To achieve vivid impressions and enhance the emotional impact, various techniques are used in fiction - phonetic, lexical, syntactic. One of these means is syntactic parallelism - an artistic technique in which elements of speech that carry a single idea follow in a certain sequence and create a single image.
This way of expression uses the principle of repetition and symmetry. Thus, the phenomenon of generality, homogeneity of syntactic structures and their location in a coordinating connection is syntactic parallelism.
There are several types of arrangement of speech elements. If the syntactic constructions are completely identical, this is full parallelism, if the analogy is partial – incomplete.When the structures are adjacent, we can talk about contact parallelism, if they are separated by others – oh distant.
Parallelism as an expressive means of language has been known since ancient times. It is enough to recall biblical texts, ancient epics, thoughts and tales, folk songs, as well as prayers, spells, and conspiracies. This technique can also be seen in riddles, sayings, and proverbs. Obviously, this phenomenon is typical for oral folk art, as well as for literary works stylized as antique.
The little bird sang and sang and fell silent;
The heart knew joy and forgot.
In this case, there is a comparison of one main action with another, secondary one, which is a characteristic feature of folklore.
Types of parallelism
In the Russian language, especially in fiction, different types of syntactic parallelism are used:
- binomial;
- polynomial;
- monomial;
- formal;
- negative;
- reverse (chiasmus).
The most commonly used is binomial parallelism. Usually this technique depicts natural phenomena, then describes some life situation.
The reeds rustled over the backwater.
The princess girl is crying by the river.
When using a polynomial option, the actor is compared with several images:
We are two trunks lit by a thunderstorm,
Two flames of the midnight forest,
We are two flying meteors in the night,
A two-stinged bee has the same fate.
In Russian literature, in particular, in folk art, one-term parallelism is also found. At the same time, human characters appear only in the images of plants, animals, birds, however, it is clear that the image of a “clear falcon” implies a young man - a groom, a lover. A girl, a bride, usually appears in the form of a “swan”, “peahen”, or a birch tree, rowan tree, etc.
In some ways, the formal version of this technique is similar to the monomial one. However, it is not immediately noticeable, since there is no obvious logical connection between the elements. To understand its meaning, you need to imagine the entire work or a certain period.
Syntactic parallelism is sometimes combined with other forms of this expressive means, for example, with phonetic, which is characterized by the use of the same words at the beginning of a line or the same ending of lines. This combination enhances the expressiveness of the text and gives it a special sound:
Your name is a bird in your hand,
Your name is like a piece of ice on the tongue,
Negative parallelism is widely used in oral folk art and works of fiction. This method of expressiveness is found in folk tales, songs, riddles, and authors also use it.
Not the wind blowing from above,
Touched the sheets on the moonlit night -
You touched my soul...
Speaking about this syntactic means of expression, it is impossible not to mention such a striking expressive device as its reverse form, chiasmus. Its essence is that the sequence of elements changes crosswise or mirror. An example of the so-called “purely syntactic” chiasmus is the saying: “Not the people for power, but power for the people.”
In an effort to achieve effect, sharpness, and persuasiveness in their public speeches, chiasmus has been used by orators since ancient times. This expressive means is found in the works of Russian writers and poets of the “golden” and “silver” ages, and modern authors cannot do without it.
Folklore and fiction are a reflection of reality; they are closely connected with the history of society, revealing the essence of phenomena and the inner world of a person with the help of numerous expressive techniques. As a way to enhance the emotional impact, syntactic parallelism often contains various types of artistic expressiveness.
A. N. Veselovsky
PSYCHOLOGICAL PARALLELISM
AND ITS FORMS IN REFLECTION OF POETIC STYLE
A person assimilates images of the external world in the forms of his self-awareness; all the more so is primitive man, who has not yet developed the habit of abstract, non-figurative thinking, although the latter cannot do without a certain accompanying imagery. We involuntarily transfer to nature our self-awareness of life, expressed in movement, in the manifestation of force directed by the will; in those phenomena or objects in which movement was noticed, signs of energy, will, and life were once suspected. We call this worldview animistic; when applied to poetic style, and not to it alone, it would be more accurate to talk about parallelism. The point is not about identifying human life with natural life and not about comparison, which presupposes the consciousness of the separateness of the objects being compared, but about comparison on the basis of action, movement: a tree is frail, a girl bows, as in a Little Russian song.
<...>And so parallelism rests on the comparison of subject and object in the category of movement, action, as a sign of volitional life. The subjects, naturally, were animals; they most closely resembled humans: here are the distant psychological foundations of the animal apologist; but the plants also pointed to the same similarity: they were born and bloomed, turned green and bowed from the force of the wind. The sun also seemed to move, rise, set, the wind drove the clouds, lightning rushed, the fire engulfed, devoured the branches, etc. The inorganic, motionless world was involuntarily drawn into this string of parallelisms: it also lived.
