.
d. Elasticity of muscles and ligaments.
9. In what order is it advisable to perform the exercises listed below to increase running speed?
1. Breathing exercises
2. Easy long run.
3. Jumping exercises with and without weights.
4. Breathing exercises during rest intervals.
5. Repeated sprinting.
6. Walking.
7. Frequency exercises (running in place).
A. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7. b. 7,5,4,3,2,6,1.
V. 2,1,3,7,4,5,6. g. 3,4,2,7,5,4,1.
Part 2.
When completing the tasks of part 2, in the answer form (part 2) in the “answer” column corresponding to the number of the task being performed (B1-B5), enter the concept and formulate the required sequence.
IN 1. Reveal the conditions for effective physical development and upbringing of a child.
AT 2. Specificity and essence of J. Hebert's method.
IN. 3. Physical development in the narrow and broad sense.
AT 4. Physical education is…………
AT 5. A type of explanation not used in the older group.
Part 3.
WITH. Reveal the importance of morning exercises in the harmonious development of a child.
OPTIONV.
1.When cultivating flexibility, you should strive for...
A. Harmoniously increasing mobility in the main joints.
b. Achieving maximum range of motion in the main joints.
V. Optimal range of motion in the shoulder and hip joints.
d. Restoring the normal range of motion of the joints.
2. Under endurance as a physical quality we mean…
A. A complex of properties that makes it possible to perform a variety of physical activities.
b. A set of properties that determine the ability to resist fatigue.
V. The ability to perform physical work for a long time without getting tired.
d. Ability to save specified operating parameters.
Cyanobacteria
(ex Stanier 1974) Cavalier-Smith 2002
- Cyanophyta
| Taxonomy on Wikispecies | Images on Wikimedia Commons |
|
Evolutionary and systematic position
Cyanobacteria are closest to the oldest microorganisms, the remains of which (stromatolites, more than 3.5 billion years old) were found on Earth. They are the only bacteria capable of oxygenic photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria are among the most complexly organized and morphologically differentiated prokaryotic microorganisms. The ancestors of cyanobacteria are considered in the theory of endosymbiogenesis as the most likely ancestors of red algae chromatophores. According to this theory, an extrasystematic group conventionally called “prochlorophytes” has common ancestors with the chloroplasts of other algae and higher plants.
Cyanobacteria are the object of study of both algologists (as organisms physiologically similar to eukaryotic algae) and bacteriologists (as prokaryotes). The relatively large size of the cells and similarity to algae was the reason for their earlier consideration as part of plants (“blue-green algae”). During this time, more than 1000 species in almost 175 genera were algologically described. Bacteriological methods have currently confirmed the existence of no more than 400 species. The biochemical, molecular genetic and phylogenetic similarity of cyanobacteria with other bacteria has now been confirmed by a solid body of evidence.
Life forms and ecology
Morphologically, cyanoprokaryotes are a diverse and polymorphic group. The common features of their morphology are only the absence of flagella and the presence of a cell wall (glycocalyx, consisting of peptidoglycan). On top of a layer of peptidoglycan 2-200 nm thick they have an outer membrane. The width or diameter of the cells varies from 0.5 µm to 100 µm. Cyanobacteria are unicellular, filamentous and colonial microorganisms. They are distinguished by their outstanding ability to adapt the composition of photosynthetic pigments to the spectral composition of light, so that the color varies from light green to dark blue. Some nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are capable of differentiation - the formation of specialized cells: heterocysts and hormogoniums. Heterocysts perform the function of nitrogen fixation, while other cells carry out photosynthesis.
Most cyanobacteria are obligate phototrophs, which, however, are capable of short-term existence due to the breakdown of glycogen accumulated in the light in the oxidative pentose phosphate cycle and in the process of glycolysis (the sufficiency of glycolysis alone to maintain life is questioned).
Meaning
Cyanobacteria, according to the generally accepted version, were the “creators” of the modern oxygen-containing atmosphere on Earth, which led to the “oxygen catastrophe” - a global change in the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere that occurred at the very beginning of the Proterozoic (about 2.4 billion years ago) which led to the subsequent restructuring of the biosphere and the global Huronian glaciation.
Nowadays, as a significant component of ocean plankton, cyanobacteria are at the beginning of most food chains and produce a significant portion of oxygen (the contribution is not precisely determined: most likely estimates range from 20% to 40%).
Cyanobacterium Synechocystis became the first photosynthetic organism whose genome was completely deciphered.
Currently, cyanobacteria serve as the most important model objects of research in biology. In South America and China, bacteria of the spirulina and nostoc genera are used for food due to the lack of other types of food: they are dried and then prepared into flour. The possible use of cyanobacteria in creating closed life support cycles is considered.
