What is scientific knowledge definition. Need help studying a topic? Universal methods of thinking

Science is a consequence of the spiritual activity of humanity, aimed at comprehending the objective truth associated with the laws of nature. Forming a single body of knowledge, it is forced to subdivide into private branches that allow for research and clarification of facts and phenomena without delving into the study of third-party matters. It is on this basis that natural and social sciences are distinguished. However, this is not the only criterion for separation: fundamental and applied sciences are distinguished on the basis of distance from practical application.

Science is closely related to philosophy. The specificity of scientific knowledge in philosophy is the awareness and consideration of facts in relation to the real picture of the world. Philosophy was an indispensable companion of science at turning points in history, and remains no less important today.

The specificity of scientific knowledge is expressed by several factors:
1) The main goal of science is to clarify the objective laws of reality, but this is impossible without a number of abstractions, since it is abstraction that makes it possible not to limit the breadth of thinking to determine the veracity of certain conclusions.
2) Scientific knowledge must first of all be reliable, therefore objectivity becomes its main characteristic, because without it it is impossible to talk about anything with a certain accuracy. Objectivity is based on the study of the active object by visual and experimental methods.
3) The specificity of scientific knowledge lies in the fact that any science is aimed at practical application. Therefore, it must explain the causes, consequences and connections between certain processes.
4) This also includes the possibility of constantly supplementing and self-renewing science with the help of new discoveries that can both refute and confirm existing laws, conclusions, and so on.
5) Scientific knowledge is accomplished through the use of both special high-precision instruments and the use of logic, mathematical calculations and other elements of human mental and spiritual activity.
6) Any knowledge must be strictly provable - this is also the specificity of scientific knowledge. Information that may be used in the future must be accurate and reasonable. However, in various areas there are still some assumptions, theories and limitations.

Scientific knowledge is, first of all, a process that occurs at levels, each of which also has its own specifics. Despite the differences, both levels are interconnected and the boundary between them is quite fluid. The specificity of scientific knowledge of each of these levels is based on the application of experiments and instruments, or theoretical laws and methods of explanation to each specific case. Therefore, speaking about practice, it is impossible to do without theory.

There are also different types of scientific knowledge. Among them, the components of theoretical knowledge are more important, that is, problem, theory and hypothesis.

A discrepancy is the awareness of some inconsistencies that need to be explained scientifically. This is a kind of node or starting point, without which there are no further prerequisites for the development of knowledge. The specificity of scientific knowledge in philosophy makes it possible to find a way out of this knot on the basis of theoretical and practical conclusions.

A hypothesis is a formulated version that attempts to explain certain phenomena from a scientific point of view. The hypothesis requires proof. If there are any, it turns into a true theory, and other versions turn out to be unreliable. Determining the correctness of a hypothesis occurs through its practical application.

All of the listed types of scientific knowledge are built into a kind of pyramid, at the very top of which is theory. Theory is the most reliable and accurate, which provides an accurate explanation of the phenomenon. Its presence is the main prerequisite for the implementation of any project in practice.

Modern science is developing at a very fast pace; currently, the volume of scientific knowledge doubles every 10-15 years. It was science that was the main reason for such a rapidly progressing scientific and technological revolution, the transition to a post-industrial society, the widespread introduction of information technology, the emergence of a “new economy” for which the laws of classical economic theory do not apply, the beginning of the transfer of human knowledge into electronic form, so convenient for storage, systematization, search and processing, and much more.

All this convincingly proves that the main form of human knowledge - science today is becoming more and more significant and essential part of reality.

However, science would not be so productive if it did not have such a developed system of methods, principles and imperatives of knowledge. It is the correctly chosen method, along with the scientist’s talent, that helps him to understand the deep connection of phenomena, reveal their essence, discover laws and regularities. The number of methods that science is developing to understand reality is constantly increasing. Their exact number is perhaps difficult to determine. After all, there are about 15,000 sciences in the world and each of them has its own specific methods and subject of research.

In my work I will consider the basic methods of scientific knowledge; methods used at the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge.

THE CONCEPT OF “METHODOLOGY” of cognition

Methodology is a system of principles of scientific research. It is the methodology that determines the extent to which the collected facts can serve as a real and reliable basis for knowledge. From a formal point of view, methodology is not concerned with the essence of knowledge about the real world, but rather deals with the operations by which knowledge is constructed. Therefore, the term “methodology” is usually used to denote a set of research procedures, techniques and methods, including techniques for collecting and processing data. A meaningful understanding of the methodology comes from the fact that it implements the heuristic (i.e., search) function of the subject area of ​​research. Any theoretical system of knowledge makes sense only insofar as it not only describes and explains a certain subject area, but at the same time is a tool for searching for new knowledge. Since theory forms principles and laws that reflect the objective world in its subject area, it turns out to be at the same time a method of further penetration into yet unexplored areas of reality on the basis of existing knowledge, tested by practice.

A.P. Kupriyan identified three main methodological functions of the theory: orienting, predictive and classifying. The first directs the researcher’s efforts in selecting data, the second relies on establishing causal dependencies in some special area, and the third helps to systematize facts by identifying their essential properties and connections, i.e. not by chance.

Methodology in general can be defined as the doctrine of method, the science of constructing human activity. Traditionally, the most developed area of ​​methodology is the methodology of cognitive activity, the methodology of science.

BASIC METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

The concept of method means a set of techniques and operations for the practical and theoretical development of reality. This is a system of principles, techniques, rules, requirements that must be followed in the process of cognition. Mastery of methods means for a person knowledge of how, in what sequence to perform certain actions to solve certain problems, and the ability to apply this knowledge in practice.

Methods of scientific knowledge are usually divided according to the degree of their generality, that is, according to the breadth of applicability in the process of scientific research.

1. General (or universal) methods, i.e. general philosophical. These methods characterize human thinking in general and are applicable in all spheres of human cognitive activity. There are two universal methods in the history of knowledge: dialectical and metaphysical.

The dialectical method is a method that studies the developing, changing reality. It recognizes the concreteness of truth and presupposes an accurate account of all the conditions in which the object of knowledge is located.

The metaphysical method is a method opposite to the dialectical one, considering the world as it is at the moment, i.e. without development, as if frozen.

2. General scientific methods characterize the course of knowledge in all sciences, that is, they have a very wide, interdisciplinary range of application.

There are two types of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.

The empirical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the study of really existing, sensory objects. Only at this level of research do we deal with direct human interaction with the natural or social objects being studied. At this level, the process of accumulating information about the objects and phenomena under study is carried out by conducting observations, performing various measurements, and delivering experiments. Here, the primary systematization of the obtained factual data is also carried out in the form of tables, diagrams, and graphs.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational element - concepts, theories, laws and other forms and “mental operations”. An object at this level of scientific knowledge can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one. However, living contemplation is not eliminated here, but becomes a subordinate aspect of the cognitive process. At this level, the most profound essential aspects, connections, patterns inherent in the objects and phenomena being studied are revealed by processing the data of empirical knowledge.

Empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge are interconnected. The empirical level acts as the basis, the foundation of the theoretical. Hypotheses and theories are formed in the process of theoretical understanding of scientific facts and statistical data obtained at the empirical level. In addition, theoretical thinking inevitably relies on sensory-visual images (including diagrams, graphs, etc.), with which the empirical level of research deals.

3. Private scientific methods, i.e. methods are applicable only within the framework of individual sciences or the study of a specific phenomenon. Particular scientific methods may contain observations, measurements, inductive or deductive inferences, etc. Thus, specific scientific methods are not divorced from general scientific ones. They are closely related to them and include the specific application of general scientific cognitive techniques for studying a specific area of ​​the objective world. At the same time, particular scientific methods are also connected with the universal, dialectical method, which seems to be refracted through them.

METHODS OF EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE

Observation and description

Knowledge begins with observation. Observation is a purposeful study of objects, based mainly on such human sensory abilities as sensation, perception, and representation. This is the initial method of empirical cognition, which allows us to obtain some primary information about the objects of the surrounding reality.

