Living for the sake of others, doing good and selfless deeds is called altruism.

Altruism - what is it?

What it is? Its difference from imaginary altruism and its connection with egoism are considered.

A person lives among other people. He interacts with them, just as they interact with him. One form of interaction is purposeful activity. If a person acts solely out of his own interests, then he is called an egoist. If a person helps others, does everything for their sake, giving up his own needs and desires, then he is called an altruist. The philosopher O. Comte contrasted these concepts. However, there is growing evidence that selfishness and altruism are similar traits. Let's look at what altruism is in this article.

Society encourages altruism rather than selfishness. What it is? This is human behavior that is aimed at caring for other people. At the same time, to some extent or completely, the interests and desires of the person who helps others are infringed.

In psychology, there are two types of altruists:

1. “Mutual” are people who sacrifice themselves only for the sake of those who commit similar acts towards them.
2. “Universal” are people who help everyone, based on good intentions.

Altruism comes from the Latin concept “alter”, which has the translation: “others”, “other”. Altruism can be of the following types:

• Parental – the sacrifice of adults towards their own children. They selflessly raise them, educate them, give them all the benefits and are even ready to sacrifice their lives.
• Moral – achieving inner comfort by helping others. For example, volunteering, sympathy.
• Social is sacrifice towards loved ones, relatives, friends, loved ones, etc. This type of altruism helps people establish strong and lasting contacts, sometimes even manipulate each other: “I helped you, now you owe me.”
• Sympathetic – empathy, showing empathy for the experiences of other people. A person feels the emotions that he would experience himself in a similar situation. The desire to help has a targeted and specific result.
• Demonstrative – sacrifice as a result of upbringing. “This is how it should be done!” - the main slogan of those who sacrifice themselves demonstratively.

The most interesting thing is that a person continues to remain full and satisfied, even when he sacrifices his own interests for the benefit of others. This quality is often compared to heroism - when a person sacrifices himself (and even his life) for the good of other people, while being content only with words of gratitude.

Three complementary theories try to explain the nature of altruism:

1. Evolutionary – actions for the sake of preserving the species. It is believed that this is genetic, when a person sacrifices himself for the sake of preserving the genotype, of all humanity.
2. Social norms - when a person proceeds from the rules of society, which state about helping each other. Altruism manifests itself in helping those who are socially equal or inferior to a person: children, the poor, the needy, the sick, etc.
3. Social exchange - when there is a miscalculation of the effort and time spent with the results achieved. Often this approach is based on selfishness, when a person sacrifices himself to obtain some benefit.

Cause of altruism

The theory cannot fully address altruism from a logical point of view. Nevertheless, this manifestation of a person comes from the spiritual qualities that are visible in some people. Some reasons for altruism can be identified:

• Will other people see it? A person is more willing to act altruistically if other people look up to him. Especially if the actions take place surrounded by close people, then the person is ready to sacrifice his interests in order to show himself on the good side (even if in another situation, when no one would look at him, he would not sacrifice himself).
• In what situation will there be punishment? If a person is in a situation where his inaction will be punished, then he will also act based on a sense of self-preservation.
• What do parents do? Let’s not forget that the degree of altruism is transmitted at the level of imitation of parents. If parents sacrifice themselves, then the child copies their actions.
• Is the person interesting to me? An individual often shows sympathy for those who are similar to him or are interested in something. If there are positive feelings between people, then they are ready to sacrifice themselves.
• The strong must help the weak. This can be called public propaganda. Men should help women when it comes to displaying physical strength. Women should help old people.

Much depends on the upbringing and worldview of the person who exhibits altruistic actions. If a person lives in a society where sacrifice is encouraged, then he will be ready to demonstrate altruistic actions, even when he himself does not want to do this. Blame and punishment become very important here. Everyone wants to be accepted in society. If this requires sacrificing oneself, then a person will act accordingly.

Altruism

Altruism is the selfless behavior of an individual who pursues the achievement of another person’s own benefit. The most striking example is help, when a person performs actions that will benefit only the one he helps. In contrast to this concept, they put egoism - a model of behavior where a person achieves exclusively his own goals, putting them above others. However, some psychologists consider egoism and altruism as complementary phenomena: a person sacrifices himself in order to obtain some benefit - gratitude, reciprocal help, a positive attitude, etc.

If we still consider altruism in the meaning of “others,” then this is behavior in the manifestation of such qualities as:

• Self-denial.
• Care.
• Mercy.

Altruism in its pure manifestation is associated with the fact that a person absolutely does not expect any reciprocal actions from those whom he has helped. He doesn’t even expect the word “thank you” in response to his sacrificial actions. This way the altruist feels better, stronger.

