Words, phrases, phrases and sentences - all this and much more is inherent in the concept of “language”. How much is hidden in it, and how little we actually know about language! We spend every day and even every minute next to him - whether we say our thoughts out loud or read or listen to the radio... Language, our speech is a real art, and it should be beautiful. And its beauty must be genuine. What helps in the search for true beauty
The direct and figurative meaning of words is what enriches our language, develops it and transforms it. How does this happen? Let's understand this endless process when, as they say, words grow from words.
First of all, you need to understand the figurative meaning of the word, and what main types they are divided into. Each word can have one or a number of meanings. Words with one meaning are called unambiguous words. In the Russian language there are significantly fewer of them than words with many different meanings. Examples include words such as computer, ash, satin, sleeve. A word that can be used in several meanings, including figuratively, is a polysemantic word, examples: house can be used to mean a building, a room for people to live, a family way of life, etc.; the sky is the air space above the earth, as well as the location of visible luminaries, or divine power, conduction.
With polysemy, a distinction is made between the literal and figurative meaning of a word. The first meaning of the word, its basis, is the direct meaning of the word. By the way, the word “straight” in this context is figurative in nature, i.e. the main meaning of the word is “something even,
without bends” - is transferred to another object or phenomenon with the meaning “literal, expressed unambiguously.” So we don’t have to go far - we just need to be more careful and observant in what words we use, when and how.
From the above example it already becomes clear that a figurative meaning is a secondary meaning of a word that arose when the literal meaning of the word was transferred to another object. Depending on what feature of the object served as the reason for the transfer of meaning, there are different types of figurative meaning such as metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche.
Direct and can resonate with each other based on similarity - this is a metaphor. For example:
ice water - ice hands (by attribute);
poisonous mushroom - poisonous character (by attribute);
star in the sky - star in hand (by location);
chocolate candy - chocolate tan (based on color).
Metonymy is the selection of some property in a phenomenon or object, which by its nature can replace the others. For example:
gold jewelry - she has gold in her ears;
porcelain dishes - there was porcelain on the shelves;
headache - my headache went away.
And finally, synecdoche is a type of metonymy when one word is replaced by another on the basis of a constant, really existing relationship of part to whole and vice versa. For example:
He is a real head (meaning very smart, the head is the part of the body in which the brain is located).
The entire village took his side - every resident, i.e. the “village” as a whole, which replaces its part.
What can we say in conclusion? Only one thing: if you know the direct and figurative meaning of a word, you will be able not only to use certain words correctly, but also enrich your speech, and learn to beautifully convey your thoughts and feelings, and maybe one day you will come up with your own metaphor or metonymy... Who knows?
Topic: “Gold Mama” (“Figurative meaning of words”)
Lesson objectives:
Educational:
- Be able to find words with a figurative meaning in the text, use words with a figurative meaning in speech
- Be able to distinguish between the literal and figurative meaning of words
- Develop skills and abilities in using a dictionary
Developmental:
- (Speech development) Enrichment and complexity of vocabulary
- Mastering artistic images
- Strengthening communicative properties
- (Development of thinking) Learn to analyze
- Learn to compare, build analogies
Educational:
- Encourage humane, kind relationships with mom
- Develop the ability to work and help loved ones
- Develop sensitivity to evil, untruth, and humiliation of human dignity
During the classes
1. Organizational moment.
The guys sit in groups
2. Call stage.
2.1 Guys, 2-3 days ago I was walking down the street, and a mother and daughter were walking in front of me. I found myself an unwitting listener to their conversation.
Don't come to our cool evening. And the way the collective farmer is always dressed, you will only disgrace me, the daughter scolded her mother.
And mom walked with her head down and was silent.
Can you give me a hundred rubles for gas water and candy? – the daughter continued as if nothing had happened.
2.2 After hearing the conversation, I wanted to talk to you about my mother. Lesson topic “Golden Mother”. As you understand the topic is a mystery, you yourself will formulate the topic and objectives of our lesson.
2.3 But first, let's compete. Write down in a notebook those qualities that need to be developed by a girl who has offended her mother (warmth, humanity, humanity, kindness, caring, good nature, responsiveness *, sensitivity * - *work with the dictionary of Ladyzhenskaya’s textbook).
