What is memory? Types of memory

Human memory is an amazing gift that nature gave to people. Thanks to it, we can accumulate life experience and subsequently use it for our benefit. A person deprived of memory is helpless in this world, since every moment will be a discovery for him, but will bring benefit and satisfaction. There are situations in which a person’s memory deteriorates: we forget what happened quite recently. The disease can develop as a result of an earlier pathology in life. But if you have poor memory from birth, don’t worry: it can be developed.

What it is?

Human memory is considered as a subject of study within the framework of psychology. This is a person’s ability to accumulate and store information. On the other hand, in psychology, memory is defined as the ability to reproduce experiences, emotions from the past, remember the previous location of an object, etc. But the most important thing is that memory allows us to retain accumulated information about this world.

We know that the brain consists of two hemispheres. Thus, memory is studied not only in psychology, but also within the framework of physiology. It contains more than 20 billion interconnected cells. The right hemisphere is responsible for emotions, feelings, and the left for logical thinking. However, scientists still do not know exactly where a person’s memory is located and how the stored information is remembered.

To determine what kind of memory a person has and why it is needed, indicators should be derived for the following characteristics of this property. The general characteristics and classification of memory in the field of psychology will depend on the parameters. Here are their main types, characteristics and general classification:

Volume. Measuring the total memory capacity of an adult is very difficult, since in life we use only 4-10% of our brain resources. On average, the capacity of short-term memory can be 7 units of information. However, human capabilities are much greater, as stated in psychology. Researcher L.I. Kupriyanovich calculated that the human memory capacity is 125 million megabytes or more. But only 1% of humanity uses its memory to its fullest extent. Such people are considered geniuses. For example, Mozart could listen to a piece of music only once and then write down its score without errors. Alexander the Great could call all his soldiers by name. But what is amazing is that the memory capacity of any person allows them to display the same phenomenal abilities.
Memory speed. Depends on the degree of memory training. It is different for all people.
Accuracy. Depends on how correctly a person can reproduce the facts that he remembers.
Duration. Some people remember quickly, but remember for a short time, while others remember for a lifetime. The duration of memory also varies from person to person. It should also be taken into account that there are different types of memory based on the duration of information storage. Short-term memory is a type that allows you to remember information for a short time. Long-term memory as a type is distinguished by the fact that it allows you to remember information for a long time, sometimes for a lifetime. Depending on which memory a person uses and trains more, this type determines the duration of memorization.
Willingness to reproduce. Sometimes it happens that a person has taught, experienced, memorized, but at the right moment cannot remember already known facts. There is memory, but it does not reproduce events. Thus, its role in a person’s life seems to be reduced to nothing.

Main types

There are main types of memory depending on the characteristics:

Classification according to the nature of the goal: voluntary and involuntary. Using involuntary memory, we remember automatically. With the participation of voluntary memory, it is necessary to make efforts and use will.
Classification according to the method of memorization and the nature of mental activity: motor (or kinetic), emotional, figurative, visual, auditory, tactile, verbal-logical and logical. These types of memory correspond to a certain method of memorization: using movements, words, logical calculations, visual perception, images, etc.

Particular mention should be made of such basic types of memory as short-term and long-term. Short-term memory is characterized by information stored for 20 seconds. Memorization occurs after a brief perception of an object or information. The most important thing is remembered, but for the purpose of reproduction in the future, which is the role of this type.

The capacity of short-term memory is very individual. According to scientists, this is 7-9 units. However, today's scientists say that this parameter is too exaggerated. And we should talk about 3-4 units. In this case, a replacement process occurs. When short-term memory capacity becomes full, new information replaces what was previously learned, causing some previously learned information to disappear. For example, the last names and first names of many people with whom we were familiar before are gone and replaced by new ones. If you want to keep them in your memory, you need to make a strong-willed effort.

It is not difficult to guess what the functions and purpose of short-term memory are. It is necessary to process the huge amount of information received daily. The unnecessary is immediately removed, as a result a person can avoid brain overload.

The functions and purpose of long-term memory are exactly the opposite. Long-term memory stores information indefinitely. But in order to retain a certain amount of information for a long time, the necessary information must be constantly reproduced. There is a direct relationship between storing information and reproducing it. Since much information is distant from the present moment, it is necessary to ensure that it is constantly “at hand”. This is the only way long-term memory can preserve them.

There is another type of memory - RAM. Its functions and purpose are to store information for a certain period, limited by the task at hand. If the task is completed and the information is no longer needed, it is deleted. For example, a student who studies material for an exam will remember little of what he learned after passing it. This is explained by the action of RAM: the task was completed, the information was deleted.

Laws

A general description and classification of memory will be incomplete without mentioning its basic laws. They help people improve their memory by using certain patterns. This is their role and purpose:

Interest. Everything that is remembered should be interesting to a person.
Understanding. For adults and children, it is important how deeply the problem is thought through.
Installation. If a person has set himself the goal of assimilating a volume of information. He will definitely do it.
Action. If knowledge is used practically, memorization speeds up. Practice plays a big role in memory processes.
Context. New things are learned in context with old information.
Braking. New information overrides old information.
Optimal row length. This is a series of objects or phenomena that need to be remembered. The series should not exceed the capacity of short-term memory.
Edge. The peculiarities of memory are such that what comes at the beginning and end is remembered better.
Repetition. If information is repeated several times, it will be remembered better. Incompleteness. If the action is not completed, the phrase is unsaid, it will be better remembered.

To increase memory capacity and memorability, it is enough to know these laws and apply them to your benefit.

Processes

The general characterization of memory in the field of psychology refers to memory processes. Here are the main ones, their classification and characteristics:

Memorization. Consists of understanding, capturing, perceiving and experiencing new elements. The main thing to remember is to establish the relationship between elements and connect them into one whole.
Storage. These features of memory allow you to save the received material, process it and master it. Thanks to the stored information, a person manages to navigate the environment and not lose the experience gained. Long-term memory is responsible for this, which is its role and purpose.
Reproduction and recognition. These features allow you to recall information at the right time and apply it in practice. In reality, a previously seen object or phenomenon is recognized and related by the brain to events from past experience.
Forgetting. This is a loss of reproducibility. The functions and purpose of forgetting are to not overload the brain and periodically clear it of unnecessary information.

These basic functions determine the ability of memory to retain information for some time.

The general characteristics of memory highlight several more of its varieties. This classification is associated with different memory orientations:

Visual - its role in our life is to store visual images.
Motor - its role is to remember previous physical actions.
Episodic - can be long-term, but is mainly associated with episodes from our lives.
Semantic - can also be long-term, but is associated with knowledge about facts or verbal meanings. It is thanks to her that the multiplication table is kept in our memory all our lives.
Procedural is knowledge of how to perform certain actions, or, more simply put, algorithms.
Topographical - allows us to navigate in space and remember places we have already been to.

The general characteristics and classification of memory allowed scientists to develop some exercises to develop and increase its volume.

Basic mnemonic techniques and exercises

Techniques and exercises developed by scientists allow you to develop memory and increase its volume. Here are several types of such exercises:

Try to remember the initial letters in the phrase, and then reproduce it from them.
Write poems.
Memorize terms and long words using consonant familiar words.
Connect figurative associations.
Train your visual memory by remembering images.
Memorize numbers using patterns or familiar dates and combinations.

This simple general exercise scheme will quickly develop memory of various types.

Why might memory deteriorate?

There are many people who suffer from memory disorders of various types. We know that memory loss can occur after a serious illness, as a result of injury, or with age. Sclerosis (blockage of blood vessels in the brain), neurological diseases, skull injuries, congenital defects of the nervous system and brain affect the quality of memory.

If the memory disorder is caused by a disease, it is necessary to undergo drug treatment. Only after this can it be partially restored, although doctors never give an exact guarantee.

Age-related changes in the body also do not add to health. To keep all types of memory “alive”, you need to constantly train them. Crosswords, board games, riddles, and Japanese puzzles are perfect for this purpose. Exercises are very useful for children.

How can you improve your memory?

In addition to the mentioned mnemonic techniques, there are many ways to improve memory and increase its volume. Here is a general outline of what you need to do to improve your memory:

Don't be lazy. Memory must be constantly trained, otherwise there will be no result.
If you forgot something, do not try to immediately look in a book or reference book. Try to remember on your own.
When reading books, then try to retell the contents to someone close to you, naming the names of all, even the most insignificant characters. Don't overlook the small events in the book either.
Learn poems by heart, the order of numbers (for example, telephones). If you have a child who is in school, you can play a race with him to see who can learn the poem the fastest.
Work with numbers more often, solve problems. Mathematics has a great effect not only on logical thinking, but also on memory.
Try to always learn something new and reproduce information after a while. See how quickly your memory improves.
Remember the events of the previous day, what happened a week ago. This type of training will quickly increase your memory capacity and force your short-term memory to transfer information into long-term memory.
Learn languages. In addition to benefiting your own mental development, you will also benefit your memory. Learn at least 6-7 new words a day from any language in the world.
Be positive. Don't feel like you're constantly forgetting things. Think that you remember everything, and you really do.
Perceive information with all senses. If you need to remember something, come up with associations. It could be a smell, taste, picture, action that is associated with an event or object. Subsequently, remembering the association, you will be able to recall the necessary information in your memory.
Solve logical problems. Despite the fact that puzzles improve thinking processes, they also have a beneficial effect on memory processes.
Table. This is a proven way to train attention, memory and observation. In It, numbers from 1 to 20 are collected and scattered in different orders and written in different fonts. The task is to remember them or find them in a certain amount of time.

The quality of types of memory is greatly influenced by the daily routine that you adhere to. There are several rules for organizing the regime that will always preserve an excellent memory:

Get a good night's sleep. Lack of sleep contributes to memory and thinking disorders. Adequate sleep should be at least 7-8 hours.
Play sports, walk more often. Fresh air and physical exercise promote blood flow to the brain, improve blood circulation, and increase memory capacity.
Have breakfast. You cannot memorize information on an empty stomach. The brain needs nutrition, because it consumes up to 20% of the body’s total energy.
Fall in love. Love relationships, even just the state of falling in love, sharpen the senses, including memory.
Get rid of routine. Repeating the same actions every day dulls your memory. Try to change something in your life. Psychology claims that even the smallest changes improve a person’s condition. So, if you traditionally start your day with a cup of coffee, now try replacing it with juice or another drink. Such changes can sharpen feelings.
Eat right. There are foods that help improve memory. For example, mint leaves in tea, soy, citrus fruits are great foods to stimulate your memory.
Play computer games sometimes. Here it is worth emphasizing the word “sometimes,” since infatuation with them does not negatively affect the psyche. However, 1-2 puzzle games a week won't hurt.
Listen to music. Everything that awakens our senses also affects our memory. Music has the most powerful ability to awaken our emotions. It is thanks to her that we can improve our thinking.
Take life with interest. We remember what interests us. If a person is indifferent to everything, then memory stops working. Live with interest, then there will be something to remember.

Memory is a great gift of nature and must be protected. Preserve your memory and you will have a rich and vibrant life until the end of your days.

- Every time you can’t remember a name or the name of a place, make a note in your diary.
- What if I can’t remember about the diary?..

In this article, we will introduce you to the principles of memory, talk about techniques for memorizing and retrieving memories, share exercises, recommendations from scientists, and unexpected facts about memory. You will definitely remember this :)

How memory works

Did you know that the very word “memory” misleads us? It makes it seem like we're talking about one thing, one mental skill. But over the past fifty years, scientists have discovered that there are several different memory processes. For example, we have short-term and long-term memory.