Scientific observation is characterized by a number of features:

• purposefulness (observation should be carried out to solve the stated research problem, and the observer’s attention should be fixed only on phenomena related to this task);
• systematic (observation must be carried out strictly according to a plan drawn up based on the research objective);
• activity (the researcher must actively search, highlight the moments he needs in the observed phenomenon, drawing on his knowledge and experience, using various technical means of observation).

Scientific observations are always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge. With the help of description, sensory information is translated into the language of concepts, signs, diagrams, drawings, graphs and numbers, thereby taking a form convenient for further, rational processing. It is important that the concepts used for description always have a clear and unambiguous meaning. According to the method of conducting observations, they can be direct (properties, aspects of an object are reflected, perceived by human senses), and indirect (carried out using certain technical means).

Experiment

An experiment is an active, purposeful and strictly controlled influence of a researcher on the object being studied to identify and study certain aspects, properties, connections. In this case, the experimenter can transform the object under study, create artificial conditions for its study, and interfere with the natural course of processes. A scientific experiment presupposes the presence of a clearly formulated research goal. The experiment is based on some initial theoretical principles and requires a certain level of development of the technical means of cognition necessary for its implementation. And finally, it must be carried out by people who are sufficiently qualified.

There are several types of experiments:

1. laboratory,
2. natural,
3. research (make it possible to discover new, unknown properties in an object),
4. testing (serve to test and confirm certain theoretical constructs),
5. insulating,
6. qualitative (they only allow us to identify the effect of certain factors on the phenomenon being studied),
7. quantitative (establish precise quantitative relationships) and so on.

Measurement and comparison

Scientific experiments and observations usually involve making a variety of measurements. Measurement is a process that involves determining the quantitative values ​​of certain properties, aspects of the object or phenomenon under study using special technical devices.

The measurement operation is based on comparison. To make a comparison, you need to determine the units of measurement. Measurements are divided into static and dynamic. Static measurements include measuring the size of bodies, constant pressure, etc. Examples of dynamic measurements include measuring vibration, pulsating pressure, and so on.

METHODS OF THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE

Abstraction

Abstraction consists of mental abstraction from some less significant properties, aspects, features of the object being studied while simultaneously highlighting and forming one or more essential aspects, properties, features of this object. The result obtained during the abstraction process is called abstraction. Moving from the sensory-concrete to the abstract, theoretical, the researcher gets the opportunity to better understand the object being studied and reveal its essence.

Idealization. Thought experiment

Idealization is the mental introduction of certain changes to the object being studied in accordance with the goals of the research. As a result of such changes, for example, some properties, aspects, or features of objects may be excluded from consideration. Thus, the widespread idealization in mechanics - a material point implies a body devoid of any dimensions. Such an abstract object, the dimensions of which are neglected, is convenient when describing the movement of a wide variety of material objects from atoms and molecules to the planets of the solar system. When idealized, an object can be endowed with some special properties that are not realizable in reality. It is advisable to use idealization in cases where it is necessary to exclude certain properties of an object that obscure the essence of the processes occurring in it. A complex object is presented in a “purified” form, which makes it easier to study.

A thought experiment involves operating with an idealized object, which consists in the mental selection of certain positions and situations that make it possible to detect some important features of the object under study. Any real experiment, before being carried out in practice, is first carried out by the researcher mentally in the process of thinking, planning

Formalization. Axioms

Formalization - this method of cognition consists in the construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the processes of reality being studied. To build a formal system, it is necessary to set the alphabet, set the rules for the formation of formulas, and set the rules for deriving some formulas from others. An important advantage of a formal system is the possibility of conducting within its framework the study of any object in a purely formal way, using signs. Another advantage of formalization is to ensure that scientific information is recorded concisely and clearly.

The axiomatic method is a method of constructing a scientific theory in which it is based on certain initial provisions - axioms (postulates), from which all other statements of this theory are deduced from them in a purely logical way, through proof. To derive theorems from axioms (and in general some formulas from others), rules of inference are formulated. The axiomatic method was first used in mathematics in the construction of Euclid's geometry.

Hypothetico-deductive method

A hypothesis is any assumption, guess or prediction put forward to eliminate a situation of uncertainty in scientific research.

The hypothetico-deductive method is a method of theoretical research, the essence of which is to create a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses, from which statements about empirical facts are ultimately derived. Thus, this method is based on deriving conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the truth value of which is unknown. This means that the conclusion obtained on the basis of this method will inevitably have only a probabilistic nature. Typically, the hypothetico-deductive method is associated with a system of hypotheses of varying levels of generality and varying proximity to the empirical basis.

METHODS APPLIED AT THE EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL LEVELS

Analysis and synthesis

Analysis is a method of thinking associated with the decomposition of the object being studied into its component parts, aspects, development trends and modes of functioning with the aim of studying them relatively independently. Such parts can be some material elements of the object or its properties, characteristics.

In the process of synthesis, the components (sides, properties, characteristics, etc.) of the object under study, dissected as a result of analysis, are brought together. On this basis, further study of the object takes place, but as a single whole. At the same time, synthesis does not mean a simple mechanical connection of disconnected elements into a single system. Analysis mainly captures what is specific that distinguishes parts from each other. Synthesis reveals that essential commonality that connects the parts into a single whole.

Induction and deduction

Induction can be defined as a method of moving from knowledge of individual facts to knowledge of general facts. Deduction is a method of moving from knowledge of general laws to their particular manifestation.

A distinction is made between complete and incomplete induction. Complete induction builds a general conclusion based on the study of all objects or phenomena of a given class. The essence of incomplete induction is that it builds a general conclusion based on the observation of a limited number of facts, if among the latter there are no ones that contradict the inductive conclusion.

Deduction, on the contrary, is obtaining specific conclusions based on knowledge of some general provisions. But the especially great cognitive significance of deduction is manifested in the case when the general premise is not just an inductive generalization, but some kind of hypothetical assumption, for example, a new scientific idea. In this case, deduction is the starting point for the emergence of a new theoretical system.

Analogy

Analogy is a method of cognition in which knowledge obtained during the consideration of one object is transferred to another, less studied and currently being studied. The analogy method is based on the similarity of objects according to a number of characteristics, which allows one to obtain completely reliable knowledge about the subject being studied.

Modeling

The modeling method is based on creating a model that is a substitute for a real object due to a certain similarity with it. Modeling is used where studying the original is impossible or difficult and is associated with high costs and risk. A typical modeling technique is to study the properties of new aircraft designs using scaled-down models placed in a wind tunnel.

Modern science knows several types of modeling:

1. subject modeling (research is carried out on a model that reproduces certain geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics of the original object);
2. symbolic modeling (models are diagrams, drawings, formulas);
3. mental modeling (instead of sign models, mental visual representations of these signs and operations with them are used).

CONCLUSION

Thus, in scientific knowledge there is a complex, dynamic, holistic system of diverse methods of different levels, spheres of action, focus, etc., which are always implemented taking into account specific conditions.

All the described methods of cognition in real scientific research work in interaction. Their specific system organization is determined by the characteristics of the object being studied, as well as the specifics of a particular stage of the study. In the process of development of science, the system of its methods also develops, new techniques and methods of research activity are formed.

The main methods of the empirical and theoretical level of scientific knowledge were considered. Empirical knowledge includes making observations and experiments. Knowledge begins with observation. To confirm a hypothesis or to study the properties of an object, a scientist places it under certain conditions - conducts an experiment. The block of experimental and observation procedures includes description, measurement, and comparison. At the level of theoretical knowledge, abstraction, idealization, and formalization are widely used. Modeling is of great importance, and with the development of computer technology - numerical modeling, since the complexity and cost of conducting an experiment are increasing.

USED ​​MATERIALS:

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. “Philosophy” M.: Prospekt, 2000.
2. V.V. Ilyin. Theory of knowledge. Epistemalogy. Moscow. Moscow State University Publishing House, 1974.
3. Materials from the site http://www.filreferat.popal.ru
4. Dubnischeva T.Ya. Concepts of modern natural science: A textbook for students. Universities - M.: "Academy", 2003.
5. Makukha A.A. The concept of modern natural science: Educational and methodological materials - Novosibirsk, 2004.
6. Golubintsev V.O. Concepts of modern natural science: textbook - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2005.