2.4 Write down the negative qualities of the girl’s character (selfishness, selfishness, heartlessness*, inhumanity*, cruelty* - *work with the dictionary of Ladyzhenskaya’s textbook).
2.5 In what work did the son feel ashamed of his mother’s outer clothing and renounce it? (“The Boy Is a Star” by O. Wilde)
2.6 Give some good advice to a girl? (The girl needs to apologize to her mother. You can learn to feed a tamagochi - a toy chicken - in one day, but it takes a lifetime to learn how to become a human.)
3. Determining the topic and purpose of the lesson.
The guys get case no. 1.
Guys, listen to the poem “Golden Mother” and determine the meaning of the word “golden”
Case No. 1
Mom has a heart of gold
And the golden head
And mother’s hands are golden,
And her affairs are in dispute.
And dad calls mom:
You are our golden man!
My sister just sighs:
“After all, gold is such a metal,
True, there is a ring on the finger,
But my hands don't shine at all,
And there are wrinkles on the face near the eyes,
Not gold - five of them...
And there is no gold in my heart,
And the heart... that's how it is inside,
It beats in my mother's chest,
Try a sample!
(author's)
Application task:
- Analyze how many times the word golden appears in the text.
- Formulate the lexical meaning of the word “golden” in each case.
- What do all the words have in common?
- Suggest your own ideas for the title of today's topic and the objectives of the lesson.
- Make a conclusion about the role of these meanings in the text.
One person in the group is looking for the lexical meaning of the word “golden” in Ozhegov’s dictionary.
Groups answer questions.
(Golden mother is a good mother; golden heart is kind, humane, sympathetic; golden head is smart; golden hands are skillful; golden man is good, kind.)
Yes, this is not the direct meaning of the words, it is figurative.
What mark is it designated in the dictionary? (translated). In a dictionary entry, the figurative meaning is at the end of the entry.
The figurative meanings of words are means of expressive speech. They make the text lively, colorful, and expressive.
4. Working with case No. 2. Analysis.
There is a case in front of you. Read the suggested text carefully
Legend
The mother had an only son. He married a girl dazzling beauty. But heart the young wife had black, A difficult character. She says to her husband: “Move your mother into the barn, don’t let her go into the hut.” Mother was afraid cold eyes daughter-in-law, only at night she came out of the dark barn. But this was not enough for the beauty.
So she says to her husband: “If you don’t want to lose me, take the heart out of your chest and bring it.” My son's heart did not tremble, bewitched his beauty wives.
The son took his mother to the river and killed her. He went back and put his heart in his palm. He tripped over a stone, fell, hit himself, and warm heart fell bloodied onto the cliff and whispered: “ Golden son, is it painful to hurt your knee? Sit down and relax!”
Underline the phrases with figurative meaning in the test. How do they characterize the heroes?
Match the found words with examples with direct meaning.
Above each phrase, put a number corresponding to the transition of meaning based on similarity: 1 color (dazzling beauty, black heart); 2 weights (heavy character); 3 heat (cold eyes, warm heart); 4 high quality metal ( golden son); 5human actions are attributed to inanimate objects (lose me, bewitched by beauty)
4.2 Now, guys, come up with a continuation of the legend. Write 2-4 sentences, including words with figurative meanings.
4.3 Socialization. Several people read out their options for the ending of this story.
5. Do you want to know how the author ends this legend?
(Continuation of the legend).
Tears ran from my son’s eyes and his head began to spin. He put his heart back and poured it with hot tears. He realized that no one had ever loved him as devotedly and selflessly as his own mother. And so enormous and inexhaustible was maternal love, so deep and omnipotent was the desire of the mother’s heart to see her son joyful and carefree, that the heart came to life, the torn chest closed, the mother stood up and pressed her curly head to her chest.
After this, the son did not want to return to his wife, in whose chest there was a heart of stone. The mother did not return either.
6. Lesson summary. Reflection.
Conversation on questions:
Did we manage to answer the questions posed at the beginning of the lesson? Formulate a definition. Did we name the lesson well? Come up with other options for the title of the lesson. (“cold heart”, “difficult character”, etc.)