Everyone knows that short term memory used when you need to hold a thought in your mind for about a minute (for example, a telephone number you are about to call). At the same time, it is very important not to think about anything else - otherwise you will immediately forget the number. This statement is true for both young and old people, but for the latter its relevance is still slightly higher. Short-term memory is involved in various processes, for example, it is used to track changes in numbers during addition or subtraction.

Long term memory b is responsible for everything that we need in more than a minute, even if during this period you were distracted by something else. Long-term memory is divided into procedural and declarative.

Procedural memory concerns activities such as riding a bicycle or playing the piano. Once you have learned to do this, subsequently your body will simply repeat the necessary movements - and this is controlled by procedural memory.
Declarative memory, in turn, is involved in the conscious retrieval of information, for example when you need to retrieve a shopping list. This type of memory can be either verbal (verbal) or visual (visual) and is divided into semantic and episodic memory.

Semantic memory refers to the meaning of concepts (particularly the names of people). Let us assume that knowledge of what a bicycle is belongs to this type of memory.
Episodic memory- to events. For example, knowing the last time you went on a bike ride appeals to your episodic memory. Part of episodic memory is autobiographical - it concerns various events and life experiences.

Finally we got to prospective memory- it refers to things you are going to do: call a car service, or buy a bouquet of flowers and visit your aunt, or clean the cat's litter box.

How memories are formed and returned

Memory is a mechanism that causes impressions received in the present to influence us in the future. For the brain, new experiences mean spontaneous neural activity. When something happens to us, clusters of neurons come into action, transmitting electrical impulses. Gene work and protein production create new synapses and stimulate the growth of new neurons.

But the process of forgetting is similar to how snow falls on objects, covering them with itself, from which they become white-white - so much so that you can no longer distinguish where everything was.

The impulse that triggers the retrieval of a memory - an internal (thought or feeling) or external event - causes the brain to associate it with an incident from the past. works as a kind of predictive device: it constantly prepares for the future based on the past. Memories condition our perception of the present by providing a “filter” through which we look and automatically assume what will happen next.

The mechanism for retrieving memories has an important property. It has only been thoroughly studied in the last twenty-five years: when we retrieve an encoded memory from internal storage, it is not necessarily recognized as something from the past.

Let's take cycling for example. You get on a bike and just ride, and clusters of neurons fire in your brain that allow you to pedal, balance, and brake. This is one type of memory: an event in the past (trying to learn to ride a bike) influenced your behavior in the present (you ride it), but you do not experience today's bike ride as a memory of the first time you managed to do it.

If we ask you to remember the very first time you rode a bicycle, you will think, scan your memory storage, and, say, you will have an image of your dad or older sister running after you, you will remember the fear and pain of the first fall or the delight of you managed to get to the nearest turn. And you will know for sure that you are remembering something from the past.

The two types of memory processing are closely related in our daily lives. Those that help us pedal are called implicit memories, and the ability to remember the day we learned to ride is called explicit memories.

Master of mosaics

We have short-term working memory, a slate of consciousness, on which we can place a picture at any given moment. And, by the way, it has a limited capacity where the images present in the foreground of consciousness are stored. But there are other types of memory.

In the left hemisphere, the hippocampus generates factual and linguistic knowledge; in the right - organizes the “building blocks” of life history by time and topics. All this work makes the memory “search engine” more efficient. The hippocampus can be compared to a jigsaw puzzle: it connects individual fragments of images and sensations of implicit memories into complete “pictures” of factual and autobiographical memory.

If the hippocampus is suddenly damaged, for example due to a stroke, memory will also be impaired. Daniel Siegel told this story in his book: “Once at a dinner with friends, I met a man with this problem. He politely told me that he had had several bilateral hippocampal strokes and asked me not to be offended if I went away for a second to get myself some water and he didn’t remember me later. And sure enough, I returned with a glass in my hands, and we introduced ourselves to each other again.”

Like some types of sleeping pills, alcohol is notorious for temporarily shutting down our hippocampus. However, the state of blackout caused by alcohol is not the same as temporary loss of consciousness: the person is conscious (although incapacitated), but does not encode what is happening in explicit form. People experiencing such memory lapses may not remember how they got home or how they met the person with whom they woke up in the same bed in the morning.

The hippocampus also shuts down when angry, and people who suffer from uncontrollable rage are not necessarily lying when they claim not to remember what they said or did in this altered state of consciousness.

How to test your memory

Psychologists use different techniques to test memory. Some of them can be done independently at home.

Verbal memory test. Ask someone to read 15 words to you (only unrelated words: “bush, bird, hat”, etc.). Repeat them: people under 45 usually remember about 7-9 words. Then listen to this list four more times. Norm: reproduce 12–15 words. Go about your business and after 15 minutes repeat the words (but only from memory). Most middle-aged people cannot reproduce more than 10 words.
Visual memory test. Draw this complex diagram, and after 20 try to draw it from memory. The more details you remember, the better your memory is.

How memory is related to the senses

According to scientist Michael Merzenich, “One of the most important conclusions drawn from the results of the recent study is that the senses (hearing, vision, and others) are closely related to memory and cognitive abilities. Because of this interdependence, the weakness of one often means, or even causes, the weakness of the other.

For example, it is known that patients suffering from Alzheimer's disease gradually lose their memory. And one of the manifestations of this disease is that they begin to eat less. It turned out that since the symptoms of this disease include visual impairment, patients (among other reasons) simply do not see food...

Another example concerns normal age-related changes in cognitive functioning. As a person ages, he becomes more and more forgetful and absent-minded. This is largely explained by the fact that the brain no longer processes sensory signals as well as before. As a result, we lose the ability to retain new visual images of our experiences as clearly as before, and we subsequently have trouble using and retrieving them.”

By the way, it is curious that exposure to blue light enhances the reaction to emotional stimuli of the hypothalamus and amygdala, that is, the areas of the brain responsible for organizing attention and memory. So looking at all shades of blue is helpful.

Techniques and exercises for memory training

The first and most important thing you need to know to have a good memory is. Studies have shown that the hippocampus, responsible for spatial memory, is enlarged in taxi drivers. This means that the more often you engage in activities that use your memory, the better you improve it.

And also here are a few more techniques that will help you develop your memory, improve your ability to recall and remember everything you need.

1. Go crazy!

Memory is a universal cognitive process.

Memory is a combination of three processes: 1) memorization, 2) storage, 3) recall.

Memorization is the process of acquiring knowledge or the process of forming a skill. In two types it is designated: 1) imprinting (does not involve any effort on the part of the subject, everything happens simultaneously, the extreme option is imprinting); 2) memorization (a person makes some effort, the process unfolds over time).

Recall is the process of updating knowledge or skill (sometimes called the process of retrieving knowledge). In what form can this occur: 1) the process of implicit remembering - a remembering process in which the task of remembering something is not set at all (the process of generating associations); 2) explicit recall - the task of recall is set. Possible options: 1. recognition (test); 2. reproduction (without answer options, retrieval from memory).

Modern psychology is more interested in conservation processes. They have not been studied very well. Retention – retention of knowledge or retention of skills over a period of time (gradual development, changes).

Types of memory.

Subject classification. Blonsky. 4 types of memory: 1) motor (motor); 2) affective; 3) figurative; 4) verbal-logical.

Motor memory – motor skills. It was first studied in behaviorism (Watson, Thorndike, Skinner).

Affective memory is memory for emotions, they tend to accumulate. First pointed out by Ribot. Freud studied in detail.

Figurative memory. G. Ebbinghaus. Memory is the connection of two ideas, one gives rise to the other. Representation is an image.

Verbal-logical memory. It was first described in the works of Janet, who denied all other types of memory. Memory is a story.

Functional classification.

By process (memorization, preservation, recall). Forgetting is a type of remembering.

By connections (subject connections of memory (Ebbinghaus) and semantic connections (memory as restoration)).

According to the presence of conscious intention (whether there is a goal to remember or not): involuntary and voluntary memory. Relevant for classical psychology. We were investigated by Zinchenko and Smirnov. They concluded that what is remembered (involuntarily) is material that corresponds to the main stream of activity.

According to the presence of a means of memorization (Vygotsky: memory knots, write down, keep a diary): direct and indirect memory. This brings to mind the parallelogram of development

According to the duration of information storage (Atkinson and Shifrin): ultra-short-term or instantaneous memory (sensory register; 1 second, maybe 3), short-term (up to a minute) and long-term (indefinitely long time).

Types of long-term memory: autobiographical (memory associated with a person’s personality, for events in one’s own life); semantic memory (general knowledge; for example, knowing the meaning of words). This division was first introduced by Henri Bergson. The terms were proposed by Endel Tulving (1972). Bergson used his own terms: memory of the body (semantic) and memory of the spirit (autobiographical). Memory of the spirit is immediate and permanent, memory of the body is training, gradually.

Genetic classification(according to antiquity). Blonsky puts forward arguments in favor of considering the 4 types of memory that he identified as stages of its development. Ontogenetic and phylogenetic arguments: 1. The most ancient type of memory is motor memory. In the ontogenetic argument, this memory occurs earlier than others (in the first few days, the child demonstrates sucking movements in the feeding position). Phylogeny – protozoans have the simplest forms of motor memory. 2. Affective memory appears after motor memory (in the first few months). Ontogenesis: Watson showed the children a rabbit and pulled out the rug - fears arise. In phylogeny - experiments with worms in labyrinths. 3. Figurative memory (develops until late childhood). In ontogenesis, researchers disagree about when images appear in a child: at 6 months or at 2 years. In phylogeny, one animal psychologist claimed that his dog dreams. The people we call savages have images. Perhaps even more developed than those of Europeans. 4. Verbal-logical memory. Does not exist in phylogeny. In ontogenesis, it appears at 6-7 years of age and develops until adolescence and beyond. The destruction of memory goes from higher to lower (from verbal-logical and further).

All living beings have memory, but it has reached the highest level of development in humans. Memory connects the past with the present. It is memory that allows a person to be aware of his “I”, to act in the world around him, to be who he is. Human memory is a form of mental reflection, consisting in the accumulation, consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction by an individual of his experience. Ours is a functional formation that does its work through the interaction of three main processes: memorization, storage and reproduction of information. These processes not only interact, there is a mutual conditionality between them. After all, you can only save what you remember, and reproduce what you save.

Memorization. Human memory begins with memorizing information: words, images, impressions. The main task of the memorization process is to remember accurately, quickly and a lot. There is a distinction between involuntary and voluntary memorization. Voluntary memorization is activated when the goal is to remember not only what is imprinted in his memory, but also what is necessary. Voluntary memorization is active, purposeful, and has a volitional beginning.

What is personally significant, connected with a person’s activities and his interests, has the nature of involuntary memorization. When remembering involuntarily, a person is passive. Involuntary memorization clearly demonstrates such a property of memory as selectivity. If you ask different people what they remember most about the same wedding, some will easily tell you who gave what gifts to the newlyweds, others - what they ate and drank, others - what music they danced to, etc. However, neither the first, nor the second, nor the third set themselves a clear goal of remembering something specifically. Selectivity of memory worked.

It is worth mentioning the “Zeigarnik effect” (it was first described in 1927 by the Soviet psychologist Bluma Vulfovna Zeigarnik (1900-1988): a person involuntarily remembers incomplete actions, situations that have not received a natural resolution, much better.