The further step in development consisted of a series of transfers, attached to the main characteristic - movement. The sun moves and looks at the earth; Hindus have the sun, the moon as an eye;<...>the earth is overgrown with grass, forest with hair;<...>When Agni (fire), driven by the wind, spreads through the forest, it mows down the hair of the earth.<...>
The basis of such definitions, which reflected a naive, syncretic view of nature, enslaved by language and belief, is the transfer of a characteristic characteristic of one member of the parallel to another. These are metaphors of language; our vocabulary is replete with them, but we operate many of them unconsciously, without ever feeling their fresh imagery; when “the sun sets,” we do not separately imagine the act itself, undoubtedly alive in the fantasy of ancient man: we need to renew it in order to feel it in relief. The language of poetry achieves this by defining or partially characterizing a general act, here and there as applied to a person and his psyche.<...>
The accumulation of transference in the composition of parallels depends 1) on the complex and nature of similar signs that were selected to the main sign of movement, life; 2) from the correspondence of these signs with our understanding of life, manifesting will in action; 3) from contiguity with other objects that caused the same game of parallelism; 4) on the value and vitality of a phenomenon or object in relation to a person. The comparison, for example, sun-eye (Indian, Greek) suggests the sun as a living, active being; on this basis, transference is possible, based on the external similarity of the sun and the eye: both shine and see. The shape of the eye could give rise to other comparisons:<...>among the Malays, the sun is the eye of the day, the source is the eye of water; among the Hindus, a blind well is a well covered with vegetation.<...>
When the analogy between the object that caused his play and the living subject was particularly pronounced, or several of them were established, causing a whole series of transfers, parallelism tended to the idea of equation, if not identity. The bird moves, rushes across the sky, headlong descending to the ground; lightning rushes, falls, moves, lives: this is parallelism. In the beliefs about the theft of heavenly fire from the Hindus, in Australia, New Zealand, from North American savages, etc.), it is already heading towards identification: a bird brings fire to earth - lightning, lightning - a bird.
<...>The language of poetry continues the psychological process that began on prehistoric paths: it already uses the images of language and myth, their metaphors and symbols, but it also creates new ones in their likeness.
<...>I will take up a review of some of his poetic formulas.
S. I. Mints, E. V. Pomerantseva
I’ll start with the simplest, folk-poetic one, with 1) binomial parallelism. Its general type is as follows: a picture of nature, next to it is the same from human life; they echo each other when there is a difference in objective content, there are consonances between them, revealing that they have a lot in common.<...>
<...>Oh, thin little hop
Appeared on the teens,
Young girl
I went into the Cossack.
<...>The vegetable garden is blooming near our house, and grass is growing in the garden. The fellow needs to mow the grass, the red maiden needs a fellow.
<...>A young, slender peach tree will bear a lot of fruit; the young wife goes to her future homeland, everything is well arranged in the house and chambers.
<...>A yellow lark lands on a marsh to drink the cool water; a handsome fellow goes out at night to kiss beautiful girls.
<...>Before my door there is a wide steppe,
Don't know the prince because
There is no trace of the white hare;
My friends laughed and played with me,
And now there is none.
We know the general scheme of psychological parallels: two motives are compared, one prompts the other, they clarify each other, “and the advantage is on the side of the one that is filled with human content. Precisely intertwined variations of the same musical theme, mutually suggestive. Once you get used to this suggestiveness - and this will take centuries - and one topic will stand for another.
<...>The parallelism of a folk song rests explicitly on the category of action; all other objective consonances remain only as part of the formula and often lose meaning outside of it. The stability of the entire parallel is achieved only in those cases.
1) when to the main similarity, according to the category of action, more or less striking similar features are selected that support it or do not contradict it;
2) when the parallel caught your eye, became part of a custom or cult, was defined and strengthened for a long time. Then the parallel becomes a symbol, appearing independently in other combinations, as an indicator of a common noun. At the time of the dominance of marriage through abduction, the groom was represented in the features of a rapist, a kidnapper who obtains a bride with a sword, a siege of a city, or a hunter, a bird of prey. In Latvian folk poetry, the bride and groom appear in paired images: an ax and a pine tree, a sable and a sheep, a wind and a rose, a hunter and a partridge, etc. Our song ones also belong to this category of representations: a good fellow - a goat, a girl - cabbage, parsley , groom Sagittarius, bride Kuni starlet, sable, matchmakers, merchants, catchers, bride commodity, white fish, or groom - falcon, bride dove, swan, duck, quail, Serbian. The groom is a catcher, the bride is a hitar catcher, etc. In this way, parallels and symbols of our wedding songs were deposited through selection and under the influence of everyday relationships, which are difficult to follow: the sun is the father, the month is the mother, or: the month is master, the sun is the mistress, the stars are their children; either the month is the groom, the star is the bride; rue as a symbol of virginity; in Western folk poetry - a rose not removed from the stem, etc.; symbols are sometimes solid, sometimes fluctuating, gradually passing from the real meaning that underlies them to a more general formula. In Russian wedding songs, viburnum is a girl, but the main meaning concerned the signs of virginity; the defining feature was the red color of its berries.
Viburnum colored the banks,
Alexandrinka made all her relatives happy,
The relatives are dancing, the mother is crying.
Yes, our Kalinka Machine,
I was walking under the Kalinka,
I trampled the viburnum under my feet,
I wiped my little feet with padol,
There she fell on Ivan too.
The red color of the viburnum evoked the image of heat: the viburnum is burning:
It’s not too hot to burn, viburnum,
Darychka cries pitifully.
Kalina is the personified symbol of virginity... Next: viburnum is a girl, the girl is taken. Kalina is broken by the groom, which is in the spirit of the symbolism of trampling or breaking discussed above. So in one version: viburnum. So in one version: the viburnum boasts that no one will break it without the wind, without a storm, without scattered rain; the girls broke it; Dunichka boasted that no one would take her without beer, without honey, without a bitter burner; Vanichka took her to ennos and. [and I take;, a^ 1. the constant relationship and concomitance of two phenomena, actions; 2. complete coincidence in smth., repetition, duplication; 3. biol. -...
Syn: parallelism, ...
spiritual, mental, general psychological, mental, ...