Altruistic behavior has the following characteristics:

1. Gratuitousness - a person does not expect gratitude and does not pursue any benefit.
2. Sacrifice - a person spends his resources, even if they cannot be replenished later.
3. Responsibility – a person is ready to be held accountable for actions taken and results achieved.
4. Priority – the interests of others are placed above the desires of one’s own.
5. Freedom of choice - a person acts only according to his own desire.
6. Satisfaction - a person feels complete and happy after the actions he has taken. This is his reward.

A person is able to realize his inner potential when he helps others. Often people grow up who do little for themselves, but are capable of much for the sake of others - this is also a form of altruism.

Another form of altruism is philanthropy - sacrifice towards people who are not acquaintances, friends or relatives.

The negative side of altruism

They say: “Help another person, then he will definitely turn to you again when he has a problem again.” The benefit of the altruist in this case may be establishing contacts with people who are ready to accept his help. The negative side of this phenomenon may be that the altruist will be surrounded only by those people who will use him.

If you show altruistic actions, noticing that people selfishly take advantage of your help, then this problem should be solved. Seek help from a psychologist on the website, because with your altruistic actions in this case you are harming even those you help. You cultivate in people a consumerist approach to your actions.

Don't try to please everyone. Don't adapt to anyone. That’s why you attract “not your” people to yourself, because you yourself are not yourself.

Understand who you are, what you want, what kind of life you want to live regardless of other people's views. Don't live to please others. Understand yourself, become yourself, do what you want, not other people.

Understand yourself and become yourself - then you will decide on your own desires and attract good people! You will look, behave and go to places where you are interested. There you will find both friends and loved ones.

Don't please everyone. This behavior is similar to the behavior of a flighty woman who, out of self-dislike, wants to please everyone without exception, because if someone doesn’t like her, then this will make her feel unhappy. You should live your life and not waste time satisfying the desires of others. If your sacrifice does not bring a feeling of fulfillment, then you should stop your actions. If you like yourself and live to please your desires, then the people around you either respect you or do not communicate with you; but if you live to satisfy the whims of others, then you are perceived as a slave who does not deserve to realize your desires and express your opinion.

The result of a person’s sacrifice can be a negative attitude of people towards him. Taking advantage of someone who is willing to help does not constitute friendship or goodwill.

Bottom line

Altruism is encouraged in society. However, the decision of whether to be an altruist or not must be made individually by each person. Events develop negatively if the individual does not actually perform selfless actions or does not receive satisfaction simply from the fact that he helped. The result of such actions can be the destruction of relationships with those who received help.

When a mother raises her children to help her when they grow up, this is not a manifestation of parental altruism. Here there is a violation of one of the commandments of altruism: selfless behavior. The mother raises her children for her own benefit, which she will demand from them when they finally grow up. The result of such a situation is often the hatred of children towards their mother, who does not do them any good, but acts in order to then demand help from them.

The result of altruism, when a person does not receive satisfaction from his help, is disappointment or resentment. Many people help others expecting that they will do the same in return. What a disappointment it is when people simply say “thank you” and refuse to help those who once helped them.

These examples show non-altruistic behavior. The prognosis for such actions is sad, since friendly relationships between people in such situations are destroyed.

The prognosis for true altruism is obvious: a person develops when he proceeds from a personal desire to help others. The main goal is development, which makes the altruist stronger, more experienced, wiser, which is much more valuable.

Let's consider the factors influencing the emergence of friendship

1. The most significant circumstance on which the emergence of friendly relations between any two people depends is their territorial proximity. Thanks to it, frequent meetings and contacts become possible, which allow us to find common ground and feel mutual sympathy. The likelihood that two people living side by side like Academy students living in the same dorm room will become good friends is very high. In fact, it is not territorial proximity that is decisive, but “functional distance,” that is, how often the paths of two people cross. We often find friends among those who use the same mode of transportation at the same time as us, work on the same floor, the same parking lot, or the same break room. Such contacts help people identify their general and individual tastes and interests and perceive themselves as a kind of social unit. We are predisposed to love those we see often! Territorial proximity creates favorable conditions for the emergence of mutual sympathy not only because it facilitates contacts and promotes positive expectations for them. There is another reason: the results of more than 200 experiments indicate that the “mere exposure effect” established by Zajonc (1968) also affects the way we evaluate others: we like people we know.

2. The second factor determining initial sympathy is physical attractiveness. Judging by how long babies linger their gaze on people's faces, even they prefer pretty faces. If you put all this information together, you get what is called stereotype of physical attractiveness: beautiful means good. Positive heroes of children's fairy tales are always beautiful and kind (Vasilisa the Beautiful, Cinderella). Children learn this at an early age. Negative heroes are ugly and evil (Baba Yaga, Kashchei the Immortal). The results of both laboratory and field studies indicate that we prefer beautiful people. However, in real life, people tend to choose as friends and spouses those whose external attractiveness matches their own (or those who compensate for the lack of it with some other advantages).