If we were unable to finish drinking something, eating something, or getting what we wanted, while being close to the goal, then this is remembered thoroughly and for a long time, and what was successfully completed is forgotten quickly and easily. The reason is that an unfinished action is a source of strong negative ones, which are much more powerful than positive ones in terms of impact.

Many scientists have studied memory techniques. In particular, the German psychologist G. Ebbinghaus formulated a number of principles of memorization. He believed that repetition (indirect or direct) is the only relative guarantee of the reliability of memorization. Moreover, the result of memorization depends to a certain extent on the number of repetitions. Ebbinghaus's law states: the number of repeated presentations required to learn the entire series grows much faster than the object of the presented series. If a subject remembers 8 digits from one presentation (display), then to memorize 9 digits he will need 3-4 presentations. The scientist also emphasizes the importance of the volitional factor. The higher the concentration of attention on any information, the faster the memorization will occur.

However, it has been found that rote repetition is less effective than meaningful memorization. The direction of modern psychology - mnemonics - is engaged in the development of numerous memorization techniques based on the principle of associative connection: translating information into images, graphs, pictures, diagrams.

Highlight four types of human memory in accordance with the type of material being remembered.
1. Motor memory, i.e. the ability to remember and reproduce a system of motor operations (drive a car, braid a braid, tie a tie, etc.).
2. Figurative memory - the ability to save and further use the data of our perception. It can be (depending on the receiving analyzer) auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory and gustatory.
3. Emotional memory captures the feelings we have experienced, the characteristics of emotional states and affects. A child who is frightened by a large dog, most likely, even as an adult, will experience hostility towards these animals for a long time (memory of fear).
4. Verbal memory (verbal-logical, semantic) is the highest type of memory, inherent only to humans. With its help, most mental actions and operations are carried out (counting, reading, etc.), and the information base of the human is formed.

Different people have more developed one or another type of memory: athletes have motor memory, artists have figurative memory, etc.

Saving information. The main requirement for human memory is to store information reliably, for a long time and without loss. There are several levels of memory, differing in how long information can be stored on each of them.

1. Sensory (immediate) type of memory. These memory systems hold accurate and complete data about how the world is perceived by our senses at the receptor level. Data is stored for 0.1-0.5 seconds. The way sensory memory works is easy to spot: close your eyes, then open them for a second and close them again. The clear picture you see remains for some time, and then slowly disappears.
2. Short-term memory allows you to process a colossal amount of information without overloading the brain, due to the fact that it weeds out everything unnecessary and leaves the useful, necessary for solving current (momentary) problems.
3. Long-term memory ensures long-term storage and application of information. The capacity and duration of storing information in long-term memory can be unlimited. There are two types of long-term memory. The first is at the level of consciousness. A person can remember in his own way and extract the necessary information. The second type is closed long-term memory, in which information is stored at the subconscious level. Under normal conditions, a person does not have access to this information; only with the help of psychoanalytic procedures, in particular hypnosis, as well as stimulation of various parts of the brain, can one gain access to it and update images, thoughts, and experiences in all details.
4. Intermediate memory is between short-term and long-term memory. It ensures that information is stored for several hours. While awake, a person accumulates information throughout the day. To prevent the brain from being overloaded, it is necessary to free it from unnecessary information. Information accumulated over the past day is cleared, categorized and stored in long-term memory during night sleep. Scientists have found that this requires at least three hours of sleep a night.
5. Working memory is a type of human memory that manifests itself during the performance of a certain activity and serves this activity.

Playback. The requirements for the process of memory reproduction are accuracy and timeliness. In psychology, there are four forms of reproduction:
1) recognition - occurs when repeating the perception of objects and phenomena;
2) memory - carried out in the real absence of perceived objects. Typically, memories are carried out through associations that provide automatic, involuntary reproduction;
3) remembering - is carried out in the absence of a perceived object and is associated with active volitional activity to update information;
4) reminiscence - delayed reproduction of something previously perceived and seemingly forgotten. With this form of memory retrieval, events that are more recent are recalled more easily and accurately than those that happened in the recent past.

Forgetting is the flip side of memory retention. This is a process that leads to a loss of clarity and a reduction in the amount of data that can be updated in . Mostly forgetting is not an anomaly of memory, it is a natural process that is caused by a number of factors.
1. Time - in less than an hour a person mechanically forgets half of the information he has just received.
2. Active use of available information - what is forgotten first of all is what is not constantly needed. However, childhood impressions and motor skills, such as skating, playing a musical instrument, and swimming, remain quite stable for many years without any exercise. It remains on a subconscious level, as if something that disturbs the psychological balance and causes negative tension (traumatic impressions) is forgotten.

Information in our memory is not stored unchanged, like documents in an archive. In memory, the material is subject to change and qualitative reconstruction.

Human memory disorders. Various memory disorders are very common, although most people do not notice them or notice them too late. The very concept of “normal memory” is quite vague. Hyperfunction of memory is usually associated with strong excitement, feverish excitement, taking certain medications or hypnotic effects. A form of intrusive memories is a violation of emotional balance, feelings of uncertainty and anxiety, creating a thematic focus of memory hyperfunction. For example, we constantly remember our extremely unpleasant, unseemly actions. It is almost impossible to expel such memories: they haunt us, cause a feeling of shame and torment of conscience.

In practice, weakening of memory function and partial loss of storing or reproducing existing information are more common. Weakening of selective reduction, difficulties in reproducing material needed at the moment (titles, dates, names, terms, etc.) are considered to be the earliest manifestations of memory deterioration. Then, the weakening of memory can take the form of progressive amnesia, the causes of which are alcoholism, trauma, age-related and negative personality changes, sclerosis, and diseases.

In modern psychology, there are known facts of memory deceptions, which take the form of extremely one-sided selectivity of memories, false memories and memory distortions. They are usually caused by strong desires, passions, and unmet needs. For example, when a child is given sweets, he quickly eats it, and then “forgets” about it and sincerely proves that he did not receive anything.

Memory distortion is often associated with a weakening of the ability to distinguish between one’s own and someone else’s, between what a person experienced in reality and what he heard about, saw in movies or read. In the case of repeated repetitions of such memories, their complete personification occurs, i.e. a person begins to consider other people's thoughts as his own. The presence of facts of memory deception indicates how closely it is connected with human fantasy.

Material from Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia

Memory is a general designation for a complex of cognitive abilities and higher mental functions for the accumulation, preservation and reproduction of knowledge and skills. Memory in various forms and types is inherent in all higher animals. The most developed level of memory is characteristic of humans.

Hermann Ebbinghaus is considered a pioneer in the study of human memory, who conducted experiments on himself (the main technique was memorizing meaningless lists of words or syllables).

Memory in neurophysiology

Memory is one of the properties of the nervous system, which consists in the ability for some time to retain information about events in the external world and the body’s reactions to these events, as well as to repeatedly reproduce and change this information.

Memory is characteristic of animals that have a sufficiently developed central nervous system (CNS). The volume of memory, the duration and reliability of information storage, as well as the ability to perceive complex environmental signals and develop adequate reactions, are proportional to the number of nerve cells involved in these processes.

According to modern concepts, memory is an integral part of processes such as

Memory and learning

Memory and learning are aspects of the same process. Learning usually means mechanisms for acquiring and fixing information, and memory means mechanisms for storing and retrieving this information.

Learning processes can be divided into non-associative and associative. Non-associative learning is considered to be evolutionarily more ancient and does not imply a connection between what is remembered and any other stimuli. Associative is based on the formation of a connection between several stimuli. For example, the classic version of developing a conditioned reflex according to Pavlov: establishing a connection between a neutral conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that causes an unconditioned reflex response.

Unconditioned reflexes are not included in this classification, since they are carried out on the basis of inherited patterns of connections between nerve cells.

Non-associative learning is divided into summation, habituation, long-term potentiation and imprinting.

Summation

Summation is a gradual increase in response to repeated presentations of a previously indifferent stimulus. The result of summation is to ensure the body’s response to weak but long-acting stimuli that could potentially have some consequences for the life of the individual.

In a normal situation, the reaction develops as follows: a strong stimulus causes a whole packet of action potentials in the sensitive neuron, which leads to a large release of the transmitter from the synaptic ending of the axon of the sensitive neuron to the motor neuron, and this is sufficient for the emergence of a suprathreshold postsynaptic potential and the triggering of an action potential in the motor neuron .

A different situation is observed during the development of summation.

One scenario for the development of summation involves the rhythmic use of a series of weak stimuli, each of which is insufficient to release the transmitter into the synaptic cleft. Moreover, if the stimulation frequency is high enough, then calcium ions accumulate in the presynaptic terminal, since the ion pumps do not have time to pump them out into the intercellular environment. As a result, the next action potential can cause the release of a transmitter, which is enough to excite the postsynaptic motor neuron. If, at the same time, the rhythmic stimulation with subthreshold stimuli is not interrupted, then incoming action potentials will continue to trigger the reflex, since the high Ca 2+ content at the end of the sensitive neuron remains. If you pause the stimulation, Ca 2+ will be removed and preliminary summation will again be required to trigger the reflex with weak stimuli.

Another scenario for the development of summation is observed with a single but strong stimulation, as a result of which a highly sensitive series of impulses arrives at the presynaptic ending on the motor neuron, leading to the entry into the terminal of a large number of Ca2+ ions, which is enough to excite the next neuron in the chain with a previously subthreshold stimulus. The duration of this effect can be seconds.

The ability to summarize appears to underlie short-term neurological memory. By receiving any information through the system of analyzers (looking closely, listening, sniffing, carefully tasting a food seasoning that is new to us), we provide rhythmic stimulation of the synapses through which the sensory signal passes. These synapses remain highly excitable for several minutes, facilitating the conduction of impulses, and thus maintaining a trace of the transmitted information. However, summation, being an evolutionarily early learning mechanism, quickly disappears and cannot withstand any strong external influences on the body.

addictive

With repeated stimulation of medium strength, the reaction to it weakens or disappears altogether. This phenomenon is called “habituation” (or “habituation”).

The reasons for addiction are varied and the first of them is the adaptation of receptors. The second reason is the accumulation of Ca2+ in presynaptic endings on inhibitory neurons. In this case, repeated signals, initially insignificant for inhibitory neurons, are gradually summed up, and then trigger inhibitory neurons, the activity of which blocks the passage of signals along the reflex arc. Habituation can be viewed as a summation of inhibitory signals. It must be emphasized that summation and habituation, like other forms of synaptic plasticity, are simply a consequence of the structure of synapses and the organization of neurons.

Long-term potentiation

Long-term potentiation occurs when an animal is presented with a stimulus that it recognizes, but which is too weak to elicit a response. After a long pause (1 - 2 hours), the animal is presented with a strong stimulus that causes the reaction under study. The next stimulation is carried out after another 1 - 2 hours using a weak signal that previously did not trigger the reflex. In animals whose nervous system is capable of long-term potentiation, a reflex response occurs. In the future, the interval between strong and weak stimulation can be increased to 5 or even 10 hours, and the excitability of the nervous system will remain elevated all the time.

Long-term potentiation can be considered a variant of “long-term” short-term memory, extending to the daytime period of a person’s wakefulness - from morning to evening.