Where can we apply the acquired knowledge? Why do we need figurative meanings of words?
Discuss in groups what is the main theme of Sukhomlinsky’s legend? What does this legend teach us?
Work in groups.
Conclusion: External beauty, like that of a beautiful wife, sometimes means nothing. We judge a person by his actions and deeds. You can't betray your loved ones. A mother's heart is all-forgiving. The worst thing for a person is to look and not see evil (like his son), to get used to evil or help create it. Do not allow human dignity to be humiliated!
7. Homework
Compose a syncwine dedicated to figurative meaning.
From the textbook's dictionary, write down 5-6 words with a figurative meaning. Compose a text with these words (for weak students - sentences).
Summary of a Russian language lesson in 6th grade
(teacher: Nesvat L.N., teacher of Russian language and literature MKOU OOSH village.
Ershovka, Vyatskopolyansky district, Kirov region)
LESSON TOPIC:
Direct and figurative meaning of words.
Goals: 1)
To introduce students to the literal and figurative lexical meaning of a word
2)
To develop the ability to find words with a figurative meaning in the text,
4)
Develop skills in working with spelling and punctuation.
During the classes:
Motivation.
1) Teacher's word:
Friends, before announcing the topic of today's lesson, I want to ask you a question,
related to literature, do you know who Ilya Muromets is?
(People's hero, hero of many epics)
In one of the epics about Ilya Muromets there are the following words: “The word is like an apple: from one
green on one side, ruddy on the other, you know how to turn it, girl...”
Think about the meaning of this sentence: The word, if we consider it from different sides,
miscellaneous - “Green on one side”, “Ruddy on the other”. And most importantly: "You know how to do it, girl
turn over", i.e. know how to use your words, as a word can have more than one meaning
It turns out that a word, in addition to its direct meaning, can also have another meaning,
portable. This is the topic of the lesson: “Direct and figurative meaning of the word”
(write in notebooks).
2) Write on the board:
iron nails, iron health.
Teacher's explanation: In the phrase iron nails the adjective means
What is the meaning of the word green? (Unripe,
unripe)
11)
Information on the use of figurative words in fiction
works. (Information from the textbook).
Vocabulary work: personification, metaphor
13) Execute exercise 339
Teacher:
Words with a figurative meaning make it bright and expressive not only
poetic speech, but also prose.
15) Let's turn to exercise 342.
a) Reading the text.
b) Determination of speech style, type of speech.
c) Determining the title of the text.
d) Vocabulary work: azure, coral, sapphire.
16) Recording text, explaining spelling.
: I hope you will be able to determine the literal and figurative meaning of a word. A
When you were very little, you probably didn’t understand a lot. Famous
children's writer K.I. Chukovsky recorded several statements of children who did not know
Reading the roles of the following statements and explaining the words used in
figurative meaning:
“I won’t go to school,” said fifth-grader Seryozha. - There on exams
cutting.
b) - Here In winter it will snow and frost will hit
-And then I won’t go outside.
- Why?
- So that the frost doesn’t hit me.
V) The boy is asked about his sister
- What does your sister Irinka lie down with the roosters?
She doesn’t lie down with the roosters - they peck: she goes to bed alone in her crib.
Mom washed the shirt and asked Petya to hang it to dry in the sun.
Petya left, but soon returned with the shirt.
- Why didn't you hang it up to dry?
- I don't “reached the sun,” answered Petya.
19)
Teacher:
Children, you have heard funny stories. No less fun, I think
will seem to you ex. 340.
20) Exercise: In each pair of sentences, indicate the words used directly
figurative meaning.
The wind howls and whistles in the chimney. The dog howls.
The tired day turned to night. The tired boy bowed his head to
mother's shoulder.
Dad came home from work. The long-awaited day of departure has finally arrived.
The hostess warmed the water. A cheerful song warmed us on the way.
21) Let's summarize the lesson.
a) How does a figurative meaning differ from a direct one?
b) Why are words with figurative meanings used in speech?
) Homework:
Theoretical information on pp. 132-133, exercise 338
When polysemous, one of the meanings of a word is direct, and everyone else - portable.