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The science - field of research activity aimed at producing and applying objectiveknowledge Onature , society Andconsciousness and including all the conditions of this production.

MM. Bakhtin(1895–1973), modern Russian philosopher, emphasizes objectivity scientific knowledge: reality, entering science, throws off all valuable clothing in order to become naked and pure reality knowledge, where only unity is sovereign truth. This definition of the features of scientific knowledge highlights its most important, essential feature as a way of comprehending reality. But it cannot be absolute. Science has a value, ideological, philosophical and worldview meaning; it is determined to a large extent by the morality of the scientist, his responsibility for the fate of the world and humanity.

Science is the most important form of development of knowledge. It is a specialized area of ​​spiritual production, has its own tools of knowledge, its own institutions, experience and traditions of research activities, a system of information and communication, experimental and laboratory equipment, etc. Science refers to both cognitive activity and the results of this expressed in scientific works. activity in the form of a certain set of knowledge available at a given historical moment, forming a scientific picture of the world. Scientific knowledge is carried out on the basis of specially developed means and is objectified in the form of information embodied in written or oral form, in a variety of specialized artificially created signs and iconic systems. This does not mean that the role of the personal factor in scientific knowledge is insignificant; on the contrary, the history of science cannot be imagined without understanding the outstanding contribution of many talented scientists who radically changed the usual knowledge and ensured the progress of knowledge. Nevertheless, scientific knowledge is impossible without the body of knowledge that has been formed throughout the history of science and has become a universal property.

Scientific knowledge requires the conscious application of specially developed methods. Method in general - a way to achieve a goal, a certain ordered activity.Method of scientific knowledge - it is a system of techniques and rulesthinking and practical (subject-sensory) actions, using which researchers obtain new knowledge. The methods of scientific knowledge are its consciously developed techniques. They rely on previous achievements of knowledge. The method of scientific knowledge is an analogue of the modern state of science, it embodies knowledge about the subject of our research: what is the method, such is the knowledge about the subject, what is the knowledge about the subject, such is the method. Each method has a dual nature: it is based on knowledge of the laws of science and at the same time is inseparable from the work of a researcher solving a certain cognitive problem with varying degrees of skill. Not by chance F. Bacon compared the method to a lamp illuminating the way for a traveler in the dark: even a lame man walking along the road is ahead of the one running off-road.

Distinguish private, general And universal methods of cognition.

Private Methods are used by one or more sciences that have a common subject of study (for example, psychology or physics). General scientific methods knowledge is the property of science as a whole. A special place belongs philosophical methods, which are formed as a result of the development of science and are included in the scientific picture of the world. Philosophical methods are an organic part of any philosophical system. Along with all existing knowledge, they play the role of prerequisite knowledge that creates the conditions for the further development of science in specific historical conditions.

Empirical knowledge

In the structure of science there are empirical And theoretical levels and, accordingly, empirical and theoretical methods of organizing scientific knowledge. In each of these interrelated forms of scientific knowledge, the researcher uses the capabilities of both sensory and rational knowledge.

Empirical knowledge represents a collection scientific facts, forming the basis of theoretical knowledge. Researchers obtain empirical knowledge through the use of two main methods: observation and experiment.

Observation - purposeful, intentional perception of the object under study. Setting goals, methods of observation, a plan for monitoring the behavior of the object under study, and the use of instruments - these are the most important features of a specific observation. The observation results give us primary information about reality in the form of scientific facts.

Experiment- such a method of scientific research that involves a corresponding change in an object or its reproduction in specially created conditions. In an experiment, the researcher actively intervenes in the conditions of the scientific research. He can stop the process at any stage, which allows him to study it in more detail. It can place the object under study in various connections with other objects or create conditions in which it has not previously been observed, and thereby establish new ones unknown to science properties. An experiment allows you to reproduce the phenomenon under study artificially and test the results of theoretical or empirical knowledge through practice.

An experiment is always, and especially in modern science, associated with the use of sometimes very complex technical means, i.e. instruments. Device - this is a device or system of devices with specified properties for obtaining information aboutphenomena and properties inaccessible to human senses. Instruments can enhance our senses, measure the intensity of the properties of an object, or establish the traces left in them by the object of study. The widespread use of instruments in scientific research has prompted scientists to think about the question of whether instruments distort real natural processes? M. Born, for example, believed that “observation or measurement does not refer to the phenomenon nature as such, but only to the aspect under which it is considered in the frame of reference, or to projections onto the frame of reference, which, of course, is created by the entire installation applied" . Is Bourne right? After all, the experiment really disrupts the natural course of the process. However, this does not mean that we cognize an object that has been changed in a certain way by human intervention, but not the object as such. Why? Yes, because the presence or absence of certain connections can also become the subject of analysis, which allows comprehensively explore an object, identifying all its new properties.

Depending on the purposes of the study, there are different research experiment(discovery of something new) and check(establishing the truth hypotheses). In an experiment, new properties, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of an object related to the measurement of its properties are discovered and demonstrated. According to the object of study, there are natural And social experiment, and according to methods of implementation - natural and artificial, model and spontaneous, real and mental. There are also scientific And industrial experiment. The production experiment includes varieties industrial or field. Occupies a special place model experiment. There are physical and mathematical modeling. A physical model recreates the known properties of the object under study to establish unknowns (models of airplanes, spaceships or neurons, etc.). The mathematical model is built on the formal (mathematical) similarity of various objects, characterizing their general functional dependence, which also makes it possible to reveal unknown properties of real objects.

Comparison. The most important component of empirical methods of cognition is comparison, i.e. identifying similarities or differences in the properties of the objects under study established in an observation or experiment. A special case of comparison is measurement.

Measurement is the process of determining a value that characterizes the degree of development of the properties of an object. It is made in the form of comparison with another quantity taken as a unit of measurement. The results of observation and experiment have scientific significance only if they are expressed through measurement.

Science facts

Scientific fact - form of existence of empirical knowledge. The concept of fact has different semantic content. Among the many definitions of the term “fact,” the following can be distinguished. Firstly, a fact as a phenomenon of reality, “an incident, a case, an event, a matter, a reality, to be, a given, on which one can base...” These are the so-called facts of life that exist regardless of whether a person is aware of them or not. The facts of life are something real - as opposed to fictional, separate with pronounced features of singularity and uniqueness.

Secondly, the concept “fact” is used to mean conscious events and phenomena of reality. The versatility of our cognitive capabilities is manifested in the fact that one and the same fact of reality can be realized at the everyday or scientific levels knowledge, V art, journalism or legal practice. Therefore, different facts, established in different ways, have varying degrees of reliability. Very often there can be an illusion of the identity of a fact. Sciences and events of reality, which allows some philosophers and scientists to talk about the truth of a fact as absolute truth. This idea does not correspond to the real picture of knowledge; it dogmatizes and simplifies it.

Facts have a complex structure. They include information about reality, interpretation of the fact, method of obtaining and describing it.

The leading side of the fact is reality information, which involves the formation of a visual image of reality or its individual properties. The correspondence of a fact to reality characterizes it as true. Due to these features, facts are the empirical basis of science, the most important way to confirm or refute a theory. Thanks to facts, reality is perceived impartially, in relative independence from theory, if we ignore the so-called theoretical loading of the fact, which imparts to our worldview certain features of the given. Facts make it possible to discover phenomena that do not fit into the framework of the old theory and contradict it.

An important component of the fact is interpretation , which comes in various forms. Is it possible experiment without theory? The answer can only be negative: no, impossible. A scientific fact is mediated by a theory, on the basis of which the tasks of empirical research are determined and its results are interpreted. Interpretation is included in a fact as a theoretical and methodological prerequisite for its formation, a theoretical conclusion from a fact, its scientific explanation, or as an assessment carried out from different ideological, scientific or ideological perspectives.