Imprinting

This phenomenon is defined as stable individual selectivity in relation to external stimuli during certain periods of ontogenesis. The most well-known variants of imprinting are: remembering the parent by the child; remembering the baby by the parent; imprinting of a future sexual partner.

Unlike a conditioned reflex, this connection, firstly, is formed only during a strictly defined period of the animal’s life; secondly, it is formed without reinforcement; thirdly, in the future it turns out to be very stable, practically not subject to extinction and can persist throughout the life of the individual. It was shown that imprintin is accompanied by activation of neurons in the intermediate region of the medioventral hyperstriatum. Damage to this area disrupted both imprinting and other types of memory in chickens.

In the process of memorization/learning according to the imprinting type, contacts between groups of neurons of one nucleus are established with strictly defined groups of another nucleus. As learning progresses, either the size of neurons, their number within the corresponding structures, the number of spines and synaptic contacts may increase - or the number of neurons, synaptic connections and NMDA receptors in synapses may even decrease, but the affinity of the remaining receptors for a specific transmitter will increase.

We can propose the following model for the development of imprinting.

Glutamic acid released from the end of the neuron acts on metabotropic receptors on the surface of the postsynaptic neuron and triggers the production of a secondary (intracellular) messenger (for example, cAMP). The secondary messenger, through a cascade of regulatory reactions, enhances the synthesis of proteins that form new synapses to glutamate, which are embedded in the neuron membrane in such a way as to capture signals from the most active presynaptic ending, which transmits information about the characteristics of the imprinted object. The insertion of new receptors into the membrane increases the efficiency of synaptic transmission, and the sum of evoked postsynaptic potentials from incoming signals reaches a threshold level. Then APs will occur and the behavioral response will be triggered.

It should be emphasized that neurochemical and synaptic changes do not occur instantly, but take time. For successful imprinting, it is important to have stable sensory “pressure” on the learning neuron, for example, the constant presence of the mother. If this condition is not met, then imprinting does not occur at all.

Trained neurons are able to maintain the concentration of receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the “imprinted” synapse at a constant high level, which ensures the stability of imprinting, allowing it to be considered as a specific version of long-term memory.

Associative learning

Associative learning is based on the formation of a connection (association) between two stimuli. As an example, we can consider the formation of a conditioned reflex, when a signal is simultaneously sent to one neuron both from some minor stimulus and from the center of positive reinforcement from the hypothalamus. In this case, it is likely that different second messengers are generated at different postsynaptic sites, and changes in the expression of receptor genes for neurotransmitters acting on a given neuron will be due to the total effect of these second messengers.

Memory and sleep

Work on the study of sleep deprivation on memory processes shows that sleep-deprived people reproduce several times less material compared to people who were not deprived of sleep. With 36 hours of deprivation, a 40% deterioration in the ability to reproduce material is observed. An interesting pattern is revealed if we separately analyze the influence of sleep on the ability to reproduce material of different emotional tones. First, the results indicate that emotionally charged material is remembered better than emotionally neutral material, regardless of the amount of sleep. This is consistent with the position that memory consolidation occurs with significant participation of reinforcement systems that shape emotions. In addition, it turns out that although memory deterioration during sleep deprivation is observed in all cases, the intensity of this effect significantly depends on the emotional coloring of the material. The greatest difficulty is in reproducing emotionally neutral and especially emotionally positive material. While changes in the reproduction of emotionally negative material are small and statistically unreliable.

Research on the role of daytime sleep on the formation of procedural memory shows that with instrumental learning, people show improvement in skills only after sleep - lasting at least a few hours, regardless of whether they slept during the day or at night.

There is no unambiguous answer to the question about all the mechanisms of connection between the processes of sleep and memory, just as there is no answer to the question about possible compensatory mechanisms that develop after certain influences on brain structures usually involved in the processes of sleep and memory. Some researchers criticize the connection between sleep mechanisms and memory mechanisms, arguing either that sleep generally plays only a passive (albeit positive) role in memorization, reducing the negative interference of memory traces, or that REM sleep is not involved in memory processes. The following groups of arguments are given in favor of the latter position:

Behavioral: all experiments studying REM sleep deprivation using the “island method” (an experimental animal is placed in conditions where, if it loses posture - which is inevitable in the REM sleep stage - it falls into the water and wakes up) cannot be considered convincing, due to the inadequacy of the methodology.
Pharmacological: all three main classes of antidepressants (MAO inhibitors, tricyclics and serotonin reuptake inhibitors) completely or almost completely suppress REM sleep, but do not cause learning and memory impairment in either patients or experimental animals.
Clinical: there are several reports of patients with bilateral destruction of the pons - in such patients REM sleep completely and, apparently, disappeared forever, but no complaints of learning and memory impairment were reported from such patients.

Memory and stress

Memory and Morality

People tend to repeatedly commit immoral acts, as the brain suppresses memories of its own such behavior. However, the serious consequences of “bad” actions limit the possibilities of immoral amnesia.

Memory and physical activity

Scientists from the University of California (USA) have proven the connection between exercise and memory. Regular exercise helps increase the levels of glutamic and gamma-aminobutyric acids in the brain, which are necessary for many processes of mental activity and mood. Performing exercises for 20 minutes is enough to increase the concentration of these compounds and improve memory processes.

Genetics of memory

Memory processes

Memorization is a memory process through which traces are imprinted, new elements of sensations, perceptions, thoughts or experiences are introduced into the system of associative connections. Memorization can be voluntary or involuntary; the basis of voluntary memorization is the establishment of semantic connections - the result of the work of thinking on the content of the memorized material.
Storage is the process of accumulating material in the memory structure, including its processing and assimilation. Saving experience makes it possible for a person to learn, develop his perceptual (internal assessments, perception of the world) processes, thinking and speech.
Reproduction and recognition is the process of updating elements of past experience (images, thoughts, feelings, movements). A simple form of reproduction is recognition - recognizing a perceived object or phenomenon as already known from past experience, establishing similarities between the object and its image in memory. Reproduction can be voluntary or involuntary. With involuntary, the image emerges in consciousness without a person’s effort.

If difficulties arise during the reproduction process, then the process of remembering occurs. Selection of elements needed from the point of view of the required task. The reproduced information is not an exact copy of what is captured in memory. Information is always transformed and restructured.

Forgetting is the loss of the ability to reproduce, and sometimes even recognize, what was previously remembered. What is most often forgotten is what is insignificant. Forgetting can be partial (reproduction is incomplete or with an error) and complete (impossibility of reproduction and recognition). There are temporary and long-term forgetting.

Theoretical models of memory in psychology

The sensory processes that form the visuospatial sketch as well as the phonological loop in Baddeley's model of memory are considered within the framework of Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart's level of processing model as reprocessing processes.

Classification of types of memory

There are different typologies of memory:

At the junction between episodic and semantic memory, autobiographical memory is distinguished, which includes features of both.

You can construct another classification based on memory content:

Procedural (memory for actions) and declarative (memory for names). Within the framework of the latter, episodic (memory for events and phenomena of a person’s individual life) and semantic (knowledge of things that do not depend on a person’s individual life) are distinguished.

Sensory memory

Sensory memory stores stimulus information that occurs when stimuli are applied to the senses. Sensory memory stores sensory information after the stimulus has ceased.

Iconic memory

A type of sensory memory is iconic memory. Iconic memory is a discrete sensory recorder of visual stimuli. A feature of iconic memory is the recording of information in a holistic, portrait form.

The experiments of George Sperling are associated with the study of iconic sensory memory and its volume. In his experiments, Sperling used both the “Whole Report Procedure” and his own development, the “Partial Report Procedure”. Due to the transience of iconic memory, the general report procedure did not allow for an objective assessment of the volume of information recorded in sensory memory, since during the reporting process itself, the portrait information was “forgotten” and erased from the sensory iconic memory. The partial report procedure showed that 75% of the visual field is recorded in iconic memory. Sperling's experiments showed that information fades quickly in iconic memory (within tenths of a second). It was also found that the processes associated with iconic memory are not controlled mentally. Even when subjects could not observe the symbols, they still reported that they continued to see them. Thus, the subject of the memorization process does not distinguish between the content of iconic memory and objects that are in the environment.

The erasure of information in iconic memory by other sensory information allows the visual sense to be more receptive. This property of iconic memory - erasure - ensures the storage of information in iconic memory, given its limited volume, even if the rate of receipt of sensory information exceeds the rate of attenuation of sensory information in iconic memory. Studies have shown that if visual information arrives quickly enough (up to 100 milliseconds), then new information is superimposed on the previous one, which is still in memory, without having time to fade in it and move to another level of memory - a more long-term one. This feature of iconic memory is called reverse masking effect . So, if you show a letter, and then for 100 milliseconds at the same position in the visual field - a ring, then the subject will perceive the letter in the ring.

Echoic memory

Echoic memory stores stimulus information received through the auditory organs.

Tactile memory

Tactile memory registers stimulus information received through the somatosensory system.

Long-term and short-term memory

Short-term memory

a person will be able to remember much more letters because he is able to group (combine into chains) information about semantic groups of letters (in the English original: FBIPHDTWAIBM and FBI PHD TWA IBM). Herbert Simon also showed that the ideal size for sequences of letters and numbers, whether meaningful or not, is three units. Perhaps in some countries this is reflected in the tendency to represent a telephone number as several groups of 3 digits and a final group of 4 digits, divided into 2 groups of two.

There are hypotheses that short-term memory relies primarily on an acoustic (verbal) code to store information and to a lesser extent on a visual code. In his study (), Conrad showed that subjects have a more difficult time recalling sets of words that are acoustically similar.

Modern studies of ant communication have proven that ants are capable of remembering and transmitting information up to 7 bits. Moreover, the impact of possible grouping of objects on message length and transmission efficiency is shown. In this sense, the law “Magic number 7±2” is also true for ants.

Long-term memory

Long-term memory is maintained by more stable and unchanging changes in neural connections widely distributed throughout the brain. The hippocampus is important in consolidating information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not appear to actually store information there. Rather, the hippocampus is involved in changes in neural connections after 3 months of initial learning.

Description of memory in mnemonics

Memory properties

Accuracy
Volume
Speed of memorization processes
Speed of forgetting processes

Patterns of memory revealed in mnemonics

Memory has a volume limited by the number of stable processes that are supporting when creating associations (connections, relationships)

The success of recall depends on the ability to switch attention to supporting processes and restore them. Basic technique: sufficient number and frequency of repetitions.

There is a pattern called the forgetting curve.

Mnemonic “laws” of memory

Law of Memory	Practical implementation methods
Law of Interest	Interesting things are easier to remember.
Law of comprehension	The more deeply you understand the information you are remembering, the better it will be remembered.
Law of installation	If a person has instructed himself to remember information, then memorization will happen easier.
Law of Action	Information that is involved in an activity (i.e., if knowledge is applied in practice) is remembered better.
Law of Context	By associating information with already familiar concepts, new things are learned better.
Law of inhibition	When studying similar concepts, the effect of “overlapping” old information with new information is observed.
Law of optimal row length	For better memorization, the length of the memorized series should not significantly exceed the capacity of short-term memory.
Law of the edge	Information presented at the beginning and end is best remembered.
Law of Repetition	Information that is repeated several times is remembered best (see forgetting curve).
Law of Incompleteness (Zeigarnik Effect)	Unfinished actions, tasks, unsaid phrases, etc. are best remembered.