Classification
Historically, there have been several classification systems for the higher levels of cyanobacteria.
- Class Cyanophyceae
- Childbirth incertae sedis
- Subclass Gloeobacterophycidae
- Order Gloeobacterales
- Order Gloeomargaritales
- Subclass Nostocophycidae
- Order Nostocales - Nostocaceae
- Subclass Oscillatoriophycidae
- Order
Here is a graph that shows oxygen level in the Earth's atmosphere over the past 4 billion years:
Accumulation of O2 in the Earth's atmosphere. Source: Wikipedia
Explanation of the picture:
The green graph is the lower estimate of the oxygen level, the red graph is the upper estimate.
1 . (3.85–2.45 billion years ago) — No oxygen was generated
2 . (2.45–1.85 Ga) Oxygen was generated but absorbed by the ocean and seafloor rocks
3 . (1.85–0.85 billion years ago) Oxygen leaves the ocean, but is consumed by the oxidation of rocks on land and the formation of the ozone layer
4 . (0.85–0.54 billion years ago) all rocks on land are oxidized, oxygen accumulation in the atmosphere begins
5 . (0.54 billion years ago — present) modern period, oxygen content in the atmosphere has stabilized
As you can see, still 2.5 billion years ago there was practically no oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. Then the oxygen level in the atmosphere increased sharply. What led to this growth? Cyanobacteria!
Cyanobacteria and their unique history
Cyanobacteria, also called blue green algae, or oxyphotobacteria, or cyanoprokaryotes, or cyanea- these are single-celled bacteria that receive energy from photosynthesis. They are believed to be the first species on Earth to develop the ability to photosynthesize. The generation of oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis eventually led to the proliferation of multicellular organisms and hence the emergence of animal life on Earth. Moreover, cyanobacteria are the only species in the history of our planet that began to use photosynthesis - all plants and algae received this ability from them.
Large cyanobacterial bloom in Lake Atitlan in Guatemala, Central America. View from space. Source: NASA
Having survived for billions of years and having a wide genetic diversity, cyanobacteria are found almost everywhere, whether on land or in water. They can bloom in ocean water or survive in dry deserts. Some types of cyanobacteria have even taken root in Antarctic rocks.
Cyanobacteria are extremophiles, which means they are able to survive in extreme conditions. Cyanobacteria have even survived outside the International Space Station (ISS) for 16 months.
The cyanobacteria were placed in trays outside the ISS, where they were exposed to extreme levels of radiation and temperature fluctuations. They not only survived for 16 months, but also adapted well to the cold of the vacuum.
The microorganisms, installed on trays outside the ISS, were exposed to the harsh space environment for 16 months. Source: Farunhofer.de
Cyanobacteria were the creators of the earth's atmosphere, now they can become the architects of space civilization.
The unique properties of cyanobacteria, coupled with their extremophilic nature, have generated interesting ideas for their application in space exploration.
How cyanobacteria could be used for space settlements
The beneficial applications of cyanobacteria in space exploration cover a wide range:
- Energy source: During the process of photosynthesis, cyanobacteria expel free high-energy electrons into the environment, thereby generating electricity from sunlight. Research is currently underway on ways to harness this electricity by engineering the internal photosynthetic pathways of cyanobacteria. This could provide a clean, reliable and efficient energy source for small space mission applications where other sources are not viable.
- Oxygen source: is an idea using cyanobacteria to generate oxygen in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide) makes up 96% of Mars' atmosphere. We humans need oxygen to survive, and cyanobacteria can convert enough carbon dioxide into the oxygen we need to breathe.
3. Agriculture: a species of cyanobacteria called Microcoleus vaginatus retain water in the soil and prevent erosion. This potentially makes them very useful for agriculture on alien soils where water would not be readily available.
Lab2Moon Research
Any known species of cyanobacteria can only be used if they can work reliably in the hostile conditions of outer space. Although cyanobacteria have been extensively tested under harsh conditions in several experimental facilities on Earth, the space environment is much more hostile. Therefore, the next step is to see how they react to extreme space environments. This is the goal of the three experiments Lab2Moon on board the lander Team Hindus Moon.
#1: Space4Life — Developing a Radiation Shield Using Cyanobacteria
Electronics and people aboard spacecraft must be well protected from the destructive radiation and cosmic rays of outer space. The standard material to achieve this has traditionally been lead. However, the scientists behind
Among the currently existing organisms, there are those whose belonging to any one is constantly debated. This happens with creatures called cyanobacteria. Although they don’t even have an exact name. Too many synonyms:
- blue green algae;
- cyanobionts;
- phycochrome crushers;
- cyanea;
- slime algae and others.