Syn: parallelism, ...
adj. 1) Correlative in meaning. with noun: psychology, associated with it. 2) Characteristic of psychology, characteristic of it. 3) a) Related...
1. m. 1) The distance of lines and planes from each other is equal throughout. 2) a) trans. Constant ratio and...
parallelism...
parallelism...
parallelism...
the concomitance of parallel phenomena, actions, parallelism of P. lines. P. in...
in poetics, identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, which, when correlated, create a single poetic image. Along with...
psychological, psychological (book). 1. Adj. to psychology. Psychological law. Psychological observation. An interesting phenomenon from a psychological point of view. It's psychological (adv.) ...
parallelism, m. (see parallel) (book). 1. units only Equal spacing of lines and planes from each other throughout (mat.). ...
psychological adj. 1) Correlative in meaning. with noun: psychology, associated with it. 2) Characteristic of psychology, characteristic of it. 3) a) ...
parallelism 1. m. 1) Equal distance from each other of lines and planes throughout. 2) a) trans. Constant ratio...
adj. 1. ratio with noun psychology, associated with it 2. Characteristic of psychology, characteristic of it. 3. Associated with mental activity...
adj. 1. ratio with noun psychology, associated with it 2. Characteristic of psychology, characteristic of it. 3. Associated with mental…
I m. 1. Equal distance from each other of lines and planes throughout. 2. transfer Constant correlation and concomitance...
(historical; G.I. Rossolimo) see Psychological profile...
(Individual; Individual) - a single creature, unlike anyone else. Differs from a collective being. “The psychological individual is distinguished by a unique and, in a certain way...
(Greek Narciss - Narcissus, Narkiss) - in the most common meaning - narcissism, any form of self-love. The idea of N....
a strategy of historical (and, more broadly, humanitarian) knowledge, which involves comprehending history from the paradigmatic position of removing the subject-object opposition within the cognitive procedure. ...
one of the leading trends in Western psychology. Appeared at the end of the 19th century. in Germany and Austria. To explain mental phenomena,...
a set of concepts that seek to identify the real subject of social actions, the methods and results of his influence on the life of society. Although the problem of G. and...
sacred personification of the Absolute in religions of theistic type: the supreme personality, attributed to the identity of essence and existence, higher intelligence, supernatural power and absolute...
(Bache1ad) Gaston (1884-1962) - French philosopher and methodologist, psychologist, cultural scientist. The founder of neo-rationalism (integral rationalism, applied rationalism, dialectical rationalism, new materialism). ...
(Viktor Vladimirovich) (1885-1922) - Russian cube-futurist poet, thinker, whose views have a pronounced philosophical dimension, an innovator, in whose work - with meaningful ...
(Volkelt) Johannes Emmanuel (1848-1930) German philosopher, psychologist and esthetician. Professor in Jena, Basel, Wurzburg, Leipzig. In aesthetics it was adjacent to the psychological...
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "TREE". Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich (1821 - 1881), great Russian writer. Born in Moscow on October 30...
Open Orthodox encyclopedia "TREE". George (Yaroshevsky) (1872 - 1923), Metropolitan of Warsaw, writer, one of the active figures in the self-inflicted ...
Alcoholism is a pronounced violation of social, psychological and physiological adaptation due to regular consumption of alcohol; the disease gradually leads to physical, intellectual, emotional...
A person assimilates images of the external world in the forms of his self-awareness; all the more so is primitive man, who has not yet developed the habit of abstract, non-figurative thinking, although the latter cannot do without a certain accompanying imagery. We involuntarily transfer to nature our self-awareness of life, expressed in movement, in the manifestation of force directed by the will; in those phenomena or objects in which movement was noticed, signs of energy, will, and life were once suspected. We call this worldview animistic; when applied to poetic style, and not to it alone, it would be more accurate to talk about parallelism. The point is not about identifying human life with natural life and not about comparison, which presupposes the consciousness of the separateness of the objects being compared, but about comparison on the basis of action, movement: a tree is frail, a girl bows, as in a Little Russian song.
<...>So parallelism rests on the comparison of subject and object in the category of movement, action, as a sign of volitional life activity. The subjects, naturally, were animals; they most closely resembled humans: here are the distant psychological foundations of the animal apologist; but the plants also pointed to the same similarity: they were born and bloomed, turned green and bowed from the force of the wind. The sun also seemed to move, rise, set, the wind drove the clouds, lightning rushed, the fire engulfed, devoured the branches, etc. The inorganic, motionless world was involuntarily drawn into this string of parallelisms: it also lived.
The further step in development consisted of a series of transfers attached to the main feature-movement. The sun moves and looks at the earth: the Hindus have the sun, the moon is an eye;<...>the earth grows into grass, forest into hair;<...>When Agni (fire), driven by the wind, spreads through the forest, it mows down the hair of the earth.<...>
The basis of such definitions, which reflected a naive, syncretic view of nature, enslaved by language and belief, is the transfer of a characteristic characteristic of one member of the parallel to another. These are metaphors of language; our vocabulary is replete with them, but we operate many of them unconsciously, without ever feeling their fresh imagery; when “the sun sets,” we do not separately imagine the act itself, undoubtedly alive in the imagination of ancient man: we need to renew it in order to feel it in relief. The language of poetry achieves this through definitions or partial characterization of a general act, here and here as applied to a person and his psyche.<...>
The accumulation of transferences as part of parallels depends 1) on the complex and nature of similar features that were matched to the main feature of movement and life; 2) from the correspondence of these signs with our understanding of life, manifesting will in action; 3) from contiguity with other objects that caused the same game of parallelism; 4) from the value and vitality of a phenomenon or object in relation to a person. The comparison, for example, the sun - the eye (Ind., Greek) suggests the sun as a living, active being; on this basis, transference is possible, based on the external similarity of the sun and the eye: both shine and see. The shape of the eye could give rise to other comparisons:<...>among the Malays, the sun is the eye of the day, the source is the eye of water; The Hindus have a blind well-well, covered with vegetation.<...>
When the analogy between the object that caused its play and a living subject was particularly pronounced, or several of them were established, causing a whole series of transfers, parallelism tended to the idea of equation, if not identity. The bird moves, rushes across the sky, headlong descending to the ground; lightning rushes, falls, moves, lives: this is parallelism. In beliefs about the theft of heavenly fire (among the Hindus, in Australia, New Zealand, among North American savages, etc.), it is already heading towards identification: a bird brings fire to earth - lightning, lightning - a bird.