Mnemonic memory techniques

Mythology, religion, philosophy of memory

In ancient Greek mythology there is a myth about the river Lethe. Lethe means "oblivion" and is an integral part of the kingdom of the dead. The dead are those who have lost their memory. On the contrary, some who were given preference, among them Tiresias or Amphiaraus, retained their memory even after their death.
The opposite of the river Lethe is the Goddess Mnemosyne, personified Memory, sister of Kronos and Okeanos - the mother of all muses. She has Omniscience: according to Hesiod (Theogony, 32 38), she knows “everything that was, everything that is, and everything that will be.” When the poet is possessed by the muses, he drinks from the source of knowledge of Mnemosyne, this means, first of all, that he touches the knowledge of “sources”, “beginnings”.
According to Plato's philosophy, Anamnesis is recollection, recollection is a concept that describes the basic procedure of the process of cognition.

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Notes

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Passage characterizing Memory

After talking for some time in a general circle, Speransky stood up and, going up to Prince Andrei, called him with him to the other end of the room. It was clear that he considered it necessary to deal with Bolkonsky.
“I didn’t have time to talk to you, prince, in the midst of that animated conversation in which this venerable old man was involved,” he said, smiling meekly and contemptuously, and with this smile, as if admitting that he, together with Prince Andrei, understands the insignificance of those people with whom he just spoke. This appeal flattered Prince Andrei. - I have known you for a long time: firstly, in your case about your peasants, this is our first example, which would so much like more followers; and secondly, because you are one of those chamberlains who did not consider themselves offended by the new decree on court ranks, which is causing such talk and gossip.
“Yes,” said Prince Andrei, “my father did not want me to use this right; I started my service from the lower ranks.
– Your father, a man of the old century, obviously stands above our contemporaries, who so condemn this measure, which restores only natural justice.
“I think, however, that there is a basis in these condemnations...” said Prince Andrei, trying to fight the influence of Speransky, which he was beginning to feel. It was unpleasant for him to agree with him on everything: he wanted to contradict. Prince Andrei, who usually spoke easily and well, now felt difficulty in expressing himself when speaking with Speransky. He was too busy observing the personality of the famous person.
“There may be a basis for personal ambition,” Speransky quietly added his word.
“Partly for the state,” said Prince Andrei.
“What do you mean?...” said Speransky, quietly lowering his eyes.
“I am an admirer of Montesquieu,” said Prince Andrei. - And his idea that le principe des monarchies est l "honneur, me parait incontestable. Certains droits et privileges de la noblesse me paraissent etre des moyens de soutenir ce sentiment. [the basis of monarchies is honor, it seems to me undoubted. Some rights and the privileges of the nobility seem to me to be a means of maintaining this feeling.]
The smile disappeared from Speransky’s white face and his face gained a lot from this. He probably found Prince Andrei’s idea interesting.
“Si vous envisagez la question sous ce point de vue, [If that’s how you look at the subject,” he began, pronouncing French with obvious difficulty and speaking even more slowly than in Russian, but completely calmly. He said that honor, l "honneur, cannot be supported by advantages harmful to the course of service, that honor, l "honneur, is either: the negative concept of not doing reprehensible acts, or a well-known source of competition for obtaining approval and awards expressing it.
His arguments were concise, simple and clear.
The institution that supports this honor, the source of competition, is an institution similar to the Legion d'honneur [Order of the Legion of Honor] of the great Emperor Napoleon, which does not harm, but promotes the success of the service, and not class or court advantage.
“I don’t argue, but it cannot be denied that the court advantage achieved the same goal,” said Prince Andrei: “every courtier considers himself obliged to bear his position with dignity.”
“But you didn’t want to use it, prince,” said Speransky, smiling, indicating that he wanted to end the argument, which was awkward for his interlocutor, with courtesy. “If you do me the honor of welcoming me on Wednesday,” he added, “then I, after talking with Magnitsky, will tell you what may interest you, and in addition I will have the pleasure of talking with you in more detail.” “He closed his eyes, bowed, and a la francaise, [in the French manner], without saying goodbye, trying to be unnoticed, he left the hall.

During the first time of his stay in St. Petersburg, Prince Andrei felt his entire mindset, developed in his solitary life, completely obscured by those petty worries that gripped him in St. Petersburg.
In the evening, returning home, he wrote down in a memory book 4 or 5 necessary visits or rendez vous [meetings] at the appointed hours. The mechanism of life, the order of the day in such a way as to be everywhere on time, took up a large share of the energy of life itself. He did nothing, didn’t even think about anything and didn’t have time to think, but only spoke and successfully said what he had previously thought about in the village.
He sometimes noticed with displeasure that he happened to repeat the same thing on the same day, in different societies. But he was so busy all day that he didn’t have time to think about the fact that he didn’t think anything.
Speransky, both on his first meeting with him at Kochubey’s, and then in the middle of the house, where Speransky, face to face, having received Bolkonsky, spoke with him for a long time and trustingly, made a strong impression on Prince Andrei.
Prince Andrei considered such a huge number of people to be despicable and insignificant creatures, he so wanted to find in another the living ideal of the perfection for which he was striving, that he easily believed that in Speransky he found this ideal of a completely reasonable and virtuous person. If Speransky had been from the same society from which Prince Andrei was, the same upbringing and moral habits, then Bolkonsky would soon have found his weak, human, non-heroic sides, but now this logical mindset, strange to him, inspired him with respect all the more that he did not quite understand it. In addition, Speransky, either because he appreciated the abilities of Prince Andrei, or because he found it necessary to acquire him for himself, Speransky flirted with Prince Andrei with his impartial, calm mind and flattered Prince Andrei with that subtle flattery, combined with arrogance, which consists in silent recognition his interlocutor with himself, together with the only person capable of understanding all the stupidity of everyone else, and the rationality and depth of his thoughts.
During their long conversation on Wednesday evening, Speransky said more than once: “We look at everything that comes out of the general level of inveterate habit...” or with a smile: “But we want the wolves to be fed and the sheep to be safe...” or : “They can’t understand this...” and all with an expression that said: “We: you and I, we understand what they are and who we are.”
This first, long conversation with Speransky only strengthened in Prince Andrei the feeling with which he saw Speransky for the first time. He saw in him a reasonable, strictly thinking, enormously intelligent man who had achieved power with energy and perseverance and used it only for the good of Russia. Speransky, in the eyes of Prince Andrei, was precisely that person who rationally explains all the phenomena of life, recognizes as valid only what is reasonable, and knows how to apply to everything the standard of rationality, which he himself so wanted to be. Everything seemed so simple and clear in Speransky’s presentation that Prince Andrei involuntarily agreed with him in everything. If he objected and argued, it was only because he deliberately wanted to be independent and not completely submit to Speransky’s opinions. Everything was so, everything was good, but one thing embarrassed Prince Andrei: it was Speransky’s cold, mirror-like gaze, which did not let into his soul, and his white, tender hand, which Prince Andrei involuntarily looked at, as they usually look at people’s hands, having power. For some reason this mirror look and this gentle hand irritated Prince Andrei. Prince Andrei was unpleasantly struck by the too much contempt for people that he noticed in Speransky, and the variety of methods in the evidence that he cited to support his opinions. He used all possible instruments of thought, excluding comparisons, and too boldly, as it seemed to Prince Andrei, he moved from one to another. Either he became a practical activist and condemned dreamers, then he became a satirist and ironically laughed at his opponents, then he became strictly logical, then he suddenly rose into the realm of metaphysics. (He used this last tool of evidence especially often.) He transferred the question to metaphysical heights, moved into the definitions of space, time, thought, and, making refutations from there, again descended to the ground of dispute.
In general, the main feature of Speransky’s mind that struck Prince Andrei was an undoubted, unshakable belief in the power and legitimacy of the mind. It was clear that Speransky could never get into the head of that usual thought for Prince Andrei, that it is still impossible to express everything that you think, and the doubt never came to mind that whether everything I think and everything is nonsense. , what do I believe? And this special mindset of Speransky most of all attracted Prince Andrei.
During the first time of his acquaintance with Speransky, Prince Andrei had a passionate feeling of admiration for him, similar to the one he once felt for Bonaparte. The fact that Speransky was the son of a priest, whom stupid people could, as many did, despise him as a party boy and priest, forced Prince Andrei to be especially careful with his feelings for Speransky, and unconsciously strengthen it in himself.
On that first evening that Bolkonsky spent with him, talking about the commission for drafting laws, Speransky ironically told Prince Andrei that the commission of laws had existed for 150 years, cost millions and had done nothing, that Rosenkampf had stuck labels on all articles of comparative legislation. – And that’s all for which the state paid millions! - he said.
“We want to give new judicial power to the Senate, but we have no laws.” Therefore, it is a sin not to serve people like you, prince, now.
Prince Andrei said that this requires a legal education, which he does not have.
- Yes, no one has it, so what do you want? This is a circulus viciosus, [a vicious circle] from which one must escape through effort.

A week later, Prince Andrei was a member of the commission for drawing up military regulations, and, which he did not expect, the head of the department of the commission for drawing up carriages. At the request of Speransky, he took the first part of the civil code being compiled and, with the help of Code Napoleon and Justiniani, [the Code of Napoleon and Justinian,] worked on drawing up the section: Rights of Persons.

Two years ago, in 1808, having returned to St. Petersburg from his trip to the estates, Pierre unwittingly became the head of St. Petersburg Freemasonry. He set up dining rooms and funeral lodges, recruited new members, took care of the unification of various lodges and the acquisition of authentic acts. He gave his money for the construction of temples and replenished, as much as he could, alms collections, for which most members were stingy and careless. He almost alone, at his own expense, supported the home of the poor, established by the order in St. Petersburg. Meanwhile, his life went on as before, with the same hobbies and debauchery. He loved to dine and drink well, and although he considered it immoral and degrading, he could not refrain from enjoying the bachelor societies in which he participated.
In the midst of his studies and hobbies, Pierre, however, after a year, began to feel how the soil of Freemasonry on which he stood was moving away from under his feet, the more firmly he tried to stand on it. At the same time, he felt that the deeper the soil on which he stood went under his feet, the more involuntarily he was connected with it. When he began Freemasonry, he experienced the feeling of a man trustingly placing his foot on the flat surface of a swamp. Putting his foot down, he fell through. In order to be completely sure of the solidity of the soil on which he stood, he planted his other foot and sank even further, got stuck and involuntarily walked knee-deep in the swamp.
Joseph Alekseevich was not in St. Petersburg. (He had recently withdrawn from the affairs of the St. Petersburg lodges and lived in Moscow without a break.) All the brothers, members of the lodges, were people familiar to Pierre in life, and it was difficult for him to see in them only brothers in masonry, and not Prince B., not Ivan Vasilyevich D., whom he knew in life for the most part as weak and insignificant people. From under the Masonic aprons and signs, he saw on them the uniforms and crosses that they sought in life. Often, while collecting alms and counting 20–30 rubles registered for the parish, and mostly in debt from ten members, half of whom were as rich as he was, Pierre recalled the Masonic oath that each brother promises to give all his property for one's neighbor; and doubts arose in his soul, which he tried not to dwell on.
He divided all the brothers he knew into four categories. In the first category he ranked brothers who do not take an active part either in the affairs of lodges or in human affairs, but are occupied exclusively with the mysteries of the science of the order, occupied with questions about the triple name of God, or about the three principles of things, sulfur, mercury and salt, or about the meaning of square and all the figures of Solomon's temple. Pierre respected this category of Masonic brothers, to which mostly the old brothers belonged, and Joseph Alekseevich himself, in Pierre's opinion, but did not share their interests. His heart was not in the mystical side of Freemasonry.
In the second category, Pierre included himself and his brothers like him, those who are searching, hesitating, who have not yet found a direct and understandable path in Freemasonry, but hoping to find it.
In the third category he included brothers (there were the largest number of them) who did not see anything in Freemasonry except the external form and ritual and valued the strict execution of this external form, without caring about its content and meaning. Such were Vilarsky and even the great master of the main lodge.
Finally, the fourth category also included a large number of brothers, especially those who had recently joined the brotherhood. These were people, according to Pierre’s observations, who did not believe in anything, did not want anything, and who entered Freemasonry only to get closer to young brothers, rich and strong in connections and nobility, of whom there were quite a lot in the lodge.
Pierre began to feel dissatisfied with his activities. Freemasonry, at least the Freemasonry that he knew here, sometimes seemed to him to be based on appearance alone. He did not even think of doubting Freemasonry itself, but he suspected that Russian Freemasonry had taken the wrong path and deviated from its source. And therefore, at the end of the year, Pierre went abroad to initiate himself into the highest secrets of the order.