The fact contains logistical or methodological side, i.e. the method of obtaining it. Its reliability largely depends on the method and means used to obtain it. For example, the election campaign often uses the results of sociological studies showing the rating of candidates and their chances of success. Often the results vary significantly, or even directly contradict each other. If direct distortion is excluded, the reason for the discrepancies may be explained by differences in methods.

The centuries-old history of science is not only the history of discoveries, but also the history of its development. language, without which theoretical abstractions, generalization or systematization of facts are impossible. Therefore, every fact contains a sign-communicative aspect, i.e., the language of science in which it is described. Graphs, diagrams, scientific notations and terms are necessary attributes of the language of science. The perception of a scientific discovery is sometimes delayed for many years if it is not possible to describe it in traditional terms. As the scientific knowledge The semantic inadequacy of natural language to the subject content it expresses became increasingly obvious.

The polysemy of expressions, the fuzzy logical structure of natural language sentences, the changeability of the meanings of language signs under the influence of context, psychological associations - all this hindered the accuracy and transparency of meaning necessary in scientific knowledge. There was a demand to replace natural language with an artificial formalized language. His invention unusually enriched the cognitive means of science and made it possible to solve previously inaccessible problems. Crystallization, reduction, and clarification of the logical structure with the help of artificial symbolism make complex cognitive systems easily observable, contribute to the logical ordering of theories, and the achievement of strict consistency of their elements. It should be emphasized that both the facts of science, and hypotheses, theories, and scientific problems are based on artificial languages ​​​​created in science.

A scientific fact is included in a theoretical system and has two fundamental properties, namely: reliability And invariance. The reliability of a scientific fact is manifested in the fact that it is reproducible and can be obtained through new experiments conducted at different times by researchers. The invariance of a scientific fact lies in the fact that it retains its reliability regardless of diverse interpretations.

The facts of science become the basis of a theory thanks to their generalization . The simplest forms of generalizing facts are systematization And classification carried out on the basis of their analysis, synthesis, typology, use of primary explanatory schemes, etc. It is known that many scientific discoveries (for example, theories of the origin of species C. Darwin , periodic table of elements DI. Mendeleev) would have been impossible without the preliminary work of scientists to systematize and classify facts.

More complex forms of generalizing facts are empirical hypotheses and empirical laws, revealing stable repeatability and connections between the quantitative characteristics of the objects under study, established with the help of scientific facts.

Scientific facts, empirical hypotheses and empirical laws represent knowledge only about How are leaking phenomena and processes, but they do not answer the question, Why phenomena and processes occur in exactly this form, and not in another, and their causes are not explained. The challenge of science - find the causes of phenomena, explain the essence of the processes underlying scientific facts. It is solved within the framework of the highest form of scientific knowledge - theories. Scientific facts perform a dual function in relation to a theory: as for an existing theory, a scientific fact either reinforces it (verifies) or contradicts it and points to its inconsistency (falsifies). But, on the other hand, theory is something more than just a generalization of the sum of scientific facts obtained at the level of empirical research. It itself becomes a source of new scientific facts. Thus, empirical and theoretical knowledge represent the unity of two sides of a single whole - scientific knowledge. The interconnection and movement of these aspects, their correlation in a specific scientific process of cognition determine a consistent series of forms specific to theoretical knowledge.

Basic forms of theoretical knowledge

The main forms of theoretical knowledge are: scientific problem, hypothesis, theory, principles, laws, categories, paradigms.

Scientific problem. In the usual sense, the term “problem” is used as a designation of a difficulty, an obstacle, a task that requires its solution. Problems accompany all forms of human life: they can be utilitarian-practical, moral and political, legal and philosophical, religious and scientific, etc. A scientific problem is awareness of the contradictions that have arisen between the old theory and the new onesscientific facts , which cannot be explained using old theoretical knowledge. A. Einstein wrote that at the origins of scientific thinking lies the “act of surprise” that arises “when perception comes into conflict with a fairly established world of concepts. In cases where such a conflict is experienced sufficiently acutely and intensely, it, in turn, has a strong influence on our mental world" ( Einstein A. Physics and reality. M.: Science. 1965. P. 133). The need to explain new scientific facts creates problematic situation, allowing us to state that we lack some knowledge to solve this problem. A scientific problem is specific knowledge, namely knowledge about ignorance. Correctly formulating and posing a scientific problem is a difficult task, since the process of crystallization of the problem is associated with the preparation of individual components of its solution. Therefore, posing a problem is the first step in the development of our knowledge about the world. When a scientific problem is posed, a scientific search begins, i.e., the organization of scientific research. It uses both empirical and theoretical methods. The most important role in solving a scientific problem belongs to the hypothesis.

Hypothesis - it is an idea containing a reasonable assumption about the existence of a law that explains the essence of new facts. A hypothesis is formed by scientists with the goal of tentatively explaining the scientific facts that led to the formulation of a scientific problem. There are a number of criteria for the validity of the hypothesis:

fundamental verifiability;

generality;

predictive capabilities;

simplicity.

A hypothesis must be testable; it leads to consequences that can be empirically verified. The impossibility of such verification makes the hypothesis scientifically untenable. The hypothesis should not contain formal and logical contradictions and should have internal harmony. One of hypothesis evaluation criteria - its ability to explain the maximum number of scientific facts and consequences derived from it. A hypothesis that explains only those facts that were associated with the formulation of a scientific problem is not scientifically valid.

The predictive power of a hypothesis means that it predicts something generally previously unknown, the emergence of new scientific facts not yet discovered in empirical research. The requirement of simplicity is that the hypothesis explains the maximum of phenomena from a few reasons. It should not include unnecessary assumptions that are not related to the need to explain scientific facts and consequences derived from the hypothesis itself.

No matter how valid a hypothesis is, it does not become a theory. Therefore, the next step in scientific knowledge is to substantiate its truth. This is a multifaceted process and involves the need to confirm as many consequences as possible from a given hypothesis. For this purpose, observations and experiments are carried out, the hypothesis is compared with the new facts obtained and the consequences arising from it. The greater the number of consequences that have been confirmed empirically, the less likely it is that all of them could have been derived from another hypothesis. The most convincing evidence of a hypothesis is the discovery in empirical research of new scientific facts that confirm the consequences predicted by the hypothesis. Thus, a hypothesis, comprehensively tested and confirmed by practice, becomes a theory.

Theory - it is logically sound, tested in practicesystem knowledge about a certain class of phenomena, about the essence and operation of lawsbeing this class of phenomena. It is formed as a result of the discoveries of general laws nature And society, revealing the essence of the phenomena under study. A hypothesis includes a set of ideas aimed at explaining or interpreting any fragment of existence. The structure of a theory includes all the elements that exist as its prerequisites, precede it and determine its emergence. An integral component of the theory is the original theoretical basis, i.e., a set of postulates, axioms, laws, which in their totality constitute a general idea of ​​the object of study, an ideal model of the object. The theoretical model is at the same time a program for further research, based on a system of initial theoretical principles.

The theory fulfills such important functions, How explanatory, predictive, practical and synthesizing. The theory organizes the system of scientific facts, includes them in its structure and derives new facts as consequences from the laws and principles that form it. A well-developed theory carries with it the ability to foresee the existence of things still unknown to science. phenomena And properties. Theory serves as the basis for the practical activities of people, orienting them in the world of natural and social phenomena. Thanks to scientific discoveries, people transform nature, create technology, explore space, etc. The central place in the theory belongs to scientific ideas, i.e. knowledge of the fundamental laws operating within the class of objects that are reflected in it. A scientific idea unites the laws, principles, and concepts that form a given theory into an integral, logically coherent system.

A theory has the ability to penetrate other theories and thereby cause their restructuring. It stimulates the unification of various theories and their transformation into a system that forms the core of the scientific picture of the world. Theory is the soil on which new ideas arise that can determine the style of thinking of an entire era. In the process of its formation, the theory is based on the existing system of principles, categories and laws and opens new ones.

Principles of Science represent fundamental theoretical knowledge, guiding ideas that are the starting point for explaining scientific facts. In particular, axioms can act as principles, postulates, which are neither provable nor requiring proof.