3. The phenomenon of “resemblance gives rise to sympathy” Mutual sympathy is favorable similarity attitudes, beliefs and moral values. The greater the similarity between spouses, the happier the marriage and the less likely divorce is. Similarity breeds satisfaction. Having discovered that someone has completely different attitudes, we may begin to dislike him. Members of the same political party are often united not so much by sympathy for each other, but by contempt for their opponents. Dissimilarity breeds hostility The general rule is this: the negative effect of dissimilarity of attitudes is more significant than the positive effect of their similarity.

4. We like those who like us. The fact that we like those whom we perceive as people who sympathize with us has been known for a long time. The ancient philosopher Hekaton wrote: “If you want to be loved, love yourself.” Dale Carnegie repeatedly emphasized in his books: “Be generous with your praise.” We tend to be friends with those to whom we we like you. The validity of this thesis has been confirmed experimentally: people who are told that someone loves or admires them, as a rule, begin to experience reciprocal sympathy.

The phenomenon of altruism

Altruism- a moral principle, a system of value orientations of an individual, prescribing selfless actions aimed at the benefit and satisfaction of the interests of another person or a social community. The term “altruism” was first introduced by O. Comte, who formed the principle of living for others. The scientist distinguished between the instinctive altruism inherent in animals, which unites the individual and the species and is then destroyed by civilization, and altruism, which arises and develops within its framework and ultimately turns into a spontaneous innate property that unites all people. The biological view on the problem of altruism was reflected in G. Spencer, who considered altruism as an adaptive quality that arises in the course of natural evolution; The most general evolutionary explanation of altruism is provided by the theory of kin selection. By helping a close relative survive, the animal thereby contributes to the preservation and spread of its own genes in subsequent generations. In most animals, siblings share 50% of their genes - the same as parents and their children. Therefore, for example, sacrificing one’s own life to save one sister or brother is unprofitable, but for the sake of three it is already profitable, and the hereditary predisposition to such self-sacrifice will be supported by selection. Thus, it can be assumed that altruism is the result of evolutionary development aimed at ensuring the transmission of hereditary traits between generations. In S. Freud's concept, manifestations of altruism are considered as the subject's neurotic need to weaken feelings of guilt, or as compensation for primitive egoism that has been repressed.

The central idea of ​​altruism is the idea of ​​selflessness as a non-pragmatically oriented activity performed in the interests of other people and not implying real reward. Altruism can become a conscious value orientation that determines the behavior of the individual as a whole; then it turns into the meaning of the individual’s life. Absolutization of altruism is just as erroneous as its underestimation. The real significance of an individual's altruistic behavior is determined by the nature of the values ​​underlying relationships with other people. Altruism can act as a socio-psychological manifestation of humanity, as well as in everyday communication and activities of people. In social psychology there is a sufficient variety of theoretical ideas about altruism and its emergence. You can select three explanatory principles of this concept, which are not mutually exclusive.

According to the first of them, altruism is a consequence of an emotional reaction empathy, while the latter is understood as an affective connection with another person, as the ability to join the emotional life of another person, sharing his experiences.

According to the second principle, altruism arises as a result of influences on the subject of social moral standards. They are presented to a person mainly in the form of other people's expectations regarding his possible behavior. Being inextricably linked with society, the subject, even in the absence of observers, will behave in accordance with accepted norms of behavior.

According to the third principle, altruism is motivated by the so-called personal norms, such as helping another. In this case, a person can show altruism without expecting reward, in a situation without witnesses, at the cost of possible personal losses. This is the so-called pure (real, authentic) altruism, who does not expect reciprocal gratitude. In contrast to this type of altruism, social psychologists distinguish reciprocal altruism (reciprocal altruism) - a type of social behavior when two individuals behave with a certain degree of self-sacrifice towards each other, but only if they expect reciprocal self-sacrifice. This type of behavior is characteristic not only of humans, but also of a number of animals: the formation of coalitions in primates (whose members help each other) based on mutual altruism has been discovered.

There are two known experiments in social psychology that cast doubt on the exclusively positive role of altruism. Firstly, in the early 1970s, G. Tajfal (Great Britain) proved that the act of altruism is carried out in a situation of double social asymmetry. He posted his assistants at telephone booths and asked them to ask for a coin in order to make a call. It turned out that white female assistants were most often given coins by men of color. Similarly, male assistants of color were more likely to be given money by white women. Experiments by V. Lefebvre (formerly the USSR, now the USA) have proven that the act of altruism is often used to compensate for feelings of guilt. An advertisement was placed in newspapers for volunteers to conduct week-long experiments with animals (rabbits). The experiments began on Monday. And on Tuesday morning, the volunteers were met by an angry experimenter, who reported that, due to the fault of the volunteers, all the rabbits had died during the night. Then he softened slightly and said that there were spare rabbits in the laboratory, and the experiment would be continued on them. After lunch, Lefebvre's assistant appeared, disguised as a fundraiser for the cancer clinic. So, in those episodes where the rabbits “died,” the amount of donations was always much higher than in those episodes in which nothing happened to the rabbits.