Direct meaning of the word- this is its main lexical meaning. It is directly aimed at the subject (immediately evokes an idea of the subject, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in
direct meaning.
Portable meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:
Toy, -and, and. 1. A thing used for playing. Kids toys.
2. transfer One who blindly acts according to someone else's will is an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object or phenomenon is transferred, transferred also to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects or phenomena simultaneously. Depending on the basis on which the name is transferred,” there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.
Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) - this is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple -eyeball(by form); human nose- bow of the ship(by location); chocolate bar- chocolate tan(by color); bird wing- airplane wing(by function); the dog howled- the wind howled(according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes
Metonymy(then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity *, for example: water is boiling- behindthe kettle is boiling; porcelain dish- tasty dish; native gold- Scythian gold etc. A type of metonymy is synecdoche.
Synecdoche(from the Greek “synekdoche” - co-implying) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant- ripe currants; beautiful mouth- extra mouth(about an extra person in the family); bighead- clever mind etc.
In the process of developing figurative names, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding its basic meaning. Over time figurative meanings may become straight.
It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. Compare, for example, the sentences: 1) Wesat on the corner bastion, so it could go both wayssee everything (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the deepest bearish corner, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Sibiryak)
* Adjacent - located directly next to, having about border.
In the first sentence the word corner used in its literal meaning: “the place where two sides of something meet or intersect.” And in stable combinations “in a blind corner”, “bearish corner” the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a remote corner- in remote areas, bearliving corner - desolate place.
In explanatory dictionaries direct meaning of the word is given first, and figurative values are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. The value recorded as figurative recently comes with the mark "peren" For example:
Wood,-oh, -oh. 1. Made from wood, 2. trans. Motionless, unexpressive. Wooden facial expression. ABOUT Wood oil- cheap grade of olive oil.
The direct (otherwise primary, basic, main) meaning of a word is the reflection in the word of that phenomenon of reality with which the word has been associated for a long time and steadily; portable (or secondary) meaning is acquired by a word as a result of its conscious use to designate not the phenomenon that it traditionally designates, but another phenomenon that is close to the first one in our minds according to some characteristics. For example, iron in the literal meaning - containing iron (iron ore) or made of iron (iron roof), and in the figurative meaning - strong, strong(iron muscles) or unshakable, unyielding, not knowing deviations or retreats (iron will). Head in the literal sense - the upper part of the human body, the upper or front part of the animal's body containing the brain, and in the figurative sense - mind, consciousness, reason(clear head, bright head), a man of great intelligence (Ivan Ivanovich is a head!), a person as a bearer of some properties, qualities (smart head, hot head).
In Pushkin's line Dawn rises in the cold darkness word dawn appears in its direct meaning (bright illumination of the horizon before sunrise or after sunset), and in its lines And over the fatherland of enlightened freedom Will a beautiful dawn finally rise?– figuratively (beginning, origin, early time of something).
The use of words in literary works in a literal, non-figurative meaning is called autology (Greek autos – himself + logos), and the use of words in a figurative meaning – metalogy (Greek meta – through, after, for -+- logos). The field of metalogy includes all trails .
Trope(Greek tropos – turn; turnover, image) – a generalized name for stylistic devices consisting of using a word in a figurative meaning in order to achieve special expressiveness, imagery . Since the transfer of meaning (or, as they sometimes say, the transfer of name) can occur on the basis of the correlation of various features, paths can be of different types, each of which has its own name. The main trails include metaphor, metonymy, irony and hyperbole; Varieties of the main tropes include personification, synecdoche, and litotes.
Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transference) represents a transfer of meaning by similarity. We can say that the basis of a metaphor is a comparison that is not formally designated (for example, with the help of comparative conjunctions). They also say that a metaphor is a hidden comparison. For example, metaphor Empty skies transparent glass(Akhmatova) contains a comparison of the sky with transparent glass, a metaphor A red rowan fire is burning in the garden(S. Yesenin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with the flame of a fire.
Many metaphors have become commonplace in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention and have lost their imagery in our perception: go beyond the boundaries, hot time, hot heart, dizzy, love has faded, he has lost his head, piercing with his eyes, strings of the soul, the patient’s temperature is jumping, thin voice, difficult character, etc.