<...>The language of poetry continues the psychological process that began on prehistoric paths: it already uses the images of language and myth, their metaphors and symbols, but it also creates new ones in their likeness.
<...>I will take up the review of some of his poetic fort mules.
I’ll start with the simplest, folk poetic, with 1) binomial parallelism. Its general type is as follows: a picture of nature, next to it is the same from human life; they echo each other when there is a difference in objective content, consonances pass between them, clarifying what they have in common.<...>
<...>Oh, thin little hop
Hanged on the mud,
Young girl
I went into the Cossack.
<...>The apple was rolling from the bridge,
Katichka asked to leave the feast.
<...>Ay on the sea, on the blue, the wave breaks,
Ay to the field, to the clean, Arda is coming.
You can’t see the month because of a cloud, you can’t know the prince because of the boyars.
<...>The vegetable garden is blooming near our house, and grass is growing in the garden.
The fellow needs to mow the grass, the red maiden needs a fellow.
<...>A young, slender peach tree will bear a lot of fruit; the young wife goes to her future homeland, everything is well arranged in the house and chambers.
<...>A yellow lark lands on a marsh to drink the cool water;
a handsome fellow goes out at night to kiss beautiful girls.
<...>Before my door there is a wide steppe, There is no trace of the white hare;
My friends laughed and played with me, but now none of them are there.
We know the general scheme of psychological parallels: two motives are compared, one prompts the other, they clarify each other, and the advantage is on the side of the one that is filled with human content. Precisely intertwined variations of the same musical theme, mutually suggestive. Once you get used to this suggestiveness - and this will take centuries - and one topic will stand for another.
<...>The parallelism of a folk song rests mainly on the category of action; all other objective consonances remain only as part of the formula and often lose meaning outside of it. The stability of the entire parallel is achieved only in those cases: 1) when the main similarity, in the category of action, is matched with more or less striking features that support it or do not contradict it;
2) when the parallel caught your eye, became part of a custom or cult, was defined and strengthened for a long time. Then the parallel becomes a symbol, appearing independently in other combinations, as an indicator of a common noun. At the time of the dominance of marriage through abduction, the groom was represented in the features of a rapist, a kidnapper, obtaining a bride with a sword, a siege of a city, or a hunter, a bird of prey; in Latvian folk poetry, the bride and groom appear in paired images: an ax and a pine tree, a sable and an otter, a goat and a leaf, a wolf and a sheep. wind and rose, hunter and marten, or squirrel, hawk and partridge, etc. Our songs also belong to this category of performances: well done goat, cabbage girl, parsley; groom - archer, bride - marten, sable; matchmakers - merchants, catchers, bride - goods, white fish, or groom - falcon, bride - dove, swan, duck, quail; Serbian the groom is a catcher, the bride is a hitar catcher, etc. In this way, through selection and under the influence of everyday relationships that are difficult to follow, the parallel symbols of our wedding songs were deposited: the sun is the father, the month is the mother, or the month is the owner , the sun is the mistress, the stars are their children; either the month is the groom, the star is the bride; rue as a symbol of virginity; in Western folk poetry - a rose not removed from the stem, etc.; symbols are sometimes solid, sometimes wavering, gradually passing from the real meaning underlying them to a more general formula. In Russian wedding songs, viburnum is a girl, but the main meaning concerned the signs of virginity; the defining feature was the red color of its berries.
Viburnum colored the banks,
Alexandrinka made all her relatives happy,
The relatives are dancing, the mother is crying.
Yes, our Kalinka Machine,
I walked under the viburnum tree,
I trampled the viburnum with my feet,
I wiped my little feet with padol,
There she fell on Ivan too.
The red color of the viburnum evoked the image of heat: the viburnum is burning:
Neither frying nor burning viburnum, (var, torch)
I don’t feel sorry for Darychka’s crying.
Viburnum is the personified symbol of virginity.<...>Further; viburnum is a girl, the girl is taken, the viburnum is broken by the groom, which is in the spirit of the symbolism of trampling or breaking discussed above. So in one version: the viburnum boasts that no one will break it without the wind, without a storm, without scattered rain; the girls broke it; Dunichka boasted that no one would take her without beer, without honey, without a bitter burner; Vanichka took it.
So: viburnum - virginity, girl; it glows, and blooms, and makes noise, it is broken, it boasts. From the mass of alternating transfers and adaptations, something average is generalized, blurry in its contours, but more or less stable; Kalina is a girl.
Analysis of the previous song led us to the question of the development of folk-song parallelism; development, turning, in many cases, into distortion. Viburnum-girl: this follows in two terms of the parallel: wind, storm, rain-beer, honey, burner. The numerical correspondence is maintained, without an attempt to bring the two series into substantive correspondence. We are heading towards 2) formal parallelism. Let's consider its precedents.