In the summer of 1809, Pierre returned to St. Petersburg. From the correspondence of our Freemasons with those abroad, it was known that Bezukhy managed to gain the trust of many high-ranking officials abroad, penetrated many secrets, was elevated to the highest degree and was carrying with him a lot for the common good of the masonry business in Russia. The St. Petersburg Masons all came to him, fawning on him, and it seemed to everyone that he was hiding something and preparing something.
A solemn meeting of the 2nd degree lodge was scheduled, in which Pierre promised to convey what he had to convey to the St. Petersburg brothers from the highest leaders of the order. The meeting was full. After the usual rituals, Pierre stood up and began his speech.
“Dear brothers,” he began, blushing and stammering, and holding the written speech in his hand. - It is not enough to observe our sacraments in the silence of the lodge - we need to act... act. We are in a state of sleep, and we need to act. – Pierre took his notebook and began to read.
“To spread pure truth and bring about the triumph of virtue,” he read, we must cleanse people from prejudices, spread rules in accordance with the spirit of the times, take upon ourselves the education of youth, unite in unbreakable bonds with the smartest people, boldly and together prudently overcome superstition, unbelief and It is stupidity to form people loyal to us, bound together by a unity of purpose and having power and strength.
“To achieve this goal, one must give virtue an advantage over vice, one must try to ensure that an honest person receives an eternal reward for his virtues in this world. But in these great intentions there are many obstacles that hinder us - the current political institutions. What to do in this state of affairs? Should we favor revolutions, overthrow everything, drive out force by force?... No, we are very far from that. Any violent reform is reprehensible, because it will not correct the evil in the least as long as people remain as they are, and because wisdom has no need for violence.
“The entire plan of the order must be based on the formation of strong, virtuous people and bound by the unity of conviction, a conviction consisting in everywhere and with all their might to persecute vice and stupidity and to patronize talents and virtue: to extract worthy people from the dust, joining them to our brotherhood. Then only our order will have the power to insensitively tie the hands of the patrons of disorder and control them so that they do not notice it. In a word, it is necessary to establish a universal ruling form of government, which would extend over the whole world, without destroying civil bonds, and under which all other governments could continue in their usual order and do everything except that which interferes with the great goal of our order, then is the achievement of virtue's triumph over vice. Christianity itself presupposed this goal. It taught people to be wise and kind, and for their own benefit to follow the example and instructions of the best and wisest people.
“Then, when everything was immersed in darkness, preaching alone was, of course, enough: the news of the truth gave it special power, but now we need much stronger means. Now it is necessary for a person, controlled by his feelings, to find sensual delights in virtue. Passions cannot be eradicated; we must only try to direct them to a noble goal, and therefore it is necessary that everyone can satisfy their passions within the limits of virtue, and that our order provides the means for this.
“As soon as we have a certain number of worthy people in each state, each of them will again form two others, and they will all be closely united with each other - then everything will be possible for the order, which has already managed to secretly do a lot for the good of mankind.”
This speech made not only a strong impression, but also excitement in the box. The majority of the brothers, who saw in this speech the dangerous plans of Illuminism, accepted his speech with a coldness that surprised Pierre. The Grand Master began to object to Pierre. Pierre began to develop his thoughts with greater and greater fervor. There has not been such a stormy meeting for a long time. Parties formed: some accused Pierre, condemning him as an Illuminati; others supported him. Pierre was struck for the first time at this meeting by the infinite variety of human minds, which makes it so that no truth is presented in the same way to two people. Even those of the members who seemed to be on his side understood him in their own way, with restrictions, changes that he could not agree to, since Pierre’s main need was precisely to convey his thought to another exactly as he himself understood her.
At the end of the meeting, the great master, with hostility and irony, made a remark to Bezukhoy about his ardor and that it was not only the love of virtue, but also the passion for struggle that guided him in the dispute. Pierre did not answer him and briefly asked whether his proposal would be accepted. He was told that no, and Pierre, without waiting for the usual formalities, left the box and went home.

The melancholy that he was so afraid of came over Pierre again. For three days after delivering his speech in the box, he lay at home on the sofa, not receiving anyone and not going anywhere.
At this time, he received a letter from his wife, who begged him for a date, wrote about her sadness for him and about her desire to devote her whole life to him.
At the end of the letter, she informed him that one of these days she would come to St. Petersburg from abroad.
Following the letter, one of the Masonic brothers, less respected by him, burst into Pierre's solitude and, bringing the conversation to Pierre's marital relations, in the form of fraternal advice, expressed to him the idea that his severity towards his wife was unfair, and that Pierre was deviating from the first rules of a Freemason , not forgiving the repentant.
At the same time, his mother-in-law, the wife of Prince Vasily, sent for him, begging him to visit her for at least a few minutes to negotiate a very important matter. Pierre saw that there was a conspiracy against him, that they wanted to unite him with his wife, and this was not even unpleasant to him in the state in which he was. He didn’t care: Pierre didn’t consider anything in life to be a matter of great importance, and under the influence of the melancholy that now took possession of him, he did not value either his freedom or his persistence in punishing his wife.
“No one is right, no one is to blame, therefore she is not to blame,” he thought. - If Pierre did not immediately express consent to unite with his wife, it was only because in the state of melancholy in which he was, he was not able to do anything. If his wife had come to him, he would not have sent her away now. Compared to what occupied Pierre, wasn’t it all the same whether he lived or not lived with his wife?
Without answering anything to either his wife or his mother-in-law, Pierre got ready for the road late one evening and left for Moscow to see Joseph Alekseevich. This is what Pierre wrote in his diary.
“Moscow, November 17th.
I just arrived from my benefactor, and I hasten to write down everything that I experienced. Joseph Alekseevich lives poorly and has been suffering from a painful bladder disease for three years. No one ever heard a groan or a word of murmur from him. From morning until late at night, with the exception of the hours during which he eats the simplest food, he works on science. He received me graciously and seated me on the bed on which he was lying; I made him a sign of the knights of the East and Jerusalem, he answered me in the same way, and with a gentle smile asked me about what I had learned and acquired in the Prussian and Scottish lodges. I told him everything as best I could, conveying the reasons that I proposed in our St. Petersburg box and informed him about the bad reception given to me and about the break that had occurred between me and the brothers. Joseph Alekseevich, having paused and thought for a while, expressed his view of all this to me, which instantly illuminated for me everything that had happened and the entire future path ahead of me. He surprised me by asking if I remembered what the threefold purpose of the order was: 1) in the preservation and knowledge of the sacrament; 2) in purifying and correcting oneself in order to perceive it and 3) in correcting the human race through the desire for such purification. What is the most important and first goal of these three? Of course, your own correction and cleansing. This is the only goal we can always strive for, regardless of all circumstances. But at the same time, this goal requires the most work from us, and therefore, misled by pride, we, missing this goal, either take on the sacrament, which we are unworthy to receive due to our uncleanness, or we take on the correction of the human race, when we ourselves are an example of abomination and depravity. Illuminism is not a pure doctrine precisely because it is carried away by social activities and is filled with pride. On this basis, Joseph Alekseevich condemned my speech and all my activities. I agreed with him in the depths of my soul. On the occasion of our conversation about my family affairs, he told me: “The main duty of a true Mason, as I told you, is to improve himself.” But often we think that by removing all the difficulties of our life from ourselves, we will more quickly achieve this goal; on the contrary, my lord, he told me, only in the midst of secular unrest can we achieve three main goals: 1) self-knowledge, for a person can know himself only through comparison, 2) improvement, which is achieved only through struggle, and 3) to achieve the main virtue - love of death. Only the vicissitudes of life can show us its futility and can contribute to our innate love of death or rebirth to a new life. These words are all the more remarkable because Joseph Alekseevich, despite his severe physical suffering, is never burdened by life, but loves death, for which he, despite all the purity and height of his inner man, does not yet feel sufficiently prepared. Then the benefactor explained to me the full meaning of the great square of the universe and pointed out that the triple and seventh numbers are the basis of everything. He advised me not to distance myself from communication with the St. Petersburg brothers and, occupying only 2nd degree positions in the lodge, try, distracting the brothers from the hobbies of pride, to turn them to the true path of self-knowledge and improvement. In addition, for himself, he personally advised me, first of all, to take care of myself, and for this purpose he gave me a notebook, the same one in which I write and will henceforth write down all my actions.”
“Petersburg, November 23rd.
“I live with my wife again. My mother-in-law came to me in tears and said that Helen was here and that she was begging me to listen to her, that she was innocent, that she was unhappy with my abandonment, and much more. I knew that if I only allowed myself to see her, I would no longer be able to refuse her her desire. In my doubts, I did not know whose help and advice to resort to. If the benefactor was here, he would tell me. I retired to my room, re-read Joseph Alekseevich’s letters, remembered my conversations with him, and from everything I concluded that I should not refuse anyone who asks and should give a helping hand to everyone, especially to a person so connected with me, and I should bear my cross. But if I forgave her for the sake of virtue, then let my union with her have one spiritual goal. So I decided and wrote to Joseph Alekseevich. I told my wife that I ask her to forget everything old, I ask her to forgive me for what I might have been guilty of before her, but that I have nothing to forgive her. I was happy to tell her this. Let her not know how hard it was for me to see her again. I settled down in the upper chambers of a large house and feel a happy feeling of renewal.”