Stand out factors contributing to the manifestation of altruistic behavior. These include: moral obligations; empathy (sympathy); the desire to return a similar favor (repay good for good); increased self-esteem; the desire for recognition by a group or social community. In addition, a positive relationship has been proven between good mood and helping. Willingness to help increases under the condition of a good mood (absence of danger) caused by successes and pleasant memories. Some data confirm the fact that emotional people and those who are independent in their life choices often provide help to others. It has been established that feelings of guilt increase the tendency to help. It is also known that a person is more inclined to help someone with whom he has a close relationship. The likelihood of displaying altruism increases if it is directed at a person in a state of grief or sadness.

Among reasons suppressing altruism Social psychologists most often name the following. Firstly, there is a lack of time (a person who is in a hurry is least likely to provide help). Secondly, stress and danger. Thirdly, material costs. Fourth, incompetence. Fifthly, bad mood. Sixthly, the presence of danger when a person is focused on himself. Seventhly, the irresponsible behavior of the victim herself or her appearance as a victim.

The phenomenon of aggression

Due to the specific nature of the work of a social worker, a special place in it is occupied by such personality quality as altruism.

The term “altruism” was first introduced by O. Comte, who formed the principle of “revile pour outre” - to live for others. The scientist distinguished between the instinctive altruism inherent in animals, which unites the individual and the species and is then destroyed by civilization, and altruism, which arises and develops within its framework and ultimately turns into a spontaneous innate property that unites all people.

The biological view on the problem of altruism was reflected in G. Spencer, who considered altruism as an adaptive quality that arises in the course of natural evolution; in the psychoanalytic concept of S. Freud, who believed that altruistic impulses are neurotic compensation for impulses of the opposite direction - primitive egoism, subjected to repression; the geneticist F. G. Dobzhansky, who believed that altruistic feelings are “genetically programmed” in the individual and thereby contribute to the survival of the species in the struggle for existence; by V. Efroimson, who understood altruism as “the entire group of emotions that motivates a person to perform actions that are directly disadvantageous and even dangerous for him personally, but that benefit other people.”

According to V. Efroimson, the emotions of humanity, kindness, caring attitude towards children, old people and women inevitably developed under the influence of natural selection and were part of the fund of hereditary characteristics.

The biological point of view is opposed by another position, set out most fully by I.P. Pavlov, who considered “true altruism to be the acquisition of culture” associated with the second signaling system, and if it is weak, then “concern for one’s own skin will certainly be in the foreground.” The practice of educational work confirms the correctness of the views of the great physiologist: a high culture of feelings is not inherited, it must be formed from the moment the child is born. “The genetic basis of altruism is present, according to V. Ya. Semke, as a biological prerequisite, a potential opportunity for education.”

Today there is no generally accepted definition of altruism. In foreign psychology, a widespread definition of this phenomenon is based on “the intention to create relief or improve the situation for another in need,” and altruistic behavior is understood as behavior in which “a person acts, assuming that thanks to his actions, the recipient will eliminate unwanted state" .

Close to our understanding of this phenomenon is the definition, the authors of which consider altruistic behavior when “they help others without expecting to receive any external reward for this.”

In Russian psychology, the study of altruism is carried out mainly in line with the problems of collectivism or the collectivist orientation of the individual.

In other words, in relevant psychological developments, aspects of altruism are considered as reflecting the subject’s focus on protecting the interests of society as a whole or its individual groups.

We believe that the connection between the concepts of “altruism” and “collectivism” drawn by domestic psychologists has quite good grounds. Thus, M.I. Bobneva, speaking about the process of formation of moral qualities of an individual and her social motives, among the latter names the motives of collectivism and altruism, that is, she considers them side by side.

E. E. Nasinovskaya believes that the bearer of altruistic motivation is capable of showing altruism not only in relation to any social association of which he is a member, but even to unfamiliar persons and communities in which he is not really included. Unlike the collectivist, the altruistic orientation is of a general humanistic nature, relates to deeply personal characteristics, and can manifest itself in a wide variety of life situations.

Thus, the concept of “altruism” appears to be in a complementary relationship with “collectivism,” in some cases specifying the latter.

Altruism in philosophical and ethical literature is understood as a principle consisting of selfless service to other people, a willingness to sacrifice personal interests for their benefit. There are clearly two parts to this definition. And if the first, expressing the essence of altruism (selfless help to another person), does not raise objections, then the second requires some clarification.