In artistic literature, a metaphor achieves its pictorial purpose the more it is unexpected, original and at the same time accurate in the sense of correlating phenomena. The aesthetic assessment of metaphors (as well as other means of artistic representation) is a subjective thing.
And the diamond trembling of the stars fades in the painless cold of dawn.(Voloshin);
And bottomless blue eyes bloom on the far shore.(Block);
Like similes, metaphors can be extended. Sometimes poems are constructed from beginning to end as extended metaphors.
Any familiar metaphor can be presented in its literal sense for artistic purposes, and then it “comes to life” and receives new imagery. This technique is called realization of the metaphor . It can be used for humorous and satirical purposes (for example, in Mayakovsky’s famous poem “The Satisfied Ones” the metaphor is implemented torn apart), but can also be a technique of lyric poetry. The same Mayakovsky implemented the metaphor with great emotional force wring your hands:
Loves? does not love?
I break my hands and fingers
I scatter it, breaking it.
The closeness of metaphor to comparison is expressed, in particular, in the fact that these means of artistic representation are often combined: Russia entered Europe like a deflated ship, with the sound of an ax and the thunder of cannons(Pushkin);
In that long-ago year when love was kindled, like a throne cross in a doomed heart.(Akhmatova);
Metonymy(Greek metonymia - renaming) is transfer of values (renaming) according to the contiguity of phenomena . The cases of such transfers are varied, the main ones being the following.
From vessel, container to contents: The circular buckets, foaming, hiss(Pushkin). Common expressions also belong to this type of metonymy ate a whole plate, drank two cups, etc..
From a person to his clothing or any external signs: And you, blue uniforms(Lermontov; meaning gendarmes); Hey beard! how to get from here to Plyushkin?(Gogol).
From a settlement to its inhabitants: The whole city was discussing this event; The village was delighted with this news, etc.
From an organization, institution, event to its employees, participants: The research institute was busy completing an urgent task; The plant decided to go on strike and so on.
The author's name may indicate his work: Evgeny Onegin, as you know, Scolded Homer, Theocritus, but read Adam Smith(...) Expressions like Wonderful Kustodiev! Magnificent Faberge! – to designate a painting by an artist or a product of a master.
Irony(Greek eironeia - literally: pretense) - the use of a word or statement in a sense opposite to its direct meaning. A textbook example is the Fox’s appeal to the Donkey, whom she considers stupid, in Krylov’s fable “The Fox and the Donkey”: Why, smart one, are you delirious, head? Words used in the opposite literal meaning can be placed in quotation marks for greater expressiveness, as, for example, in Severyanin’s poems addressed to politicians on behalf of people of art:
Your hostile everyday life is harmful to us - We are burning with eternal art. You are busy with “business”, and we are only “drones”, But we are proud of our title!
The opposite meaning can be given not only to a single word, but also to a broader context or an entire work. An example is the famous poem by Lermontov
Gratitude
For everything, for everything I thank you: For the secret torment of passions, For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss, For the revenge of enemies and the slander of friends; For the heat of my soul, wasted in the desert, For everything I was deceived by in life... Just arrange it so that from now on I won’t be thanking you for long.
In this poem you can see the highest degree of irony – sarcasm (Greek sarkasmos, from sarkazo - literally: tearing meat).
Hyperbola(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) in contrast to metaphor, metonymy and irony, which are renamings on a qualitative basis, consists in transferring values by quantitative characteristic . More precisely, hyperbole consists of a quantitative enhancement of the signs of an object, phenomenon, or action, which for simplicity is sometimes called “artistic exaggeration.”
Hyperbole is often used in folk literature. For example, in the epic about Volga and Mikula:
We drove all day from morning to evening,
We couldn’t get to Oratai.
They were driving and it was another day,
Another day is from morning to evening,
We couldn’t get to Oratai.
How Oratay yells and whistles in the field,
Oratai's bipod creaks,
And the little guys are scratching the pebbles.
They rode here for the third day,
And the third day is still before the swan day.
And we came across an open field in Oratay.
And here is the hyperbole in the mischievous ditty:
The darling sits on the porch With an expression on his face, And the darling’s face Occupies the entire porch.