As always, even then, high society, uniting together at court and at large balls, was divided into several circles, each with its own shade. Among them, the most extensive was the French circle, the Napoleonic Alliance - Count Rumyantsev and Caulaincourt. In this circle, Helen took one of the most prominent places as soon as she and her husband settled in St. Petersburg. She had gentlemen of the French embassy and a large number of people, known for their intelligence and courtesy, belonging to this direction.
Helen was in Erfurt during the famous meeting of the emperors, and from there she brought these connections with all the Napoleonic sights of Europe. In Erfurt it was a brilliant success. Napoleon himself, noticing her in the theater, said about her: “C"est un superbe animal.” [This is a beautiful animal.] Her success as a beautiful and elegant woman did not surprise Pierre, because over the years she became even more beautiful than before But what surprised him was that during these two years his wife managed to acquire a reputation for herself.
“d"une femme charmante, aussi spirituelle, que belle.” [a charming woman, as smart as she is beautiful.] The famous prince de Ligne [Prince de Ligne] wrote letters to her on eight pages. Bilibin saved his mots [words], to say them for the first time in front of Countess Bezukhova. To be received in the salon of Countess Bezukhova was considered a diploma of intelligence; young people read books before the evening of Helen, so that they would have something to talk about in her salon, and the secretaries of the embassy, and even envoys, confided diplomatic secrets to her, so Helene had strength in some way. Pierre, who knew that she was very stupid, sometimes attended her evenings and dinners, where politics, poetry and philosophy were discussed, with a strange feeling of bewilderment and fear. At these evenings he experienced a similar feeling the kind that a magician must experience, expecting every time that his deception is about to be revealed, but whether because stupidity was precisely what was needed to run such a salon, or because those who were deceived themselves found pleasure in this deception, the deception was not discovered, and the reputation dwindled “une femme charmante et spirituelle was so unshakably established in Elena Vasilievna Bezukhova that she could say the most vulgarities and nonsense, and yet everyone admired her every word and looked for a deep meaning in it, which she herself did not even suspect.
Pierre was exactly the husband that this brilliant, society woman needed. He was that absent-minded eccentric, the husband of a grand seigneur [great gentleman], not bothering anyone and not only not spoiling the general impression of the high tone of the living room, but, with his opposite to the grace and tact of his wife, serving as an advantageous background for her. During these two years, Pierre, as a result of his constant concentrated occupation with immaterial interests and sincere contempt for everything else, acquired for himself in the company of his wife, who was not interested in him, that tone of indifference, carelessness and benevolence towards everyone, which is not acquired artificially and which therefore inspires involuntary respect . He entered his wife's living room as if he were entering a theatre, he knew everyone, was equally happy with everyone and was equally indifferent to everyone. Sometimes he entered into a conversation that interested him, and then, without consideration of whether les messieurs de l'ambassade [employees at the embassy] were there or not, mumbled his opinions, which were sometimes completely out of tune with the tone of the moment. But the opinion about the eccentric husband de la femme la plus distinguee de Petersbourg [the most remarkable woman in St. Petersburg] was already so established that no one took au serux [seriously] his antics.
Among the many young people who visited Helen’s house every day, Boris Drubetskoy, who was already very successful in the service, was, after Helen’s return from Erfurt, the closest person in the Bezukhovs’ house. Helen called him mon page [my page] and treated him like a child. Her smile towards him was the same as towards everyone else, but sometimes Pierre was unpleasant to see this smile. Boris treated Pierre with special, dignified and sad respect. This shade of respect also worried Pierre. Pierre suffered so painfully three years ago from an insult inflicted on him by his wife that now he saved himself from the possibility of such an insult, firstly by the fact that he was not his wife’s husband, and secondly by the fact that he did not allow himself to suspect.
“No, now having become a bas bleu [bluestocking], she has abandoned her former hobbies forever,” he said to himself. “There was no example of bas bleu having passions of the heart,” he repeated to himself, from nowhere, a rule he had learned, which he undoubtedly believed. But, strangely, the presence of Boris in his wife’s living room (and he was almost constantly) had a physical effect on Pierre: it bound all his limbs, destroyed unconsciousness and freedom of his movements.
“Such a strange antipathy,” thought Pierre, “but before I even really liked him.”
In the eyes of the world, Pierre was a great gentleman, a somewhat blind and funny husband of a famous wife, a smart eccentric who did nothing, but did not harm anyone, a nice and kind fellow. During all this time, a complex and difficult work of internal development took place in Pierre’s soul, which revealed a lot to him and led him to many spiritual doubts and joys.

He continued his diary, and this is what he wrote in it during this time:
“November 24 ro.
“I got up at eight o’clock, read the Holy Scriptures, then went to office (Pierre, on the advice of a benefactor, entered the service of one of the committees), returned to dinner, dined alone (the Countess has many guests, unpleasant to me), ate and drank in moderation and After lunch I copied plays for my brothers. In the evening I went to the countess and told a funny story about B., and only then did I remember that I shouldn’t have done this when everyone was already laughing loudly.
“I go to bed with a happy and calm spirit. Great Lord, help me to walk in Your paths, 1) to overcome some of the anger - with quietness, slowness, 2) lust - with abstinence and aversion, 3) to move away from vanity, but not to separate myself from a) public affairs, b) from family concerns , c) from friendly relations and d) economic pursuits.”
“November 27th.
“I got up late and woke up and lay on my bed for a long time, indulging in laziness. My God! help me and strengthen me, that I may walk in Your ways. I read Holy Scripture, but without the proper feeling. Brother Urusov came and talked about the vanities of the world. He talked about the new plans of the sovereign. I began to condemn, but I remembered my rules and the words of our benefactor that a true Freemason must be a diligent worker in the state when his participation is required, and a calm contemplator of what he is not called to. My tongue is my enemy. Brothers G.V. and O. visited me, there was a preparatory conversation for the acceptance of a new brother. They entrust me with the duty of a rhetorician. I feel weak and unworthy. Then they started talking about explaining the seven pillars and steps of the temple. 7 sciences, 7 virtues, 7 vices, 7 gifts of the Holy Spirit. Brother O. was very eloquent. In the evening the acceptance took place. The new arrangement of the premises contributed greatly to the splendor of the spectacle. Boris Drubetskoy was accepted. I proposed it, I was the rhetorician. A strange feeling worried me throughout my stay with him in the dark temple. I found in myself a feeling of hatred towards him, which I strive in vain to overcome. And therefore, I would truly like to save him from evil and lead him onto the path of truth, but bad thoughts about him did not leave me. I thought that his purpose in joining the brotherhood was only the desire to get closer to people, to be in favor with those in our lodge. Apart from the grounds that he asked several times whether N. and S. were in our box (to which I could not answer him), except that, according to my observations, he is incapable of feeling respect for our holy Order and is too busy and satisfied with the outer man, so as to desire spiritual improvement, I had no reason to doubt him; but he seemed insincere to me, and all the time when I stood with him eye to eye in the dark temple, it seemed to me that he was smiling contemptuously at my words, and I really wanted to prick his naked chest with the sword that I was holding, pointed at it. . I could not be eloquent and could not sincerely communicate my doubts to the brothers and the great master. Great Architect of nature, help me find the true paths that lead out of the labyrinth of lies.”
After this, three pages were missing from the diary, and then the following was written:
“I had an instructive and long conversation alone with brother V., who advised me to stick to brother A. Much, although unworthy, was revealed to me. Adonai is the name of the Creator of the world. Elohim is the name of the ruler of all. The third name, the spoken name, has the meaning of the Whole. Conversations with Brother V. strengthen, refresh and confirm me on the path of virtue. With him there is no room for doubt. The difference between the poor teaching of the social sciences and our holy, all-embracing teaching is clear to me. Human sciences subdivide everything - in order to understand, kill everything - in order to examine it. In the holy science of the Order, everything is one, everything is known in its totality and life. Trinity - the three principles of things - sulfur, mercury and salt. Sulfur of unctuous and fiery properties; in combination with salt, its fiery arouses hunger in it, through which it attracts mercury, seizes it, holds it and collectively produces separate bodies. Mercury is a liquid and volatile spiritual essence - Christ, the Holy Spirit, He."
“December 3rd.
“I woke up late, read the Holy Scripture, but was insensitive. Then he went out and walked around the hall. I wanted to think, but instead my imagination imagined an incident that happened four years ago. Mister Dolokhov, after my duel, meeting me in Moscow, told me that he hopes that I now enjoy complete peace of mind, despite the absence of my wife. I didn’t answer anything then. Now I remembered all the details of this meeting and in my soul I spoke to him the most vicious words and caustic answers. I came to my senses and gave up this thought only when I saw myself in the heat of anger; but he didn’t repent enough of it. Then Boris Drubetskoy came and began to tell various adventures; From the very moment he arrived, I became dissatisfied with his visit and told him something disgusting. He objected. I flared up and told him a lot of unpleasant and even rude things. He fell silent and I only realized it when it was already too late. My God, I don’t know how to deal with him at all. The reason for this is my pride. I put myself above him and therefore become much worse than him, for he is condescending to my rudeness, and on the contrary, I have contempt for him. My God, grant me, in his presence, to see more of my abomination and act in such a way that it would be useful to him too. After lunch I fell asleep and while falling asleep, I clearly heard a voice saying in my left ear: “Your day.”
“I saw in a dream that I was walking in the dark, and suddenly surrounded by dogs, but I walked without fear; suddenly one small one grabbed me by the left thigh with its teeth and did not let go. I began to crush it with my hands. And as soon as I tore it off, another, even larger one, began to gnaw at me. I began to lift it and the more I lifted it, the larger and heavier it became. And suddenly brother A. comes and, taking me by the arm, took me with him and led me to a building, to enter which I had to walk along a narrow board. I stepped on it and the board bent and fell, and I began to climb onto the fence, which I could barely reach with my hands. After much effort, I dragged my body so that my legs hung on one side and my torso on the other side. I looked around and saw that Brother A. was standing on the fence and pointing out to me a large alley and a garden, and in the garden there was a large and beautiful building. I woke up. Lord, Great Architect of Nature! help me tear away from myself the dogs - my passions and the last of them, which combines in itself the forces of all the previous ones, and help me enter that temple of virtue, which I achieved in a dream.”
“December 7th.
“I had a dream that Joseph Alekseevich was sitting in my house, I was very happy, and I wanted to treat him. It’s as if I’m chatting incessantly with strangers and suddenly I remember that he can’t like this, and I want to approach him and hug him. But as soon as I approached, I see that his face has changed, it has become youthful, and he is quietly telling me something from the teachings of the Order, so quietly that I cannot hear. Then it was as if we all left the room, and something strange happened. We sat or lay on the floor. He told me something. But I seemed to want to show him my sensitivity and, without listening to his speech, I began to imagine the state of my inner man and the mercy of God that had overshadowed me. And tears appeared in my eyes, and I was glad that he noticed it. But he looked at me with annoyance and jumped up, stopping his conversation. I became afraid and asked if what was said applied to me; but he didn’t answer anything, showed me a gentle look, and then we suddenly found ourselves in my bedroom, where there is a double bed. He lay down on the edge of it, and I seemed to be burning with a desire to caress him and lie down right there. And he seemed to ask me: “Tell me the truth, what is your main passion?” Did you recognize him? I think you already recognize him." Confused by this question, I answered that laziness was my main passion. He shook his head in disbelief. And I, even more embarrassed, answered that, although I live with my wife, on his advice, but not as my wife’s husband. To this he objected that he should not deprive his wife of his affection, and made me feel that this was my duty. But I answered that I was ashamed of this, and suddenly everything disappeared. And I woke up, and found in my thoughts the text of the Holy Scripture: There is light in man, and the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness does not embrace it. Joseph Alekseevich’s face was youthful and bright. On this day I received a letter from a benefactor in which he writes about the duties of marriage.”
“December 9th.
“I had a dream from which I woke up with my heart fluttering. I saw that I was in Moscow, in my house, in a large sofa room, and Joseph Alekseevich was coming out of the living room. It was as if I immediately found out that the process of rebirth had already taken place with him, and I rushed to meet him. I seem to kiss him and his hands, and he says: “Did you notice that my face is different?” I looked at him, continuing to hold him in my arms, and it was as if I saw that his face was young, but there was only a hair on his head. no, and the features are completely different. And it’s as if I were saying to him: “I would recognize you if I happened to meet you,” and meanwhile I think: “Did I tell the truth?” And suddenly I see that he is lying like a dead corpse; then he gradually came to his senses and entered with me into a large office, holding a large book, written on Alexandrian sheets. And it’s as if I’m saying: “I wrote this.” And he answered me by bowing his head. I opened the book, and in this book there was beautiful drawing on all the pages. And I seem to know that these paintings represent the love affairs of the soul with its lover. And on the pages it’s as if I see a beautiful image of a girl in transparent clothes and with a transparent body, flying towards the clouds. And as if I knew that this girl is nothing more than an image of the Song of Songs. And it’s as if, looking at these drawings, I feel that what I’m doing is bad, and I can’t tear myself away from them. God help me! My God, if this abandonment of me by You is Your action, then Thy will be done; but if I myself caused this, then teach me what to do. I will perish from my depravity if You forsake me completely.”