We believe that it would be more correct to focus in the definition of altruism not on the moment of sacrifice, but on the moment of the absence of practical benefit or reward for the acting subject. Firstly, as rightly noted in the psychological literature, truly altruistic behavior is not always characterized by sacrifice for the benefit of another. Altruistic behavior, as a rule, is characterized by the fact that the subject experiences his act as dictated by internal necessity and not contrary to his interests. Secondly, behavior that requires the subject to clearly observe from the outside and clearly express sacrifice for the needs of another is carried out relatively rarely, while behavior that does not coincide with the person’s personal needs and does not promise him reward is implemented quite often.

Our analysis of the literature allows us to conclude that there is a sufficient variety of theoretical ideas about altruism and its emergence. We can distinguish three explanatory principles of this concept, which are not mutually exclusive. According to the first of them, altruism is a consequence of the emotional reaction of empathy, while the latter is understood as an affective connection with another person, as the ability to join the emotional life of another person, sharing his experiences.

According to the second principle, altruism arises as a result of the influence of social moral norms on the subject. They are presented to a person mainly in the form of other people's expectations regarding his possible behavior. Being inextricably linked with society, the subject, even in the absence of observers, will behave in accordance with accepted norms of behavior.

According to the third principle, altruism is motivated by so-called personal norms, which are understood as an insufficiently clearly defined reality, appearing either in the form of the subject’s self-expectations, or in the form of social norms learned and processed by him, or in the form of value orientations or social attitudes.

Let's look at each of these principles. As for the role of emotional components “in the implementation of altruistic behavior,” it seems indisputable. At the same time, two other principles are questionable. First of all, moral norms themselves are unlikely to contribute to the emergence of altruistic behavior. To do this, they must necessarily be accepted and processed by the subject. But in this case, isolating personal norms, understood as processed social norms, does not solve the problem of determining and considering the internal determinants of altruistic behavior. It is appropriate to remember, therefore, that so-called personal norms are often interpreted as personality attitudes. This interpretation is quite consistent with the traditional idea of ​​attitude as a readiness to act in a certain way.

In this regard, we suggest that altruistic behavior can be adequately understood in the light of theoretical ideas about the hierarchical nature of the attitude, based on activity theory, according to which each activity is stimulated and directed by a motive representing a certain need.

Motives are reflected in a person’s consciousness, but not always adequately, and in this case they can only be studied indirectly - through a psychological analysis of the content of the activity. But in activities in different situations, two indirect forms of reflection of reality are manifested in different ways and to varying degrees - meaning and personal meaning. If “meanings represent the ideal form of existence of the objective world, its properties, connections and relationships, revealed by cumulative social practice, transformed and folded in the matter of language,” then personal meaning is a product of the reflection of the world by a specific subject, formed in his individual activity and expressed in his (of the subject) in relation to the phenomena perceived by the subject.

Thanks to personal meaning, objective meaning is associated with the real life of the subject, with the motives of his activity, and partiality and subjectivity of human consciousness are created. Thus, every situation, object or phenomenon appears for the subject and is reflected by him in two ways. In conditions when a situation, object or phenomenon that has a certain meaning is reflected, and when goal formation is not difficult, the subject interprets them in accordance with their objective meaning. But if the situation is sufficiently uncertain, then in such cases their personal meaning, their significance for the subject, comes to the fore. This uniqueness of personal meaning is emphasized by A. N. Leontyev. He wrote the following about this: “In the event that goal setting is impossible under existing objective conditions and not a single link in the subject’s activity can be realized, then this motive remains only potential - existing in the form of readiness, in the form of an attitude.”

In other words, in an uncertain situation, personal meaning is activated, prompting the subject to be ready to act in a certain way, in accordance with his value orientations, prevailing tendencies, etc., that is, in accordance with what is most adequately expressed in the concept of “attitude”, which, according to the ideas of A.G. Asmolov, is a stabilizer of activity, without which “activity could not exist as an independent system capable of maintaining stability and direction of movement.”

In the light of A. G. Asmolov’s theoretical ideas about the hierarchical level nature of the attitude as a psychological mechanism for stabilizing activity, four levels of attitudinal regulation of activity are distinguished, corresponding to the structure of activity: the level of semantic attitudes, the level of goal attitudes, the level of operational attitudes and the level of psychophysiological mechanisms - regulators of attitude in activity . The level of semantic attitudes is the leading one in the hierarchical structure of activity regulation.

Meaningful attitudes are caused by the motive of activity and express personal meaning in it in the form of readiness to maintain the direction of activity as a whole. Their essential feature is that to change them it is necessary to include the subject in a new activity.

The criterion for identifying the next level of attitudinal regulation of activity is the presence of a goal of action. The goal, being presented in the form of an image of a conscious prediction of the result, actualizes the subject’s readiness to achieve it and thereby determines the direction of the action. The goal setting is understood as the subject’s readiness to do, first of all, what is in accordance with the goal facing him, which arises after accepting a certain task. From the above, it becomes clear that the distinguishing criterion for separating the level of semantic attitudes from the target level is the presence of a goal for the latter, presented in the “form of an image of a conscious, foreseen result.”