So it turns out that cyanobacteria is a completely small, but at the same time such a complex and contradictory organism that requires careful study and consideration of its structure in order to determine its exact taxonomic affiliation.
History of existence and discovery
Judging by the fossil remains, the history of the existence of blue-green algae goes back far into the past, several million years ago. Such conclusions were made possible by studies of paleontologists who analyzed rocks (sections thereof) of those distant times.
Cyanobacteria were found on the surface of the samples, the structure of which was no different from that of modern forms. This indicates a high degree of adaptability of these creatures to various living conditions, their extreme endurance and survival. It is obvious that over millions of years there have been many changes in the temperature and gas composition of the planet. However, nothing affected the viability of the cyan.
In modern times, a cyanobacterium is a single-celled organism that was discovered simultaneously with other forms of bacterial cells. That is, Antonio Van Leeuwenhoek, Louis Pasteur and other researchers in the 18th-19th centuries.
They were subjected to more thorough study later, with the development of electron microscopy and modernized methods and methods of research. The features possessed by cyanobacteria have been identified. The structure of the cell includes a number of new structures not found in other creatures.
Classification
The question of determining their taxonomic affiliation remains open. So far, only one thing is known: cyanobacteria are prokaryotes. This is confirmed by such features as:
- absence of nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts;
- presence of murein in the cell wall;
- molecules of S-ribosomes in the cell.
However, cyanobacteria are prokaryotes, numbering about 1,500 thousand species. All of them were classified and combined into 5 large morphological groups.
- Chroococcal. A fairly large group that unites solitary or colonial forms. High concentrations of organisms are held together by a common mucus secreted by the cell wall of each individual. In terms of shape, this group includes rod-shaped and spherical structures.
- Pleurocapsaceae. Very similar to the previous forms, however, a feature appears in the form of the formation of beocytes (more on this phenomenon later). The cyanobacteria included here belong to three main classes: Pleurocaps, Dermocaps, Myxosarcina.
- Oxillatoria. The main feature of this group is that all cells are united into a common mucus structure called a trichome. Division occurs without going beyond this thread, inside. Oscillatoria include exclusively vegetative cells that divide in half asexually.
- Nostocaceae. Interesting for their cryophilicity. They are able to live in open icy deserts, forming colored coatings on them. The so-called “blooming of ice deserts” phenomenon. The forms of these organisms are also filamentous in the form of trichomes, but reproduction is sexual, with the help of specialized cells - heterocysts. The following representatives can be included here: Anabens, Nostoks, Calothrix.
- Stigonematodes. Very similar to the previous group. The main difference is in the method of reproduction - they are able to divide multiple times within one cell. The most popular representative of this association is Fisherella.
Thus, cyanides are classified according to morphological criteria, since many questions arise regarding the rest and confusion results. Botanists and microbiologists have not yet been able to come to a common denominator in the taxonomy of cyanobacteria.
Habitats
Due to the presence of special adaptations (heterocysts, beocytes, unusual thylakoids, gas vacuoles, the ability to fix molecular nitrogen, and others), these organisms settled everywhere. They are able to survive even in the most extreme conditions, in which no living organism can exist. For example, hot thermophilic springs, anaerobic conditions with a hydrogen sulfide atmosphere, with a pH less than 4.
Cyanobacteria is an organism that survives calmly on sea sand and rocky outcrops, ice blocks and hot deserts. You can recognize and determine the presence of cyanides by the characteristic colored coating that their colonies form. The color can vary from blue-black to pink and purple.
They are called blue-green because they often form a blue-green mucus film on the surface of ordinary fresh or salt water. This phenomenon is called “water bloom”. It can be seen on almost any lake that begins to become overgrown and swampy.
Features of cell structure
Cyanobacteria have the usual structure for prokaryotic organisms, but there are some peculiarities.
The general plan of the cell structure is as follows:
- cell wall made of polysaccharides and murein;
- bilipid structure;
- cytoplasm with freely distributed genetic material in the form of a DNA molecule;
- thillacoids, which perform the function of photosynthesis and contain pigments (chlorophylls, xanthophylls, carotenoids).
Types of specialized structures
First of all, these are heterocysts. These structures are not parts, but the cells themselves as part of a trichome (a common colonial thread united by mucus). When viewed under a microscope, they differ in their composition, since their main function is the production of an enzyme that allows the fixation of molecular nitrogen from the air. Therefore, there are practically no pigments in heterocysts, but there is quite a lot of nitrogen.
Secondly, these are hormogonies - areas torn out from the trichome. Serve as breeding sites.
Beocytes are unique daughter cells, derived en masse from one mother cell. Sometimes their number reaches a thousand in one division period. Dermocaps and other Pleurocapsodiums are capable of this feature.