Categories of philosophy- essence extremely general concepts that reflect the most essential aspects, properties, relationships of the real world. The definition of categories of science is similar. But unlike philosophical categories, which have a universal character, the categories of science reflect the properties of a certain fragment of reality, and not reality as a whole.

Laws of Science reveal necessary, essential, stable, repeating connections and relationships between phenomena. These may be the laws of the functioning and development of phenomena. Understanding the laws of nature, society and human thinking is the most important task of science. It goes from revealing the universal and essential aspects of the objects under study, fixed in concepts and categories, to establishing sustainable, recurring, essential and necessary connections. The system of laws and categories of science forms its paradigm.

Paradigm - a set of stable principles, generally valid norms, laws, theories, methods that determine the development of science in a specific period of its history. It is recognized by the entire scientific community as basic models that determine the ways of setting and solving problems that arise at a given level of science. The paradigm guides research activities, organization of scientific experiments and interpretation of their results, providing prediction of new facts and theories. It eliminates concepts that do not agree with it and serves as a model for solving research problems. The concept of paradigm was introduced into the theory of knowledge by the American philosopher T. Kuhn. According to his definition, “normal science” is characterized by the solution of specific problems based on the corresponding scientific paradigm. Normal periods in the development of science are replaced by revolutions. They are associated with the discovery of phenomena that do not fit into the framework of the old paradigm. As a result, a period of crisis begins in science, ending with the breakdown of the old paradigm and the emergence of a new one. The establishment of a new paradigm marks a revolution in science. “...The consistent transition from one paradigm to another through revolution is a common model for the development of mature science,” notes T. Kuhn. (Structure of scientific revolutions. M., 1977. P. 31).

Another modern philosopher I. Lakatos presented the development of science in the form of a series of successive theories based on common methodological principles. This set of theories is called a research program. A natural consequence of many research programs is their competition. A competitive and progressive program is one within which a theory emerges that is capable of predicting new additional facts and explaining old ones that were established but not explained by the previous theory. In this case, the new theory acts as a development of the old one. If the new theory is limited to the interpretation of facts discovered by other research programs and does not predict new ones, then we can assume that the program is degenerating.

Methods of theoretical knowledge

There is a group methods scientific knowledge, which is used both at the empirical and theoretical levels. The specificity of this group of methods is that they are universal in human mental activity, and therefore without them the thought process itself, the movement itself, is impossible knowledge. These methods include: abstraction, generalization, analysis and synthesis, induction, deduction and inference by analogy.

Abstraction is that our thinking follows the path of mental abstraction from unimportant or random properties, connections and relationships of the cognizable object while simultaneously fixing attention on those aspects that are important to us at the moment.

Generalization involves finding common properties, connections and relationships in the objects under study, establishing their similarities, indicating their belonging to a certain class of phenomena. The result of abstraction and generalization is both scientific and everyday concepts(fruit, value, law, animal, etc.).

Analysis- this is the method knowledge, consisting in the mental division of an object into its constituent parts for the purpose of knowledge.

Synthesis involves the mental reunification of the components of the phenomenon being studied. The purpose of the synthesis is to imagine the object of study in the interrelation and interaction of its constituent elements in a holistic system. Analysis and synthesis are interconnected. Synthesis can be defined as a movement of thought enriched by analysis, which is why synthesis is a more complex process than analysis.

Induction- a method of cognition based on inferences from the particular to the general, when the train of thought is directed from establishing the properties of individual objects to identifying the general properties inherent in a whole class of objects. Induction is used both in everyday knowledge and in science. Inductive inference has a probabilistic nature. Scientific induction establishes causal relationships, based on the repetition and interconnection of the essential properties of some objects of a certain class and from them - to the establishment of general causal relationships that are valid for the entire class.

Deduction based on inferences from the general to the specific. Unlike induction, in deductive reasoning the train of thought is aimed at applying general principles to individual phenomena.

Induction and deduction are as closely related to each other as analysis and synthesis. Taken separately and absolutely opposed to each other, they cannot satisfy the requirements of scientific knowledge.

Analogy- similarity of objects in some characteristics. An inference based on the similarity of objects is called an inference by analogy. From the similarity of two objects in some characteristics, a conclusion is drawn about the possibility of their similarity in other characteristics. It is probabilistic in nature and its evidentiary value is low. Nevertheless, the role of analogy in human mental and cognitive activity is very great. Mathematician D. Polya characterizes the role of analogy in cognition as follows: “All of our thinking is permeated by analogy: our everyday speech and trivial conclusions, the language of works of art and the highest scientific achievements. The degree of analogy may vary. People often use vague, ambiguous, incomplete, or unclear analogies, but the analogy can reach a level of mathematical precision. We should not neglect any kind of analogy; each of them can play a role in finding a solution" ( Poya D. How to solve the problem. M., 1959. S. 44–45).

Along with those discussed above, there is a group of methods that are of primary importance for theoretical knowledge. The peculiarity of these methods is that they serve to develop and build theories. These include, in particular: method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, method of historical and logical analysis, method of idealization, axiomatic method etc. Let's consider them in more detail.

Ascent from abstract to concrete. To understand this method, it is necessary to reveal such important concepts as “concrete in reality”, “sensory-concrete”, “abstract”, “mentally-concrete”.

Specific in reality- is any phenomenon being, representing the unity of diverse aspects, properties, connections.

Sensually concrete- the result of living contemplation of a separate object. The sensually concrete reflects the object from its sensual side, as an undifferentiated whole, without revealing its essence.

Abstract, or abstraction, is the result of the mental isolation of individual aspects, properties, connections and relationships of the object being studied and separating it from the totality of other properties, connections and relationships.

Mentally concrete is a system of abstractions that reproduces in our thinking the object of knowledge in the unity of its diverse aspects and connections that express it essence, internal structure and process development. As can be seen already from the definition, the sensory-concrete and abstract one-sidedly reproduce the object: the sensory-concrete does not give us knowledge about the essence of an object, and abstraction reveals the essence one-sidedly. To overcome this limitation, our thinking uses the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, that is, it strives to achieve a synthesis of individual abstractions in the mentally concrete. As a result of such successive steps, a mental-concrete is obtained (a system of interconnected concepts in a certain sequence that transform into each other).

Historical and logical methods of cognition. Each developing object has its own history and objective logic, i.e. the pattern of its development. According to these features of development, cognition uses historical and logical methods.

Historical method cognition is a mental reproduction of the sequence of development of an object in all its concrete diversity and uniqueness.

Boolean method is a mental reproduction of those moments of the development process that are naturally determined. This method is a necessary moment in the process of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, for the mentally concrete must reproduce the development of the object, freed from the historical form and the accidents that violate it. The logical method begins in the same way as the historical one - by considering the beginning of the history of the object itself. In the sequence of transitions from one state to another, the key moments of development and thereby its logic and patterns of development are reproduced. Thus, the logical and historical methods are the same: the logical method is based on knowledge of historical facts. In turn, historical research, in order not to turn into a pile of disparate facts, must be based on knowledge of the laws of development revealed by the logical method.

Idealization method. Feature of this method consists in the fact that in theoretical research the concept of an ideal object is introduced, which does not exist in reality, but which is a tool for constructing a theory. An example of this kind of objects is a point, a line, an ideal gas, a chemically pure substance, an absolutely elastic body, etc. By constructing objects of this kind, a scientist simplifies real objects, deliberately abstracts from certain real properties of the object under study or endows them with properties, which real objects do not have. This mental simplification of reality allows us to more clearly highlight the properties under study and present them in mathematical form. A. Einstein characterized the meaning of idealization in the process as follows knowledge: “The law of inertia is the first great success in physics, in fact its first beginning. It was obtained by thinking about an idealized experiment, about a body constantly moving without friction and without the influence of any other external forces. From this example, and later from many others, we learned the importance of the idealized experiment created by thinking" ( Einstein A. Physics and reality. M., 1964. P. 299). Operating with abstract objects and theoretical schemes creates the prerequisites for their mathematical description. Academician V.S. Stepin emphasizes the connection between abstract objects and natural processes studied in theory: “Equations act in this case as an expression of essential connections between physical phenomena and serve as a formulation of physical laws” (Stepin V.S. Theoretical knowledge. M., 2003. P. 115). In modern science mathematical methods are playing an increasingly important role. They are used in linguistics, sociology, biology, not to mention physics or astronomy.