One of them is the default in one of the members of the parallel of a feature that logically follows from its content in accordance with some feature of the second member. I’m talking about silence, not about distortion: what was silent was suggested at first by itself, until it was forgotten. Why don’t you, river, stir up and be indignant? is sung in one Russian song: there is no wind, no rain? Why, sister-friend, don’t you smile? I have nothing to be happy about, she replies, I don’t have a baby brother. (See the Latvian song: What’s the matter with you, river, why don’t you run? What’s the matter with you, girl, why don’t you sing? The river doesn’t flow, it’s clogged, the girl, orphan, doesn’t sing). The song then moves on to a common place, found in other combinations, and separately, to the motive that the father asks Christ to let him go to look at his daughter. Another song begins with the following chant: The river flows, it does not stir; further: the bride has many guests, but there is no one to bless her, she has neither father nor mother. The parallel is implied: the river does not stir, the bride sits silently, not cheerfully.
<...>A different result occurs when in one of the members of the parallel there was a formal-logical development of the image or concept expressed in it, while the other lagged behind. Young: green, strong; young and fun, and we still keep an eye on the equation; green-cheerful; but fun is also expressed by dancing - and next to the formula: in the forest the tree is not green, the mother’s son is not cheerful, another: in the forest the tree is without leaves, the mother has a daughter without dancing. We are already losing the guiding thread. Or: to frail (bend: about tree to tree): to love; instead of loving: getting married; or out of frailty - to bend over, and even in two: “The little hazel bent over in two, fell in love with the Cossack girl.”
Or another parallel: a thunderstorm, the phenomena of thunder and lightning evoked the idea of a struggle, the roar of a thunderstorm-the roar of battle, threshing, where “sheaves are laid down with their heads,” or a feast at which the guests got drunk and died; from there the battle is a feast and, further, the brewing of beer.
<...>Content parallelism turns into rhythmic parallelism. the musical moment prevails, while intelligible relationships between the details of the parallels are weakened. The result is not an alternation of internally connected images, but a series of rhythmic lines without meaningful correspondence. The water is agitated to come ashore, the girl dresses up to please the groom, the forest grows to be tall, the friend grows to be big, she scratches her hair to be pretty (Chuvash).
Sometimes parallelism rests only on agreement or consonance of words in two parts of the parallel:
Beautiful Harasha,
Kalinka by the vine
Destroy him
Vanichka Zhanitsa is eating.<...>
<...>The language of folk poetry was filled with hieroglyphs, understandable not so much figuratively as musically, not so much representing as tuning; they must be remembered in order to understand the meaning.<...>This is decadence to the point of decadence; The decomposition of poetic language began a long time ago. But what is decomposition? After all, in language, the decomposition of sounds and inflections often leads to the victory of thought over the phonetic sign that connected it.<...>
The development of both members of the parallel could be varied, depending on the number of similar images and actions; it could stop at a few comparisons and develop into a whole series, into two parallel pictures, mutually supporting each other, suggesting one another. Thus, from the parallel of the chorus a song-variation on its main motive could emerge. When the hops climb along the tine, through the tree (the guy curls around the girl), when the hunter (groom, matchmaker) has tracked down the marten (bride), I imagine approximately how further development will go. Of course, it can also be directed in the sense of an antithesis: after all, the hunter may or may not overtake the marten. Several songs begin with a chorus: a pair of snow-white doves flies over a lake, a forest, a girl’s house, and she changes her mind: my betrothed dove will soon be with me! Or he won’t show up, and love will end; one option develops exactly this theme; the girl is in a sad mood; in the chorus of another variation, the pigeons are not even snow-white, but black, like coal. Development could have diversified in other ways. The river flows quietly and does not stir: the orphan bride has many guests, but there is no one to bless her; this motif, familiar to us, is analyzed as follows: the river became quiet because it was overgrown with vines, canoes floated on it; vines and canoes are “strangers,” the groom’s relatives. The song about rue, already mentioned by us, thus develops into a whole series of variations that emerge from one theme: removal, separation. This theme is given in the chorus: green rutonka, yellow color.<...>Either the girl herself wants to leave so as not to marry the disliked one, or the dear one asks her to leave with him, and this option develops into a rebuke: How can I go? After all, people will marvel. Or the bride won’t wait for the groom, the mother, she would write, but she doesn’t know how, she would go herself, but she doesn’t dare. Another development is adjacent to this: while waiting for the groom, the girl made wreaths for him at dawn, sewed khustkas by candlelight, and now she asks the dark night to help her, and to illuminate the dawn. And the song goes within the previous one: I would write, but I don’t know how, I would send, but I don’t dare, I would go, but I’m afraid.
<...>The development of a song from the motive of the main parallel sometimes takes special forms. Portuguese double songs are known, actually one song performed by two choirs, each of which repeats verse by verse, only each with different rhymes.<...>
<...>The simplest form of binary parallelism gives me a reason to illuminate, and not only from the formal side, the structure and psychological foundations of the conspiracy.