Akinetes are special cells that are at rest and included in the trichomes. They are distinguished by a more massive cell wall rich in polysaccharides. Their role is similar to heterocysts.
Gas vacuoles - all cyanobacteria have them. The structure of the cell initially implies their presence. Their role is to take part in the processes of water blooming. Another name for such structures is carboxysomes.
They certainly exist in plant, animal, and bacterial cells. However, in blue-green algae these inclusions are somewhat different. These include:
- glycogen;
- polyphosphate granules;
- Cyanophycin is a special substance consisting of aspartate and arginine. Serves for the accumulation of nitrogen, since these inclusions are located in heterocysts.
This is what cyanobacteria has. The main parts and specialized cells and organelles are what allow cyanides to carry out photosynthesis, but at the same time be classified as bacteria.
Reproduction
This process is not particularly difficult, since it is the same as that of ordinary bacteria. Cyanobacteria can divide vegetatively, parts of trichomes, an ordinary cell in two, or carry out the sexual process.
Often specialized cells, heterocysts, akinetes, and beocytes, participate in these processes.
Methods of transportation
The cyanobacterial cell is covered on the outside and sometimes also with a layer of a special polysaccharide that can form a mucus capsule around it. It is thanks to this feature that the movement of cyan is carried out.
There are no flagella or special outgrowths. Movement can only be carried out on a hard surface with the help of mucus, in short contractions. Some Oscillatoria have a very unusual way of moving - they rotate around their axis and simultaneously cause rotation of the entire trichome. This is how movement occurs on the surface.
Nitrogen fixation ability
Almost every cyanobacterium has this feature. This is possible due to the presence of the enzyme nitrogenase, which is capable of fixing molecular nitrogen and converting it into a digestible form of compounds. This happens in heterocyst structures. Consequently, those species that do not have them are not capable of coming out of thin air.
In general, this process makes cyanobacteria very important creatures for plant life. By settling in the soil, cyanides help flora representatives to absorb bound nitrogen and lead a normal life.
Anaerobic species
Some forms of blue-green algae (for example, Oscillatoria) are able to live in completely anaerobic conditions and an atmosphere of hydrogen sulfide. In this case, the compound is processed inside the body and, as a result, molecular sulfur is formed and released into the environment.
Cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae (lat. Cyanobacteria) are a large group of large gram-negative bacteria, the distinctive feature of which is the ability to photosynthesize. Cyanobacteria are the most complex and differentiated prokaryotes. Since these organisms have many common features in their physiology with eukaryotic algae, according to some classifications, cyanobacteria are considered blue-green algae in plants. Currently, more than 150 genera and about 1000 species of cyanobacteria are known in algology; bacteriologists count about 400 strains.
Cyanobacteria are common in seas and fresh water bodies, soil cover, and can participate in symbioses (lichens). A significant part of the phytoplankton of water bodies consists of algae of this group. They are capable of forming thick multi-layered covers on the substrate. Rare species are toxic and opportunistic for humans. Blue-green algae are the main elements that cause “blooming” of water, which leads to mass death of fish, poisoning of animals and people. Some species are characterized by a rare combination of properties: the ability to photosynthesize and at the same time fix nitrogen from the atmospheric air.
Structure. The structure of cyanobacteria has characteristic features. These organisms have varied morphologies. What is common in the structure of any type of blue-green algae is a mucous membrane (glycocalyx of peptidoglycans) and the absence of flagella. The mucous membrane is covered by an outer membrane. The sizes of cyanobacterial cells can range from 1 micron to 100 microns. The color of different species varies from light green to dark blue due to the ability to change the ratio of photosynthetic pigments in the cell according to the spectral composition of light.
Cyanobacteria are single-celled organisms that can form colonies; filamentous forms are known. Reproduction is carried out through binary fission, multiple fission is possible. The life cycle under favorable conditions is 6-12 hours.
Internal structure . The cell of every organism has a complete apparatus for carrying out photosynthesis with the release of oxygen. The energy obtained through photosynthesis is used to produce organic matter from CO 2 . In terms of their feeding method, the vast majority of blue-green algae are obligate phototrophs. But they can exist for a short period of time due to the consumption of glycogen accumulated in the light.
Meaning. According to scientists, it was these organisms that provoked a global restructuring of the atmosphere - the “oxygen catastrophe” at the beginning of the Proterozoic period (about 2.5 billion years ago). This led to dramatic changes in the biosphere and the Huronian glaciation.
For the first time in laboratory conditions, the genome of a photosynthetic organism was deciphered using the example of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis. Until now, blue-green algae have been valuable biological research objects.
In China and South America, blue-green algae of the spirulina and nostoc genera are used as food. After drying, they are made into flour. Spirulina is used as a food supplement because this algae has a number of beneficial properties.