The use of the mathematical apparatus of probability theory has become especially relevant in the research of quantum mechanics, which discovered the probabilistic nature of the behavior of microparticles with particle-wave properties. The idealization technique is also implemented in the method formalization, or structural method. The essence of the structural method is to identify relationships between parts and elements of an object, regardless of their content. Attitudes are easier to study than the actual components of relationships. For example, the area of ​​a circle and the volume of a ball can be calculated regardless of whether the ball is metal or rubber, whether it is a planet or a soccer ball.

Systems approach. The relationships between the components of the structure can be different. Among the variety of relationships, those that characterize a given set of elements as system. Systems approach allows you to establish patterns of system relationships (regardless of the properties of specific systems) and then apply them to specific systems. The complexity of systems, their reliability, efficiency, development trends, etc. are revealed both in the general theory of systems and in the study of such specific systems as sign systems (they are studied by semiotics); control systems (they are the subject of cybernetics); conflicting systems (theory games and so on.).

Axiomatic method represents such an organization of theoretical knowledge in which the initial judgments accepted without evidence. These initial propositions are called axioms. On the basis of axioms, according to certain logical rules, provisions are derived that form theory. The axiom method is widely used in mathematical sciences. It rests on the accuracy of the definition of initial concepts, on the rigor of reasoning and allows the researcher to protect the theory from internal inconsistency and give it a more precise and rigorous form.

For scientific knowledge, the development of criteria for the scientific nature of theoretical concepts plays a huge role. One of the most important modern criteria for scientificity is the parallel existence and competition of research programs, the advantage of which lies not in criticizing the theory as such, but in the creation of alternative concepts that make it possible to see problems from as many different points of view as possible. Today, such scientific criteria as considerations of simplicity, the search for internal perfection of the organization of knowledge, as well as value-based sociocultural aspects in the development of knowledge come to the fore.

1. Specifics of scientific knowledge.

2. The relationship between empirical and theoretical knowledge.

3. Forms and methods of scientific knowledge.

When studying the first question "Specificity of scientific knowledge" it is necessary to understand the essence and meaning of science as a phenomenon of spiritual culture.

The science, represents a specific sphere of human activity aimed at the production, systematization and testing of knowledge. Besides that the science – this is a knowledge system. It also represents - social institution And direct productive force.

Science is characterized by relative independence and internal logic of development, methods (methods) of cognition and implementation of ideas, as well as socio-psychological features of the objective and essential perception of reality, that is style of scientific thinking.

Most often, science is defined through its own foundation, namely: 1) the scientific picture of the world, 2) the ideals and norms of science, 3) philosophical principles and methods.

Under scientific picture of the world understand a system of theoretical ideas about reality, which is developed by summarizing the most important knowledge accumulated by the scientific community at a certain stage in the development of science.

TO ideals and norms sciences include invariants (French invariant - unchanging) influencing the development of scientific knowledge, setting guidelines for scientific research. These in science are the intrinsic value of truth and the value of novelty, the requirements of the inadmissibility of falsification and plagiarism.

The immediate goals of science are research, description, explanation, prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality that constitute the subject of its study.

The ideological origins of science are usually attributed to myth and religion (in particular, Christianity). Her ideological basis serves: materialism, idealism, naturalism, sensationalism, rationalism, agnosticism.

Scientific issues are dictated by both the immediate and future needs of society, the political process, the interests of social groups, the economic situation, the level of spiritual needs of the people, and cultural traditions.

The specificity of scientific knowledge is characterized by the following components: objectivity; consistency; validity; empirical confirmability; a certain social orientation; close connection with practice.

Science differs from all methods of exploring the world in the development of a special language for describing objects of research and in the procedure for proving the truth of the results of scientific research.

Scientific knowledge is a type of subject-object relations, the main essential feature of which is scientific rationality. The rationality of the cognizing subject finds its expression in an appeal to the arguments of reason and experience, in the logical and methodological ordering of the thinking process, in the influence of existing ideals and norms of science on scientific creativity.

As an integral part of spiritual production, science is associated with goal setting. It can turn into a direct productive force in the form of knowledge and new technologies, principles of labor organization, new materials, and equipment.

In conclusion, the student should pay attention to one more feature of scientific knowledge. It acts as a measure of the development of a person’s abilities for creative creation, for constructive and theoretical transformation of reality and himself. In other words, scientific activity produces not only new technologies, creates materials, equipment and tools, but, being part of spiritual production, allows the people included in it to creatively self-realize, objectify ideas and hypotheses, thereby enriching culture.

Considering the second question « Crelationship between empirical and theoretical knowledge", It should be remembered that knowledge in any field of science has two closely interrelated levels: empirical and theoretical. The unity of the two levels (layers) of scientific knowledge follows from the cognitive abilities of the knowing subject. At the same time, it is predetermined by the two-level nature of the functioning of the object (phenomenon - essence). On the other hand, these levels are different from each other, and this difference is determined by the way the object is reflected by the subject of scientific knowledge. Without experimental data, theoretical knowledge cannot have scientific validity, just as empirical research cannot ignore the path laid out by theory.

Empirical level cognition is the level of accumulation of knowledge and facts about the objects under study. At this level of cognition, the object is reflected from the side of connections and relationships accessible to contemplation and observation.

On theoretical level a synthesis of scientific knowledge in the form of a scientific theory is achieved. The theoretical, essentially conceptual, level of scientific knowledge is designed to systematize, explain and predict facts established in the course of empirical research.

Fact represents recorded empirical knowledge And acts as a synonym for the concepts “event” and “result”.

Facts in science not only serve as an information source and empirical basis for theoretical reasoning, but also serve as a criterion for their reliability and truth. In turn, the theory forms the conceptual basis of the fact: it highlights the aspect of reality being studied, sets the language in which the facts are described, and determines the means and methods of experimental research.

Scientific knowledge unfolds according to the following scheme: problem - hypothesis - theory, each element of which reflects the degree of penetration of the knowing subject into the essence of the objects of science.

Cognition begins with awareness or formulation of a problem. Problem – this is something that is still unknown, but needs to be known, this is the researcher’s question to the object. It represents: 1) a difficulty, an obstacle in solving a cognitive problem; 2) contradictory condition of the question; 3) a task, a conscious formulation of the initial cognitive situation; 4) conceptual (idealized) object of scientific theory; 5) a question that arises in the course of cognition, a practical or theoretical interest that motivates scientific research.

Hypothesis – it is a scientific assumption or assumption regarding the essence of an object, formulated on the basis of a number of known facts. It goes through two stages: nomination and subsequent verification. As a hypothesis is tested and validated, it can be discarded as untenable, but it can also be “polished” into a true theory.

Theory - This is a form of scientific knowledge that provides a holistic display of the essential connections of the object under study. Theory as an integral developing system of knowledge has such structure: a) axioms, principles, laws, fundamental concepts; b) an idealized object, in the form of an abstract model of connections and properties of the object; c) logical techniques and methods; d) patterns and statements derived from the main provisions of the theory.

The theory performs the following functions : descriptive, explanatory, prognostic (predictive), synthetic, methodological and practical.

Description there is an initial, not entirely strict, approximate fixation, isolation and ordering of the characteristics of the features and properties of the object under study. A description of a particular phenomenon is resorted to in cases where it is impossible to give a strictly scientific definition of the concept. Description plays an important role in the process of theory development, especially at its initial stages.

Explanation carried out in the form of a conclusion or a system of conclusions using those provisions that are already contained in the theory. This distinguishes a theoretical explanation from an ordinary explanation, which is based on ordinary, everyday experience.