Parallelism not only compares two actions, analyzing them mutually, but also suggests to one of them aspirations, fears, desires that extend to the other. The linden tree made noise all night and said to the leaf: there will be separation for us, there will be separation for our daughters and their womb.<...>; or: the cherry is dying at the root, so you, Marusya, bow to your mother, etc. The basic form of the conspiracy was the same two-fold, poetic or mixed with prose parts, and the psychological reasons were the same: a deity, a demonic force, was called upon to help a person; once upon a time this deity or demon performed a miraculous healing, saved or protected; some action of theirs was typified (as already in Sumerian spells), and in the second member of the parallel a person appeared, thirsting for the same miracle, salvation, repetition of the same supernatural act. Of course, this duality was subject to changes; in the second member, the epic outline gave way to the lyrical moment of prayer, but the imagery was supplemented by a ritual that accompanied the actual action of pronouncing the incantatory formula.<...>
<...>I will only touch upon in passing the phenomenon of 3) polynomial parallelism, developed from two-term parallelism by one-sided accumulation of parallels, obtained not from one object, but from several similar ones. In the two-term formula, there is only one explanation: the tree bends to the tree, the young man clings to his sweetheart, this formula can vary in variations of the same song: The sun rolled out not red (or rather, rolled up) - My husband fell ill;
instead of: How the oak tree staggers in the polepole, how my dear one struggles; or: How the blue, flammable stone flares up, and my dear friend is extinguished. - A numerous formula brings these parallels together, multiplies the explanations and, together, the materials of analysis, as if opening up the possibility of choice:
Don't let the grass tangle with the blade of grass,
Do not caress the dove with the dove,
Don't get used to the girl.
Not two, but three kinds of images, united by the concept of twisting, bringing together. So<...>The pine tree is frail from the wind, the jackdaw sitting on it is frail, and I am also frail, sad, because I am far from my family. Such a one-sided multiplication of objects in one part of the parallel indicates greater freedom of movement in its composition: parallelism became a stylistic and analytical device, and this should have led to a decrease in its imagery, to displacements and transfers of all kinds.
<...>If our explanation is correct, then numerous parallelism belongs to the late phenomena of folk poetic stylistics; it gives the opportunity to choose, affectivity gives way to analysis; this is the same sign as the accumulation of epithets or comparisons in Homer's poems, like any pleonasm that dwells on the particulars of the situation. Only a calmed feeling analyzes itself in this way; but here is also the source of song and artistic loces communis. In one Northern Russian story, a recruit’s wife wants to go to the forest and mountains and to the blue sea to get rid of the grief; pictures of forests, mountains, and seas surround her, but everything is colored by her sadness; There is no shortage of sadness, and the affect is expanding in the descriptions.
<…>We said that numerous parallelism tends to destroy imagery; 4) mononomial identifies and develops it, which determines its role in the isolation of certain stylistic formations. The simplest type of monomiality is the case when one of the terms of the parallel is silent, and the other is its indicator; in a parallel, significant interest is given to an action from human life, which is illustrated by a rapprochement with some natural act, then the last member of the parallel stands for the whole.
The following Little Russian song represents a complete binary parallel: zorya (star)-month = well done girl (bride - groom):
a) Sala the dawn until the month:
Oh, good-bye, comrade,
Don't come and rush me,
Let's get rid of both at once.
Let us sanctify heaven and earth...
b) Slala Marya to Ivanka;
Oh Ivanka, my narrowing,
Don't give in to the posad,
Rush me to the landing, etc.
Let's discard the second part of the song (b), and the habit of well-known comparisons will suggest the bride and groom instead of the month and the star. So in the following Serbian and Latvian songs, the peacock leads the peahen, the falcon leads the falcon (bride-groom), the linden tree (bends) to the oak tree (like a fellow to a girl):
<...>Decorate the linden tree, mother,
Which is in the middle of your yard;
I saw in strangers
Painted oak (Latvian).
In an Estonian wedding song, timed to coincide with the moment when the bride is hidden from the groom, and he is looking for her, it is sung about a bird, a duck that has gone into the bushes; but this duck “put on her shoes.” -Either: the sun has set: the husband has died; Wed Olonets lament:
The great desire rolled into the waters, desire, into the deep, into the wild dark forests, and into the dense forests, beyond the mountains it, desire, beyond the crowd.
In a Moravian song, a girl complains that they planted violets in the garden, sparrows flew in at night, boys came, pecked everything, trampled on it; the parallel to the familiar trampling symbol is silent. Particularly interesting in our sense are the songs from Annam; a one-term parallel, which is immediately understood allegorically: “I go to the betel plantations and ask absentmindedly: are the pomegranates, pears and brown apples ripe” (this means: ask the neighbors if there is a girl of marriageable age in such and such a house); “I would like to pick a fruit from this lemon tree, but I’m afraid of thorns” (implies a suitor who is afraid of refusal).
<...>It was indicated above in what ways, from the convergences on which binary parallelism is built, those that we call “symbols” are selected and strengthened; their closest source were short one-term formulas in which the linden tree sought to reach the oak tree, the falcon led the falcon with it, etc. They taught them to constant identification, brought up in the age-old song tradition; This element of legend distinguishes a symbol from an artificially selected allegorical image: the latter may be accurate, but is not extensible for new suggestiveness, because it does not rest on the basis of those consonances of nature and man on which folk-poetic parallelism is built. When these consonances appear, or when the allegorical formula passes into the circulation of folk legend, it can approach the life of the symbol; examples are offered by the history of Christian symbolism.