Gogol was a great master of hyperbole; everyone remembers that a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper what do you have Cossacks wore trousers as wide as the Black Sea, and Ivan Nikiforovich’s trousers had such wide folds that if they were inflated, the entire yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.
Personification – a technique consisting of transferring the properties of a person (person) to inanimate objects, natural phenomena or animals. Personification is usually in folk literature and the closest genre of book literature to it - fable; often used in lyric poetry. A few examples:
Luna laughed like a clown.(Yesenin) Midnight through my city window Enters with the night's gifts.(Tvardovsky)
Like simile and metaphor, personification can be expanded. For example, in Lermontov's poem The Cliff
The golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant rock, In the morning she rushed off early, playing merrily across the azure; But a wet trace remained in the wrinkle of the Old Cliff. He stands alone, deep in thought, and quietly cries in the desert.
Synecdoche(Greek synekdoche – correlation) – a special case of metonymy: designation of the whole (or generally something larger) through its part (or generally something smaller included in a larger one). For example: All flags will visit us(Pushkin), i.e. ships flying the flags of all countries. Synecdoche can become a familiar phraseological phrase: to have a roof over your head, not enough workers, so many heads of cattle, etc. Synecdoche is the use of singular forms instead of plural: Swede, Russian chops, chops, cuts (Pushkin); And you could hear until dawn how the Frenchman (Lermontov) rejoiced.
Litotes(Greek litotes - simplicity) - a technique opposite to hyperbole, i.e. consisting of quantitative understatement of the characteristics of an object, phenomenon, action . The litotes are the names of the fairy-tale characters Thumb and Thumb Girl. Litotes is also used in the description of the hero of Nekrasov’s famous poem:
And while walking, it is important in decorous calm. The horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in big boots, in a short sheepskin coat, in big mittens... and he himself is as small as a fingernail.
Litota is also the method of defining a phenomenon or concept through the denial of the opposite, which also leads to an understatement of the objective qualities of what is being defined. For example, if we say: This is not without interest, – then such an expression will not contain as definite an estimate as This is interesting. Two examples from Tvardovsky’s poetry:
That hour was already knocking on the window Not without solemn undertakings(“Beyond the distance – the distance”);
No, our days are not without a trace in the world("Birch").
Figure(rhetorical figure, stylistic figure, figure of speech) – a generalized name for stylistic devices in which a word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily have a figurative meaning. The figures are built on special combinations of words that go beyond the usual, “practical” use and are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness and figurativeness of the text. Since figures are formed by a combination of words, they use certain stylistic possibilities of syntax, but in all cases the meanings of the words forming the figure are very important. There are numerous figures; we will name only the main ones here.
Anaphora(Greek anaphora - bringing up, repetition), or unity of command - repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas . We have already encountered anaphora in Lermontov’s poem “Gratitude,” cited above, where six lines begin with the preposition for. Two more examples from the poetry of A. Fet:
Only in the world is there anything shady
Dormant maple tent. Only in the world is there something radiant
Childishly thoughtful look. Only in the world is there something fragrant
Sweet headdress. Only in the world is there anything pure
Parting to the left.
Here, each sentence forming two poetic lines begins with the expression Only in the world there is... In the following example, each stanza except the first begins with the word tell, and in the first stanza the second line begins with this word:
I came to you with greetings To tell you that the sun has risen, That it fluttered with hot light across the sheets; Tell me that the forest has woken up, The whole forest has woken up, every branch, every bird has roused itself, And is full of spring thirst; To tell that with the same passion as yesterday, I came again, That my soul is still happy and ready to serve you; To tell that joy is blowing at me from everywhere, That I myself don’t know what I will sing - but only the song is ripening.
Antithesis(Greek antithesis – opposition) – stylistic device of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. The most clearly expressed and simple in structure antithesis is based on the use of antonyms:
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god!(Derzhavin);
You are also poor, You are also abundant, You are also powerful, You are also powerless, Mother Rus'!
(Nekrasov)
Over the Black Sea, over the White Sea On black nights and white days (...)