Forecast, foresight. Scientific theory allows you to see trends in the further development of an object and predict what will happen to the object in the future. The greatest predictive capabilities are possessed by those theories that are distinguished by the breadth of coverage of a particular area of ​​reality, the depth of problem formulation and the paradigmatic nature (i.e., a set of new principles and scientific methods) of their solution.

Synthesis function. A scientific theory organizes extensive empirical material, generalizes it, and acts as a synthesis of this material on the basis of a certain unified principle. The synthesizing function of the theory is also manifested in the fact that it eliminates fragmentation, disunity, fragmentation of individual components of the theory, and makes it possible to discover fundamentally new connections and systemic qualities between the structural components of the theoretical system.

Methodological function. Scientific theory replenishes the methodological arsenal of science, acting as a specific method of cognition. The set of principles for the formation and practical application of methods of cognition and transformation of reality is the methodology for man’s exploration of the world.

Practical function. The creation of a theory is not an end in itself for scientific knowledge. Scientific theory would not have much significance if it were not a powerful means for further improving scientific knowledge. In this regard, theory, on the one hand, arises and is formed in the process of practical activity of people, and on the other hand, practical activity itself is carried out on the basis of theory, illuminated and directed by theory.

Moving on to the study of the third question “ Forms and methods of scientific knowledge", it is necessary to understand that scientific knowledge cannot do without methodology.

Method - is a system of principles, techniques and requirements that guide the process of scientific knowledge. A method is a way of reproducing the object being studied in the mind.

Methods of scientific knowledge are divided into special (special scientific), general scientific and universal (philosophical). Depending on the role and place in scientific knowledge, formal and substantive, empirical and theoretical, research and presentation methods are fixed. In science there is a division into methods of natural and human sciences. The specificity of the former (methods of physics, chemistry, biology) is revealed through explanations of the cause-and-effect relationships of natural phenomena and processes, the latter (methods of phenomenology, hermeneutics, structuralism) - through an understanding of the essence of man and his world.

Methods and techniques of scientific knowledge include:

observation- this is a systematic, purposeful perception of objects and phenomena in order to become familiar with the object. This may include a procedure measurements quantitative relationships of the object under study;

experiment- a research technique in which an object is placed in precisely taken into account conditions or artificially reproduced in order to clarify certain properties;

analogy– establishing the similarity of certain characteristics, properties and relationships among objects, and on this basis - putting forward an assumption about the similarity of other characteristics;

modeling- a research method in which the object of study is replaced by another object (model) that is in a similarity relationship with the first. The model is subjected to experiment in order to obtain new knowledge, which, in turn, is evaluated and applied to the object being studied. Computer modeling has acquired great importance in science, making it possible to simulate any processes and phenomena;

formalization- study of an object from the form side with the aim of deeper knowledge of the content, which allows you to operate with signs, formulas, diagrams, diagrams;

idealization- extreme distraction from the real properties of an object, when the subject mentally constructs an object, the prototype of which is in the real world (“absolutely solid body”, “ideal liquid”);

analysis- dividing the object under study into its component parts, sides, trends in order to consider the connections and relationships of individual elements;

synthesis– a research technique that combines elements dissected by analysis into a single whole in order to identify natural, significant connections and relationships of the object;

induction- movement of thought from the particular to the general, from isolated cases to general conclusions;

deduction- the movement of thought from the general to the particular, from general provisions to particular cases.

The above methods of scientific knowledge are widely used at the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge. In contrast, the method ascent from the abstract to the concrete, and historical And logical methods are applied primarily at the theoretical level of knowledge.

Method of ascent from abstract to concrete is a method of theoretical research and presentation, consisting in the movement of scientific thought from the initial abstraction (“the beginning” is one-sided, incomplete knowledge) to the reproduction in theory of a holistic image of the process or phenomenon being studied.

This method is also applicable in the knowledge of one or another scientific discipline, where they move from individual concepts (abstract) to multifaceted knowledge (concrete).

Historical method requires taking the subject in its development and change with all the smallest details and secondary features, requires tracking the entire history of the development of this phenomenon (from its genesis to the present) in all its completeness and diversity of its aspects.

Boolean method is a reflection of the historical, but it does not repeat history in all details, but takes the main essential in it, reproducing the development of the object at the level of essence, i.e. without historical form.

Among scientific research methods, a special place occupies systems approach, which is a set of general scientific requirements (principles) with the help of which any objects can be considered as systems. System analysis implies: a) identifying the dependence of each element on its functions and place in the system, taking into account the fact that the properties of the whole are irreducible to the sum of the properties of its elements; b) analysis of the behavior of the system from the point of view of its conditioning by the elements included in it, as well as the properties of its structure; c) studying the mechanism of interaction between the system and the environment in which it is “inscribed”; d) study of the system as a dynamic, developing integrity.

The systems approach has great heuristic value, since it is applicable to the analysis of natural scientific, social and technical objects.

For a more detailed introduction to the topic in the reference literature, refer to the articles:

New philosophical encyclopedia. In 4 volumes - M., 2001. Art.: “Method”, “Science”, “Intuition”, “Empirical and Theoretical”, “Cognition”, etc.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - K., 2002. Art.: “Methodology of science”, “Science”, “Intuition”, “Empirical and theoretical” etc.

Scientific knowledge - This is a type and level of knowledge aimed at producing true knowledge about reality, the discovery of objective laws based on a generalization of real facts. It rises above ordinary cognition, that is, spontaneous cognition associated with the life activity of people and perceiving reality at the level of phenomenon.

Epistemology - This is the doctrine of scientific knowledge.

Features of scientific knowledge:

Firstly, its main task is to discover and explain the objective laws of reality - natural, social and thinking. Hence the focus of research on the general, essential properties of an object and their expression in a system of abstraction.

Secondly, the immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods.

Third, to a greater extent than other types of knowledge, it is oriented towards being embodied in practice.

Fourthly, science has developed a special language, characterized by the accuracy of the use of terms, symbols, and diagrams.

Fifthly, Scientific knowledge is a complex process of reproduction of knowledge that forms an integral, developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, and laws.

At sixth, Scientific knowledge is characterized by both strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, reliability of conclusions, and the presence of hypotheses, conjectures, and assumptions.

Seventh, scientific knowledge requires and resorts to special tools (means) of knowledge: scientific equipment, measuring instruments, devices.

Eighth, scientific knowledge is characterized by processuality. In its development, it goes through two main stages: empirical and theoretical, which are closely related to each other.

Ninth, The field of scientific knowledge consists of verifiable and systematized information about various phenomena of existence.

Levels of scientific knowledge:

Empirical level cognition is a direct experimental, mostly inductive, study of an object. It includes obtaining the necessary initial facts - data about individual aspects and connections of the object, understanding and describing the data obtained in the language of science, and their primary systematization. Cognition at this stage still remains at the level of phenomenon, but the prerequisites for penetrating the essence of the object have already been created.

Theoretical level characterized by deep penetration into the essence of the object being studied, not only identifying, but also explaining the patterns of its development and functioning, constructing a theoretical model of the object and its in-depth analysis.

Forms of scientific knowledge:

scientific fact, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, proof, scientific theory, paradigm, unified scientific picture of the world.

Scientific fact - this is the initial form of scientific knowledge, in which primary knowledge about an object is recorded; it is a reflection in the consciousness of the subject of a fact of reality. In this case, a scientific fact is only one that can be verified and described in scientific terms.

Scientific problem - it is a contradiction between new facts and existing theoretical knowledge. A scientific problem can also be defined as a kind of knowledge about ignorance, since it arises when the cognizing subject realizes the incompleteness of a particular knowledge about an object and sets the goal of eliminating this gap. The problem includes the problematic issue, the project for solving the problem and its content.

Scientific hypothesis - This is a scientifically based assumption that explains certain parameters of the object being studied and does not contradict known scientific facts. It must satisfactorily explain the object being studied, be verifiable in principle, and answer the questions posed by the scientific problem.

In addition, the main content of the hypothesis should not contradict the laws established in a given system of knowledge. The assumptions that make up the content of the hypothesis must be sufficient so that with their help it is possible to explain all the facts about which the hypothesis is put forward. The assumptions of the hypothesis should not be logically contradictory.