The symbol is extensible, just as the word is extensible for new revelations of thought. The falcon rushes at the bird and kidnaps it, but from another, silent member of the parallel, the rays of human relations fall onto the animal image, and the falcon leads the falcon to the wedding; in the Russian song the falcon is clear - the groom flies to the bride, sits on the window, “on the oak chin”; in the Moravian, he flew under the girl’s window, wounded, chopped up: this is her darling. The young falcon is groomed, cleaned up, and the parallelism is reflected in its fantastic decoration: in the Little Russian Duma the young falcon was taken into captivity; they entangled him there in silver shackles, and hung expensive pearls near his eyes. The old falcon found out about this, “the Tsar-City poured out upon the city,” “howled and howled pitifully.” The falcon began to twist, the Turks removed his fetters and pearls to disperse his melancholy; and the old falcon took him on his wings and raised him to a height: it is better for us to fly across the field than to live in captivity. Falcon - Cossack, captivity - Turkish; the correspondence is not expressed, but it is implied; fetters were put on the falcon; they are silver, but you can’t fly away with them. A similar image is expressed in the double parallelism of one wedding song from the Pinsk region: Why do you, falcon, fly low? - My wings are lined with silk, my legs are lined with gold. - Why did you arrive late, Yasya? - Father is careless, he equipped his squad late.
<...>The rose provides an even more striking example of the extensibility of the symbol, responding to the broadest demands of suggestiveness. The southern flower was in the classical world a symbol of spring and love and death, rising in the spring to new life; it was dedicated to Aphrodite, and it was also used to crown the tombs of the dead on funeral days.
In Christian Europe, the last relationships were forgotten, or survived in the form of fragments, superstitions, persecuted by the church: our mermaids (the souls of the dead, who were once remembered as a sacrifice of roses) and the name of Pentecost. But the rose, as a symbol of love, began to take root in Western folk poetry, penetrating in parts into Russian song, invading the cherished symbolism of rue and viburnum. But a new development took place, perhaps following in the footsteps of the classical myth about the rose that blossomed from the blood of Aphrodite’s favorite, Adonis: the rose became a symbol of martyrdom, the blood shed by the Savior on the cross; it begins to serve the allegories of Christian poetry and art, fills lives, blooms on the bodies of saints. The Virgin Mary is surrounded by roses, she herself was conceived from a rose, a rose bush from which a bird flew out - Christ. So in German, West Slavic and South Russian songs that came from them. The symbolism expands, and the symbol of Aphrodite blossoms in Dante into a giant heavenly rose, the petals of which are holy, the holy host of Christ.
Let us return once again to the fate of single-term parallelism. Standing out from the folk formula, he stands for the omitted parallel, sometimes mixing with it - is it under the influence of passion, the habit of paired, corresponding images, or out of oblivion? When the wedding song spoke about the yellow rue flower, a symbol of virginity, alienation, separation, and then about the path, the images were rallied into a syncretic formula: “a distant path, zhovtsh blossoms.”
But I mean a different kind of confusion, when the parallel formula is imbued not only with the personal content of the omitted one, but also with its everyday, real relationships. A falcon in captivity is a Cossack in captivity; he leads the falcon, the peacock leads the peacock to the wedding.
<...>A poetic symbol becomes a poetic metaphor; it explains the usual technique in folk songs, inherited by artistic poetry: they turn to a flower, a rose, a stream, but the development goes further in the ruts of human feeling, the rose blooms for you, it answers you or you wait for it to respond.
<...>The formula of the fable is included in the same historical perspective and is subject to the same assessment: it is based on the ancient animistic comparison of animal and human life, but there is no need to go back to the zoological fairy tale and myth in order to explain to ourselves the origin of the scheme, to which we also naturally suggest a human parallel, just as we do not require commentary on the image of a rose - a girl.
So: a poetic metaphor is a single-term parallel formula into which some images and relationships of the silent member of the parallel are transferred. This definition indicates its place in the chronology of poetic parallelism<...>. A well-known type of riddle rests on a single-term parallelism, and the images of a deliberately silent member of the parallel, which has to be guessed, are sometimes transferred to the one that constitutes the riddle.
The riddle built on switching off turns us to one more type of parallelism that remains for us to analyze: 4) negative parallelism. “Strong is not a rock, roars not a bull,” says the Vedas; this can serve as an example of the same construction of parallelism, especially popular in Slavic folk poetry. The principle is this: a binomial or polynomial formula is put forward, but one or some of them are eliminated in order to allow attention to focus on the one to which the negation does not extend. The formula begins with a negation, or with a position, which is often introduced with a question mark.
It is not the white birch tree that bends down,
The not-tottering aspen began to make noise,
The good fellow is killed by the pain.
Like a white birch tree intertwined with a linden tree,
How, at the age of fifteen, a girl got used to a young man.
It’s not the birch tree that’s staggering,
Not curly curls,
How it staggers, twists,
Your young wife.
<...>Negative parallelism is found in Lithuanian and Modern Greek songs, less often in German; in Little Russian it is less developed than in Great Russian. I distinguish from it those formulas where the negation falls not on the object or action, but on the quantitative or qualitative determinations accompanying them: not so much, not so, etc. So in the Iliad, XIV, 394, but in the form of comparison: with such The wave raised on the sea by a strong blow of the north wind does not roar with rage, hitting the rocky shore; The flame does not howl like that, approaching with hissing tongues of fire; not a hurricane, ... how loudly the voices of the Trojans and Danae were heard when, with a terrible cry, they raged against each other. Or in the VII sestina of Petrarch:
“There are not so many animals hidden in the depths of the sea, not so many stars that a clear night sees above the circle of the month, not so many birds are found in the forest, not so many grains in a wet meadow, but how many thoughts come to me every evening,” etc.