Target settings correspond to the purpose of the action and perform the function of its stabilization. Operational settings are determined by the conditions for the implementation of the action. On their basis, stable behavioral stereotypes are formed.

According to our ideas, the implementation of altruistic behavior is carried out through semantic altruistic attitudes, which are revealed most clearly in uncertain situations given to a person, where he is given the opportunity to choose the most specific ways of responding to him. It is logical to assume that since an uncertain situation is relevant to the projection of various attitudes, then under these conditions there will be an actualization of attitudes corresponding to the altruistic motive, that is, an altruistic semantic attitude realized in the corresponding altruistic activity, by which we mean the humanistically oriented activity of the subject to help those in need in it to a person, prompted by selfless motivation, consistent with the interests of other people (groups, the whole society) and accompanied by specific altruistic experiences.

We call the subject's readiness to carry out such activities an altruistic attitude. The formation of altruistic attitudes in a subject may indicate a high level of development of his moral consciousness.

Without pretending to have a complete understanding of the essence of altruism, we will try to highlight its distinctive properties.

Firstly, this phenomenon allows us to identify the internal motivational plan of actions and deeds carried out by people. In some studies, it was found that behind the unambiguous external manifestations of altruistic, as well as moral behavior in general, various motives may lie: altruistic and motives of moral self-respect. “The altruistic motive itself is formed under the conditions of a special method of education, when the development of the subject’s empathic abilities is encouraged in every possible way while simultaneously organizing real acts of help towards those in need. The condition for the action of the actual altruistic motive is an orientation towards the state of the object of help and a sympathetic attitude towards it. In this case, there is a coincidence of the motive and purpose of the activity... The motive of moral self-respect is a derivative of normative education and is associated with self-esteem and personal ideals. Altruistic behavior carried out in accordance with this motive is one of the means of achieving moral self-respect, preserving self-esteem, and the subject either seeks to avoid a possible violation of moral self-esteem in the event of failure to carry out an altruistic action (this manifests the preventive function of the motive), or seeks to eliminate an already the resulting moral dissonance (compensatory function of the motive). At the same time, the person maintains an egocentric orientation, striving to receive a kind of internal “moral reward” for his action.

Secondly, with the help of this phenomenon it is possible to determine the direction of a person’s actions, and, consequently, his moral consciousness, to delimit cases when the apparent altruism of actions hides the achievement of one’s own narrowly selfish goals. B.I. Dodonov established that, for example, with a gnostic orientation of a personality, its properties are arranged in the following order: intelligence, hard work, responsiveness. With an altruistic orientation, they are arranged differently: responsiveness, hard work, intelligence. This does not mean, as T. P. Gavrilova rightly notes, that a person with altruistic aspirations does not work and does not learn. He most often finds a business in which he realizes his altruistic inclinations.

Thirdly, the phenomenon under consideration is associated with certain altruistic experiences of a person, participating in a kind of regulation of his activity, making adjustments to its course. A number of works have established an inextricable connection between the presence of an altruistic motive in the hierarchy of motives and a stable, specific form of emotional response. The dominant altruistic motive also gives rise to specific emotional experiences corresponding to it, which are in the nature of a stable emotional response. This position is in good agreement with the data obtained in the studies of L. I. Bozhovich, T. E. Konnikova, B. I. Dodonov, Ya. Z. Neverovich and other authors. Thus, B.I. Dodonov argues that a person’s persistent need for the good of another is reflected in the tendency to experience altruistic emotions. If this need is not satisfied, the person experiences a painful state.

Having identified the main features that characterize altruism, and taking into account the fact that altruism is an indicator of the direction of a social worker’s activity, we made an attempt to measure it. For this purpose, we used the TAT, as well as the 16-factor questionnaire of R. Cattell, the test of O. F. Potemkina and others, guided by the fact that this phenomenon is a complex formation, including altruistic needs, attitudes and motives, from the formation of which depends on the direction of human activity.

The appeal to TAT was caused by the fact that the uncertainty of situations in the pictures presented to the subject allows him to choose the most specific modes of behavior for him, and the researcher, based on the actions carried out by the characters in the stories or the emotions they express, allows him to identify the true motives of the subject, which may be hidden or distorted by him when asking direct questions.

The use of TAT for the purpose of diagnosing manifestations of altruism required us to identify a number of its indicators. We included the following among them:

An individual’s manifestation of empathy towards another person;

The need of the individual to help someone who is in a difficult situation;

The readiness of subjects for joint actions with other participants in the activity.

Guided by these indicators and trying to determine the level of manifestation of altruism, we offered the subjects, who were students (future social workers) of a pedagogical university (102 people), a sample of ten tables taken from the classic TAT set. The numbers and order of presentation of the tables were as follows: 1; 2; 3 FG; 7 VM; 10; 8 VM; 18 FG; 15; 17 FG; 18 VM.