The Rostovs' financial affairs did not improve during the two years they spent in the village.
Despite the fact that Nikolai Rostov, firmly adhering to his intention, continued to serve darkly in a remote regiment, spending relatively little money, the course of life in Otradnoye was such, and especially Mitenka conducted business in such a way that the debts grew uncontrollably every year. The only help that obviously seemed to the old count was service, and he came to St. Petersburg to look for places; look for places and at the same time, as he said, amuse the girls for the last time.
Soon after the Rostovs arrived in St. Petersburg, Berg proposed to Vera, and his proposal was accepted.
Despite the fact that in Moscow the Rostovs belonged to high society, without knowing it or thinking about what society they belonged to, in St. Petersburg their society was mixed and uncertain. In St. Petersburg they were provincials, to whom the very people whom the Rostovs fed in Moscow, without asking them to what society they belonged, did not descend.
The Rostovs lived in St. Petersburg as hospitably as in Moscow, and at their dinners a wide variety of people gathered: neighbors in Otradnoye, old poor landowners with their daughters and the maid of honor Peronskaya, Pierre Bezukhov and the son of the district postmaster, who served in St. Petersburg. Of the men, Boris, Pierre, whom the old count, having met on the street, dragged to his place, and Berg, who spent whole days with the Rostovs and showed the elder Countess Vera such attention as a young man can give, very soon became household people in the Rostovs’ house in St. Petersburg. intending to make an offer.
It was not for nothing that Berg showed everyone his right hand, wounded in the Battle of Austerlitz, and held a completely unnecessary sword in his left. He told everyone this event so persistently and with such significance that everyone believed in the expediency and dignity of this act, and Berg received two awards for Austerlitz.
He also managed to distinguish himself in the Finnish War. He picked up a fragment of a grenade that killed the adjutant next to the commander-in-chief and presented this fragment to the commander. Just like after Austerlitz, he told everyone so long and persistently about this event that everyone also believed that it had to be done, and Berg received two awards for the Finnish War. In 1919 he was a captain of the guard with orders and occupied some special advantageous places in St. Petersburg.
Although some freethinkers smiled when they were told about Berg’s merits, one could not help but agree that Berg was a serviceable, brave officer, in excellent standing with his superiors, and a moral young man with a brilliant career ahead and even a strong position in society.
Four years ago, having met a German comrade in the stalls of a Moscow theater, Berg pointed him to Vera Rostova and said in German: “Das soll mein Weib werden,” [She should be my wife], and from that moment he decided to marry her. Now, in St. Petersburg, having realized the position of the Rostovs and his own, he decided that the time had come and made an offer.
Berg's proposal was accepted at first with unflattering bewilderment. At first it seemed strange that the son of a dark Livonian nobleman was proposing to Countess Rostova; but the main quality of Berg’s character was such naive and good-natured egoism that the Rostovs involuntarily thought that this would be good, if he himself was so firmly convinced that it was good and even very good. Moreover, the Rostovs’ affairs were very upset, which the groom could not help but know, and most importantly, Vera was 24 years old, she traveled everywhere, and, despite the fact that she was undoubtedly good and reasonable, no one had ever proposed to her . Consent was given.
“You see,” Berg said to his comrade, whom he called friend only because he knew that all people have friends. “You see, I figured it all out, and I wouldn’t have gotten married if I hadn’t thought it all through, and for some reason it would have been inconvenient.” But now, on the contrary, my father and mother are now provided for, I arranged this rent for them in the Baltic region, and I can live in St. Petersburg with my salary, with her condition and with my neatness. You can live well. I’m not marrying for money, I think it’s ignoble, but it’s necessary for the wife to bring hers, and the husband to bring his. I have a service - it has connections and small funds. This means something nowadays, doesn’t it? And most importantly, she is a wonderful, respectable girl and loves me...
Berg blushed and smiled.
“And I love her because she has a reasonable character - very good.” Here’s her other sister - the same last name, but a completely different one, and an unpleasant character, and no intelligence, and such, you know?... Unpleasant... And my fiancee... You’ll come to us... - Berg continued, he wanted to say dinner, but changed his mind and said: “Drink tea,” and, quickly piercing it with his tongue, released a round, small ring of tobacco smoke, which completely personified his dreams of happiness.
Following the first feeling of bewilderment aroused in the parents by Berg’s proposal, the usual festivity and joy settled in the family, but the joy was not sincere, but external. Confusion and bashfulness were noticeable in the relatives' feelings regarding this wedding. It was as if they were now ashamed of the fact that they loved Vera little and were now so willing to sell her off. The old count was most embarrassed. He probably would not have been able to name what was the reason for his embarrassment, and this reason was his financial affairs. He absolutely did not know what he had, how much debt he had and what he would be able to give as a dowry to Vera. When the daughters were born, each was assigned 300 souls as a dowry; but one of these villages had already been sold, the other was mortgaged and was so overdue that it had to be sold, so it was impossible to give up the estate. There was no money either.
Berg had already been a groom for more than a month and only a week remained before the wedding, and the count had not yet resolved the issue of the dowry with himself and had not spoken about it with his wife. The count either wanted to separate Vera’s Ryazan estate, or wanted to sell the forest, or to borrow money against a bill of exchange. A few days before the wedding, Berg entered the count's office early in the morning and, with a pleasant smile, respectfully asked his future father-in-law to tell him what would be given to Countess Vera. The Count was so embarrassed by this long-anticipated question that he thoughtlessly said the first thing that came to his mind.
- I love that you took care, I love you, you will be satisfied...
And he, patting Berg on the shoulder, stood up, wanting to end the conversation. But Berg, smiling pleasantly, explained that if he did not know correctly what would be given for Vera, and did not receive in advance at least part of what was assigned to her, then he would be forced to refuse.
- Because think about it, Count, if I now allowed myself to get married without having certain means to support my wife, I would act basely...
The conversation ended with the count, wanting to be generous and not be subjected to new requests, saying that he was issuing a bill of 80 thousand. Berg smiled meekly, kissed the count on the shoulder and said that he was very grateful, but now he could not get settled in his new life without receiving 30 thousand in clear money. “At least 20 thousand, Count,” he added; - and the bill then was only 60 thousand.
“Yes, yes, okay,” the count began quickly, “just excuse me, my friend, I’ll give you 20 thousand, and in addition a bill for 80 thousand.” So, kiss me.

Natasha was 16 years old, and the year was 1809, the same year that four years ago she had counted on her fingers with Boris after she kissed him. Since then she has never seen Boris. In front of Sonya and with her mother, when the conversation turned to Boris, she spoke completely freely, as if it were a settled matter, that everything that happened before was childish, which was not worth talking about, and which had long been forgotten. But in the deepest depths of her soul, the question of whether the commitment to Boris was a joke or an important, binding promise tormented her.
Ever since Boris left Moscow for the army in 1805, he had not seen the Rostovs. He visited Moscow several times, passed near Otradny, but never visited the Rostovs.
It sometimes occurred to Natasha that he did not want to see her, and these guesses were confirmed by the sad tone in which the elders used to say about him:
“In this century they don’t remember old friends,” the countess said after the mention of Boris.
Anna Mikhailovna, who had been visiting the Rostovs less often lately, also behaved with particular dignity, and every time she spoke enthusiastically and gratefully about the merits of her son and about the brilliant career he was on. When the Rostovs arrived in St. Petersburg, Boris came to visit them.
He went to them not without excitement. The memory of Natasha was Boris's most poetic memory. But at the same time, he traveled with the firm intention of making it clear to both her and her family that the childhood relationship between him and Natasha could not be an obligation for either her or him. He had a brilliant position in society, thanks to his intimacy with Countess Bezukhova, a brilliant position in the service, thanks to the patronage of an important person, whose trust he fully enjoyed, and he had nascent plans to marry one of the richest brides in St. Petersburg, which could very easily come true . When Boris entered the Rostovs' living room, Natasha was in her room. Having learned about his arrival, she, flushed, almost ran into the living room, beaming with a more than affectionate smile.
Boris remembered that Natasha in a short dress, with black eyes shining from under her curls and with a desperate, childish laugh, whom he knew 4 years ago, and therefore, when a completely different Natasha entered, he was embarrassed, and his face expressed enthusiastic surprise. This expression on his face delighted Natasha.
- So, do you recognize your little friend as a naughty girl? - said the countess. Boris kissed Natasha's hand and said that he was surprised by the change that had taken place in her.
- How prettier you have become!
“Of course!” answered Natasha’s laughing eyes.
- Has dad gotten older? – she asked. Natasha sat down and, without entering into Boris’s conversation with the countess, silently examined her childhood fiancé down to the smallest detail. He felt the weight of this persistent, affectionate gaze on himself and occasionally glanced at her.
The uniform, the spurs, the tie, Boris’s hairstyle, all this was the most fashionable and comme il faut [quite decent]. Natasha noticed this now. He sat slightly sideways on the armchair next to the countess, straightening the clean, stained glove on his left with his right hand, spoke with a special, refined pursing of his lips about the amusements of the highest St. Petersburg society and with gentle mockery recalled the old Moscow times and Moscow acquaintances. It was not by chance, as Natasha felt, that he mentioned, naming the highest aristocracy, about the envoy's ball, which he had attended, about the invitations to NN and SS.
Natasha sat silently the whole time, looking at him from under her brows. This look bothered and embarrassed Boris more and more. He looked back at Natasha more often and paused in his stories. He sat for no more than 10 minutes and stood up, bowing. The same curious, defiant and somewhat mocking eyes looked at him. After his first visit, Boris told himself that Natasha was just as attractive to him as before, but that he should not give in to this feeling, because marrying her, a girl with almost no fortune, would be the ruin of his career, and resuming a previous relationship without the goal of marriage would be an ignoble act. Boris decided with himself to avoid meeting with Natasha, but, despite this decision, he arrived a few days later and began to travel often and spend whole days with the Rostovs. It seemed to him that he needed to explain himself to Natasha, to tell her that everything old should be forgotten, that, despite everything... she could not be his wife, that he had no fortune, and she would never be given for him. But he still didn’t succeed and it was awkward to begin this explanation. Every day he became more and more confused. Natasha, as her mother and Sonya noted, seemed to be in love with Boris as before. She sang him his favorite songs, showed him her album, forced him to write in it, did not allow him to remember the old, making him understand how wonderful the new was; and every day he left in a fog, without saying what he intended to say, not knowing what he was doing and why he had come, and how it would end. Boris stopped visiting Helen, received reproachful notes from her every day, and still spent whole days with the Rostovs.