But opposition can be expressed and descriptive: He once served in the hussars, and even happily; no one knew the reason that prompted him to resign and settle in a poor town, where he lived both poorly and wastefully: he always walked on foot, in a worn black frock coat, and kept an open table for all the officers of our regiment. True, his dinner consisted of two or three dishes prepared by a retired soldier, but the champagne flowed like a river.(Pushkin);
Gradation(Latin gradatio – gradual rise) – a stylistic device for arranging words and expressions, as well as means of artistic representation, in order of increasing or decreasing (descending) significance. The gradation of the first type is called climax (Greek klimax - ladder), the second - anticlimax (Greek anti - against + klimax). Increasing gradation in Russian literature is used more often than descending. An example of a clear gradation according to the increasing importance of a characteristic can be taken from the epic about Volga and Mikula:
The fry on the bipod is maple, the horns on the bipod are damask, the horn on the bipod is silver, and the horn on the bipod is red and gold.
An expanded multifaceted gradation underlies the composition of Pushkin’s “Tales of the Fisherman and the Fish.” The old fisherman did not immediately catch the goldfish; the wonderful catch is described using gradations:
Once he threw a net into the sea, - The net came with nothing but mud. Another time he cast a net, and a net came with sea grass. For the third time he cast the net, The net came with one fish, With a difficult fish - a golden one.
“Up the stairs” the old woman’s wishes rise: I don’t want to be a black peasant woman, I want to be a pillar noblewoman - I don’t want to be a pillar noblewoman, But I want to be a free queen - I don’t want to be a free queen, I want to be the mistress of the sea. In place of the dilapidated dugout, first a hut with a light appears, then a tall tower, and then the royal chambers. The more irrepressible and absurd demands of the old woman the old man is forced to convey to the goldfish, the harsher and more menacing the sea greets him: the sea has become slightly violent - the blue sea has become clouded - the blue sea is not calm - the blue sea has turned black - there is a black storm at sea.
Gradation (mainly ascending) is also widely used in non-stylized book literature. Examples:
I called you, but you didn’t look back, I shed tears, but you didn’t condescend.
No, it would be unbearably terrible, an earthly destiny, if we were not always with us, Neither our childhood days, nor our youth, nor our whole life in its last hour.
(Tvardovsky)
Examples of descending gradation:
He brought mortal resin and a branch with withered leaves.
Will I find the same embrace there? Hello old man, will you meet me? Will the friends and brothers recognize the Sufferer after many years?
(Lermontov)
He promises him half the world, and France only for himself.
(Lermontov)
Oxymoron, or oxymoron (Greek oxymoron – literally: witty-stupid),– a stylistic device of combining words with opposite meanings for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept or idea . An oxymoron is a common figure in Russian literature; it is used, for example, in the titles of literary works such as “Living Relics” by Turgenev, “Living Corpse” by L. Tolstoy, “Optimistic Tragedy” by V. Vishnevsky. Examples of oxymorons from poems by Russian poets:
And the impossible is possible.
The long road is easy.
Parallelism(Greek parallelos – walking next to, parallel) – a stylistic device of similar, parallel construction of adjacent phrases, poetic lines or stanzas. Examples of parallelism in the construction of poetic lines:
I look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing.
(Lermontov)
Repetition. As the name itself indicates, this stylistic device consists of repeating a word, expression, song or poetic line in order to attract special attention to it. Repetition is a common technique in folk songs. For example:
We were in the field, walking along the boundaries
Wreaths have developed, Let the life give birth, -
The wreaths have developed "Ugly, God,
And they looked lively. Zhito is thick,
And Saint Ilya Zhito is thick,
Spike walks along the borders,
Vigorous!”
Poets often resort to repeating lines in texts that are stylistically close to folk songs:
“I see the death of me, bury me
Here, in the steppe, he will slay, Here, in the steppe, deaf;
Don’t remember, friend, the black horses
My evil grievances. Take me home.
Take my evil grievances home,
Yes, and nonsense, hand them over to the priest...”
Unreasonable words
The old rudeness.
(I. Surikov)
Repeating a line or several lines at the end of a stanza called refrain (French: refrain - chorus).