The selection of tables, based on assumptions that most often actualize altruistic tendencies in subjects, was carried out through expert assessment followed by empirical verification. The experimental procedure using TAT variants was standard.

To process TAT ​​stories, we used the content analysis method, the possibility of using which when interpreting these techniques has been repeatedly noted in the literature.

Based on the indicators of altruism that we identified and found in the projective products of TAT, the following main categories acted as adequately set goals in the study: A - the subject of the description (the one who is discussed in the story); B - description of the situation shown in the table (specifics of perception of situations); C - attitude towards the described characters (penetration into their inner world); D - the nature of the relationship between the characters in the story; E - assistance of the described characters to each other (moments of mutual assistance).

Next, using content analysis, we tracked the frequency of subjects’ use of categories in TAT stories and, based on this, as well as the previously mentioned indicators of altruism, we identified three groups of subjects with varying degrees of expression of altruistic attitudes: high, medium and low.

The analysis showed that the frequency of manifestation of categories in percentage terms is significantly higher in subjects with a high degree of expression of altruistic attitudes compared to subjects with an average and low degree of their expression.

In the stories of the former, attempts to penetrate deeply into the inner world of the characters and reveal their feelings and experiences were much more often noted. The nature of the described relationships between the heroes was characterized by mutual assistance and mutual support.

The subjects of the first group often expressed thoughts about the need to benefit people, provide assistance and mutual assistance. These statements, as a rule, were not declarative in nature, but emotionally charged; the subjects’ interest in the inner world of their heroes was felt.

The stories of the subjects of the second group, although they were characterized by statements about help and the characters they described provided it to a person in need, but this happened sporadically and was not as widespread as in the first case. Attempts to penetrate into the inner world of their heroes were also not so frequent, and the descriptions were not deep and were superficial. If identification occurred with the character being described, it was, as a rule, the main character.

Subjects with a low degree of expression of altruistic attitudes very rarely expressed thoughts about the willingness to help the described characters to each other; penetration into their inner world practically did not occur. The descriptions were superficial, the events mainly unfolded around the main character.

The content analysis carried out allows us to establish that in the stories of subjects with a high degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, the characters are much more often people who are not in close or related relationships with each other, while in subjects with a medium and low degree of expression of altruistic attitudes stories feature either the main character or people closely associated with him. Because of this, these subjects describe mainly from the position of the central character; only their close ones act as other people.

As for the subjects with a high degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, their stories highlight various characters on whose behalf the story is told. In this case, the person being tested seems to be trying to take the place of another person, trying to see the situation through his eyes, to understand and accept the point of view of different people. Their stories are characterized by the optimistic, life-affirming nature of the situations described, presented in the table; their characters are full of faith in justice, in goodness, in people, which was practically not observed, for example, among subjects with a low degree of manifestation of altruistic attitudes. The stories of the latter were pessimistic and sometimes cynical.

If the subjects of the first group were characterized by a desire to penetrate into the inner world of the characters, then the subjects of the second, and especially the third group were limited mainly to the external description of the main character, without showing much interest in his inner world. In the descriptions of the latter, there was almost no mention of actions taken for humane purposes, for the benefit of other people, society, which, on the contrary, was characteristic of the subjects of the first group, in whose stories the characters committed selfless acts that could improve the situation of other people; The described relationships between people were characterized by an emotionally positive connotation, manifestations of sympathy and empathy. In the stories of these subjects, the characters helped each other.

If we proceed from the fact that the altruistic attitude is a structural element of altruistic behavior, then the degree of expression of the first indicates the level of development of the second, that is, we can talk about three levels of development or three types of manifestation of altruism.

First type was typical for subjects with a high degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, whose stories were distinguished by deep penetration into the inner world of their characters, empathy, and the desire to accept the position of their heroes; the latter were distinguished by close relationships and mutual assistance, regardless of the degree of proximity, and their behavior in general was characterized by an altruistic orientation. This type of altruism can be considered high-level.

Second type was characteristic of subjects with an average degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, the descriptions of which, like the previous ones, were distinguished by the desire of the subjects to reveal the inner world of their characters, while they themselves did not always share the position of their heroes. Empathy for the heroes was selective. The characters, although they interacted with each other, but the relationship between them was not as close as in the first case. Willingness to provide help to those in need was manifested only in relation to the character close to the hero, as a rule, a relative. We consider this type of altruism to be mid-level.

Third type was noted in subjects with a low degree of expression of altruistic attitudes, who described both situations and characters from an ego-altruistic position, that is, penetration into the inner world of the hero occurred only when the subject identified himself with him, and this was, as a rule, the central character. The heroes' empathic manifestations were concentrated mainly on themselves, which is psychologically equivalent to empathy as the egoistic side of empathy. The stories showed weak connections between the characters (communicative, emotional relationships). Help was not provided by the central character, but, on the contrary, he received help from other people. We classified this type of altruism as low-level.