The development of new hypotheses in science is associated with the need for a new vision of the problem and the emergence of problematic situations.

Proof - this is a confirmation of the hypothesis.

Types of evidence:

Practice serving as direct confirmation

Indirect theoretical proof, including confirmation by arguments indicating facts and laws (inductive path), derivation of a hypothesis from other, more general and already proven provisions (deductive path), comparison, analogy, modeling, etc.

The proven hypothesis serves as the basis for constructing a scientific theory.

Scientific theory - this is a form of reliable scientific knowledge about a certain set of objects, which is a system of interconnected statements and evidence and contains methods for explaining, transforming and predicting phenomena in a given object area. In theory, in the form of principles and laws, knowledge about the essential connections that determine the emergence and existence of certain objects is expressed. The main cognitive functions of the theory are: synthesizing, explanatory, methodological, predictive and practical.

All theories develop within certain paradigms.

Paradigm - it is a special way of organizing knowledge and seeing the world, influencing the direction of further research. Paradigm

can be compared to an optical device through which we look at a particular phenomenon.

Many theories are constantly being synthesized into a unified scientific picture of the world, that is, a holistic system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of being.

Methods of scientific knowledge:

Method(from Greek Metodos - path to something) - it is a way of activity in any form.

The method includes techniques that ensure the achievement of goals, regulate human activity and the general principles from which these techniques arise. Methods of cognitive activity form the direction of cognition at a particular stage, the order of cognitive procedures. In their content, the methods are objective, since they are ultimately determined by the nature of the object and the laws of its functioning.

Scientific method - This is a set of rules, techniques and principles that ensure the logical cognition of an object and the receipt of reliable knowledge.

Classification of methods of scientific knowledge can be done for various reasons:

First reason. Based on their nature and role in cognition, they distinguish methods - techniques, which consist of specific rules, techniques and algorithms of action (observation, experiment, etc.) and methods - approaches, which indicate the direction and general method of research (systemic ANALYSIS, functional ANALYSIS, diachronic method, etc.).

Second reason. By functional purpose they are distinguished:

a) universal human methods of thinking (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, induction, deduction, etc.);

b) empirical methods (observation, experiment, survey, measurement);

c) theoretical level methods (modelling, thought experiment, analogy, mathematical methods, philosophical methods, induction and deduction).

Third base is the degree of generality. Here the methods are divided into:

a) philosophical methods (dialectical, formal - logical, intuitive, phenomenological, hermeneutic);

b) general scientific methods, that is, methods that guide the course of knowledge in many sciences, but unlike philosophical methods, each general scientific method (observation, experiment, analysis, synthesis, modeling, etc.) solves its own problem, characteristic only for it ;

c) special methods.

Universal methods of thinking:

- Comparison- establishing the similarities and differences between objects of reality (for example, we compare the characteristics of two engines);

- ANALYSIS- mental dissection of an object as a whole

(we break down each engine into its component characteristics);

- Synthesis- mental unification into a single whole of the elements identified as a result of the analysis (mentally we combine the best characteristics and elements of both engines in one - virtual);

- Abstraction- highlighting some features of an object and distracting from others (for example, we study only the design of the engine and temporarily do not take into account its content and functioning);

- Induction- movement of thought from the particular to the general, from individual data to more general provisions, and ultimately to the essence (we take into account all cases of engine failures of this type and, based on this, come to conclusions about the prospects for its further operation);

- Deduction- movement of thought from the general to the specific (based on the general laws of the OPERATION of the engine, we make predictions about the further functioning of a particular engine);

- Modeling- construction of a mental object (model) similar to the real one, the study of which will allow one to obtain the information necessary for understanding the real object (creating a model of a more advanced engine);

- Analogy- conclusion about the similarity of objects in some properties, based on similarity in other characteristics (conclusion about engine breakdown based on a characteristic knock);

- Generalization- combining individual objects into a certain concept (for example, creating the concept “engine”).

Global problems

The global problems of our time should be understood as a set of problems on the solution of which the further existence of civilization depends.

Global problems are generated by the uneven development of different areas of life of modern humanity and the contradictions generated in the socio-economic, political-ideological, socio-natural and other relations of people. These problems affect the life of humanity as a whole.

Global problems of humanity- these are problems that affect the vital interests of the entire population of the planet and require the joint efforts of all states of the world to be solved.

North-South problem- This is a problem of economic relations between developed countries and developing countries. Its essence is that in order to bridge the gap in the levels of socio-economic development between developed and developing countries, the latter require various concessions from developed countries, in particular, expanding access for their goods to the markets of developed countries, increasing the influx of knowledge and capital (especially in the form assistance), debt write-off and other measures in relation to them.

One of the main global problems is poverty problem. Poverty refers to the inability to provide the simplest and most affordable living conditions for most people in a given country. Large levels of poverty, especially in developing countries, pose a serious threat not only to national but also to global sustainable development.

World food problem lies in the inability of humanity to date to fully provide itself with vital food products. This problem appears in practice as a problem absolute food shortage(malnutrition and hunger) in the least developed countries, as well as nutritional imbalances in developed countries. Its solution will largely depend on the effective use of natural resources, scientific and technological progress in agriculture and the level of government support.

Global energy problem is the problem of providing humanity with fuel and energy now and in the foreseeable future. The main reason for the global energy problem should be considered the rapid increase in the consumption of mineral fuels in the 20th century. If developed countries are now solving this problem primarily by slowing down the growth of their demand by reducing energy intensity, then in other countries there is a relatively rapid increase in energy consumption. Added to this may be growing competition in the global energy market between developed countries and newly large industrialized countries (China, India, Brazil). All these circumstances, combined with military and political instability in some regions, can cause significant fluctuations in the level of world prices for energy resources and seriously affect the dynamics of supply and demand, as well as the production and consumption of energy goods, sometimes creating crisis situations.

The ecological potential of the world economy is increasingly undermined by human economic activity. The answer to this was environmentally sustainable development concept. It involves the development of all countries of the world, taking into account current needs, but not undermining the interests of future generations.

Environmental protection is an important part of development. In the 70s 20th century economists realized the importance of environmental issues for economic development. Processes of environmental degradation can be self-replicating, which threatens society with irreversible destruction and resource depletion.

Global demographic problem falls into two aspects: the population explosion in a number of countries and regions of the developing world and the demographic aging of the population of developed and transition countries. For the former, the solution is to increase economic growth and reduce population growth. For the second - emigration and reform of the pension system.

The relationship between population growth and economic growth has long been the subject of research by economists. As a result of research, two approaches to assessing the impact of population growth on economic development have been developed. The first approach is, to one degree or another, associated with the theory of Malthus, who believed that population growth is faster than food growth and therefore the world population is inevitably becoming poorer. The modern approach to assessing the role of population on the economy is comprehensive and identifies both positive and negative factors in the impact of population growth on economic growth.

Many experts believe that the real problem is not population growth per se, but the following problems:

§ underdevelopment - backwardness in development;

§ depletion of world resources and destruction of the environment.

The problem of human development- this is the problem of matching the qualitative characteristics of the labor force with the nature of the modern economy. In the conditions of post-industrialization, the requirements for the physical qualities and especially for the education of the worker increase, including his ability to constantly improve his skills. However, the development of the qualitative characteristics of the labor force in the world economy is extremely uneven. The worst indicators in this regard are demonstrated by developing countries, which, however, act as the main source of replenishment of the world labor force. This is what determines the global nature of the problem of human development.

Increasing globalization, interdependence and reduction of time and space barriers create a situation of collective insecurity from various threats, from which a person cannot always be saved by his state. This requires the creation of conditions that enhance a person’s ability to independently withstand risks and threats.

Ocean problem- this is the problem of conservation and rational use of its spaces and resources. Currently, the World Ocean, as a closed ecological system, can hardly withstand the greatly increased anthropogenic load, and a real threat of its destruction is created. Therefore, the global problem of the World Ocean is, first of all, the problem of its survival and, consequently, the survival of modern man.