Repeating a word or phrase can also be used in prose. For example, the ideas of Olga Ivanovna, the heroine of Chekhov’s story “The Jumper”, are far from reality! about her role in the life of the artist Ryabovsky are emphasized by the repetition in her improperly direct speech of the word influence: (...) But, she thought, he created this under her influence, and in general, thanks to her influence, he changed a lot for the better. Her influence is so beneficial and significant that if she leaves him, he may perhaps die. In characterizing Ryabovsky, a significant role is played by the words he repeats, “I’m tired, how tired I am.”
Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal(Greek rhetorike - oratory). The definition of rhetorical, fixed in the names of these figures, indicates that they developed in oratorical prose, and then in artistic literature. Here, rhetorical questions, exclamations and appeals increase the emotionality of the statement and attract the reader’s attention to certain parts of the text. In grammar a rhetorical question defined as a sentence that is interrogative in form, but contains not a question, but a message. In literary literature, a rhetorical question can retain an interrogative meaning, but it is asked not with the goal of giving (or receiving) an answer, but with the goal of enhancing the emotional impact on the reader.
Rhetorical exclamations enhance the expressed feelings in a message:
How beautiful, how fresh the roses were in what garden! How they seduced my gaze! How I prayed to the spring frosts not to touch them with a cold hand!
The rhetorical appeal is directed not to the real interlocutor, but to the subject of the artistic depiction. Of the two functions inherent in an address – appealing and evaluative-characterizing (expressive, expressive) – the latter predominates in rhetorical appeal:
Master Earth! I bowed my forehead to you.(V. Solovyov)
Put me to sleep, ring the bell! Bear with me, three tired horses!
(Polonsky)
Rhetorical questions, exclamations and appeals are also used in prose, mainly in lyrical digressions (for example, in the well-known lyrical digressions in Gogol’s “Dead Souls”) and in cases where the author’s narrative transitions into improperly direct speech (for example, in “The White Guard” » Bulgakov: But the days, both in peaceful and bloody years, fly like an arrow, and the young Turbins did not notice how a white, shaggy December arrived in the bitter cold. Oh, our Christmas tree grandfather, sparkling with snow and happiness! Mom, bright queen, where are you?)
Default – a figure that gives the listener or reader the opportunity to guess and reflect on what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted utterance. An excellent example of silence that awakens deep thoughts and strong feelings is found in Bunin’s poem:
In the forest, in the mountain, there is a spring, alive and ringing, Above the spring there is an old cabbage roll with a blackened popular icon, And in the spring there is a birch bark.
I do not love, O Rus', your timid Millennial, slavish poverty. But this cross, but this ladle is white. . . Humble, dear features!
More examples of omissions in direct speech are from Chekhov’s “Lady with a Dog.” Anna Sergeevna's words: – (...) When I married him, I was twenty years old, I was tormented by curiosity, I wanted something better, because there is, I told myself, another life. I wanted to live! To live and live... Curiosity burned me. . . Gurov's words: - But understand, Anna, understand. . “- he said in a low voice, hurrying. “I beg you, understand.” . .
Ellipsis in literary literature acts as a figure with the help of which special expressiveness is achieved. At the same time, the connection between artistic ellipsis and colloquial expressions is clearly preserved. Most often the verb is omitted, which gives the text a special dynamism:
Let... But chu! This is not the time to walk! To the horses, brother, and the foot in the stirrup, out with the saber - and I’ll cut it! Here is a different feast that God gives us.
(D. Davydov)
In prose, ellipsis is used mainly in direct speech and in narration on behalf of the narrator. A few examples from Lermontov’s “Bela”: (...) If he was a little lazy, it would look like there was either a lasso on his neck or a bullet in the back of his head; Grigory Alexandrovich teased him so much that he could even throw himself into the water; Kazbich shuddered, changed his face - and went to the window; Well, that's an aside; Grigory Aleksandrovich squealed no worse than any Chechen; the gun out of the case, and there - I followed it.
Epiphora(Greek epiphora – repetition) – The figure opposite to anaphor is the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of a poetic line. Epiphora is much less common in Russian poetry than anaphora. Examples:
The number of steppes and roads is not over; No account found for stones and rapids.(E. Bagritsky).