One can imagine the reduction of a two- or numerous negative formula into a single-term one, although the negation should have made it difficult to suggest the silent member of the parallel: the winds would not come, but they would blow (-there would be no boyars, but they would come in large numbers); or in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”: it was not the storm that carried the falcons across the wide fields (the herds to flee to the Great Don). - We have seen examples of a negative one-term formula in riddles.
The popularity of this stylistic device in Slavic folk poetry gave rise to some generalizations that will have to be limited, if not eliminated. In negative parallelism they saw something folk or racial, Slavic, in which the special, elegiac cast of Slavic lyricism was typically expressed. The appearance of this formula in other folk lyrics brings this explanation within its proper boundaries; One can only talk about the greater spread of the formula on the basis of Slavic songs, which together raises the question of the reasons for this popularity. Psychologically, a negative formula can be looked at as a way out of parallelism, the positive scheme of which it presupposes has been established. It brings actions and images closer together, limiting themselves to their pairing or accumulating comparisons: either the tree is frail, or the young man is sad; the negative formula emphasizes one from two possibilities: it is not the tree that is sickly, but the young man who is sad; she affirms, denying, eliminating duality, isolating the individual. This is, as it were, a feat of consciousness emerging from the vagueness of floating impressions to the affirmation of the individual; , is highlighted, and if it is attracted again, then as a reminder that does not imply unity, as a comparison. The process took place in the following sequence of formulas: man: not a tree, but a man, like a tree. On the basis of negative parallelism, the last selection has not yet taken place. completely: the adjacent image still hovers somewhere nearby, apparently eliminated, but still evoking consonance. It is clear that the elegiac feeling has found a means of expression that corresponds to it in the negative formula; you are amazed by something, unexpectedly, sadly, you can’t believe your eyes: it’s not what it seems to you, but something else, you are ready to reassure yourself with the illusion of similarity, but reality hits your eyes, self-delusion only intensified the blow, and you eliminate it with pain : It’s not the birch tree that’s twisting, it’s your young wife that’s twisting and twisting!
I do not claim that the negative formula was developed in the sphere of such sentiments, but it could have been nurtured and generalized in it. The alternation of positive parallelism, with its transparent duality, and negative, with its wavering, eliminating affirmation, gives folk lyricism a special, vague coloring. The comparison is not so suggestive, but it is positive.
The importance of comparison in the development of psychological parallelism was indicated above.
<...>Comparison has not only taken possession of the stock of connections and symbols developed by the previous history of parallelism, but also develops along the paths indicated by it; old material has merged into a new form, other parallels fit into the comparison, and vice versa, there are also transitional types.
<...>Expression of our epics; “The bowstring sang” is nothing more than the deposition of a parallel: a man sings; the bowstring rings and sings. This image could also be expressed by comparison, for example in the Rig Veda: the bowstring whispers, speaks like a maiden; as if a goddess cooed from a bow string stretched on a bow (see ibid.: an arrow like a bird, its tooth like the tooth of a wild beast); the bows chirp like cranes in a nest.
<...>In the Olonets lamentation, the widow cries like a cuckoo, but the comparison is interspersed with an image that grew out of the parallel; widow - cuckoo.
How poor I am, a tough little head, I will yearn under the little window, I will grieve, grieving, under the window, Like an unfortunate coconut in a damp forest... I sit on a dry tree, I sit on a bitter tree and on an aspen tree.
Numerous parallelism corresponds to the same form of developed comparison (for example, in Homer, in the Anglo-Saxon epic, etc.), with the difference that, with the consciousness of the act itself, the development is more syntactically cohesive, and personal consciousness goes beyond the boundaries of the traditional material of parallels to new connections, to a new understanding of images and virtuosity of descriptions that are self-sufficient.<...>
Metaphor and comparison gave content to some groups of epithets; with them we went through the entire circle of development of psychological parallelism, to what extent it determined the material of our poetic vocabulary and its images. Not everything that was once alive and young has been preserved in its former brightness; our poetic language often gives the impression of detritus, phrases and epithets have faded, just as a word fades, the imagery of which is lost with an abstract understanding of its objective content.
<...>So: metaphorical new formations and age-old metaphors developed in a new way. The vitality of the latter, or their renewal in the circulation of poetry, depends on the capacity in relation to new surveys of feeling, directed by broad educational and social trends.<...>Such is the capacity of symbols: they are a form that serves to express the unknowable; they change insofar as positive sciences determine and develop our understanding of the mysterious, but they also die out, I will add, when living exchange ceases between one and the other.
<...>In such a search for consonances, the search for man in nature, there is something passionate, pathetic, which characterizes the poet and has characterized, in different forms of expression, entire periods of social and poetic development. An elegiac fascination with the beauties of nature has occurred more than once in history: at the border of the ancient and new worlds, among medieval mystics, among Petrarch, Rousseau and the romantics. Francis of Assisi seemed to see divine love spilled everywhere in nature; medieval allegorism, which expected in all creation correspondence and coincidence with the human world, gave a scholastic turn to the same system of thoughts; Petrarch was looking for the same consonances, but came across contradictions: they lay within himself. Such a mood is understandable in times of hesitation and doubt, when faith in the strength of the social and religious order has weakened and the thirst for something different, better is felt more strongly. Then scientific thought takes new paths, trying to establish a balance between faith and knowledge, but the old parallelism also plays out, looking in nature, in its images, for an answer to the shortcomings of spiritual life, for consonance with it.
In poetry, this leads to a renewal of imagery, the landscape - the scenery is filled with human content. This is the same mental process that once answered the first, timid requests of thought; the same attempt to become closer to nature, to project oneself in its hiding place, to move it into one’s consciousness; and often the same result: not knowledge, but poetry.