The differences in the types of altruistic mechanism we identified were analyzed using data from R. Cattell’s 16-factor questionnaire. As is known, this questionnaire reveals individual typological characteristics of personality, which makes it possible to establish the dependence of various levels of altruistic behavior on a person’s personal properties. Personality profiles according to R. Cattell's test (Fig.) are built on average indicators.

The figure shows that the profile of subjects with the first type of altruistic behavior is highly expressed in the following factors: A - extraversion - introversion; B - plasticity - rigidity; C - emotional stability - lability; Q 3 - high self-control - low self-control; G - conscientiousness - unprincipledness; N - courage - timidity. The following factors showed slightly lower values: N - flexibility - straightforwardness; Q 1 - radicalism - conservatism; J - pliability - cruelty; F - concern - carelessness. However, the indicators of these factors in individuals with the first type of altruistic behavior are higher than in individuals with other types of the phenomenon under consideration.

The data obtained indicate that a high level of altruism is ensured and depends on the influence of the external environment, the emotional stability of the individual, stable volitional properties, volitional control, balanced actions, courage, and flexibility in judgment. On the contrary, if increased anxiety (factor O), ergonal tension (factor Q 4), as well as excessive suspicion (factor L) are manifested, then this significantly reduces the manifestation of altruism.

Characteristic in this regard is the profile of subjects with the third type of altruistic behavior. They are characterized by a low level of control over the affective sphere, that is, low volitional regulation of this sphere (factor Q 3), indiscipline (factor G), high anxiety (factor O), tension (factor Q 4), and great suspicion (factor L). All these indicators allow us to conclude that subjects with this type of altruistic behavior have insufficiently stable altruistic attitudes, and this reduces the motivating power of this mechanism and its impact on the development of the moral consciousness of the individual.

We also traced the relationship between the identified types of altruistic mechanism and the types of relationships of the subjects to others (T. Leary’s method).

Subjects with the first type of altruistic behavior are characterized by friendliness, while subjects with the third type are characterized by aggressiveness. And finally, we studied the dependence of altruism on the type of socio-psychological attitudes of the individual in the motivational-need sphere (methodology of O. F. Potemkina). It was revealed that subjects with a high level of altruistic behavior (type 1) differ primarily in their orientation towards altruistic values. Subjects with an average level of altruistic behavior (type 2) are characterized by a focus on results in various types of activities, including altruistic ones. Low-level subjects (type 3) are process-oriented, that is, they can respond to the help of a person in need, but are not always able to complete the work they have begun.

Figure 1. Types of altruistic mechanisms and profiles according to R. Cattell’s test indicators

The types of altruistic behavior themselves are provided by the expressed individual-typological properties of the personality. These, first of all, include volitional properties, personality plasticity, flexibility in judgment, the ability to respond emotionally to external influences, courage, and conscientiousness. And on the contrary, the manifestation of altruistic behavior decreases if the individual has low volitional control over the affective sphere, high rigidity, greater stability of negative emotions, excessive suspicion, and self-directed interests.

Thus, our analysis of the data we obtained on the mutual influence of types of altruistic behavior and various psychological properties of a person showed that there is a close positive connection between them.

The conducted theoretical analysis and empirical data allow us to conclude that the formation and development of an altruistic personality orientation is especially necessary for people working with people. At the same time, in the words of V. A. Sukhomlinsky, “one should start with the elementary, but at the same time the most difficult thing - with the formation of the ability to sense the mental state of another person, to be able to put oneself in the place of another in a variety of situations... Those who are deaf to other people will remain deaf to himself: he will not have access to the most important thing in self-education - an emotional assessment of his own actions.”

We believe that this judgment can also be addressed to a social worker, on whose sensitivity, responsiveness, mercy, sympathy, empathy and sacrifice the health and well-being of the wards depend to a certain extent.

To develop altruism as a personality quality in future social workers, one can use such forms of work as trainings, role-playing and business games, analysis of specific situations that allow the future specialist to demonstrate his personal qualities in an active dialogue, with constant reflection to correct those unacceptable for future work and form those that will be in first demand.

So, altruism as selfless service to people, including altruistic needs, attitudes and motivation, as an indicator that determines the overall orientation of the individual, plays an important role in the professional activities of people engaged in the “person-to-person” sphere, and the formation and development of this quality is an important task for anyone preparing to devote themselves to social work.

Bibliography

Abramenkova V.V. The role of joint activity in the manifestation of humanity among preschoolers’ peers. - M., 1981.

Yakobson S. G. Analysis of psychological mechanisms for regulating ethical behavior of children // Questions of psychology. - 1979. - No. 1. - P. 38 - 48.

Bergius R., Gunter R., Limbourg M. Bedingungen altruistischen verhaltens von 4 - 9 Jaringen Kindern // Bericht uber den 29. Kongress der DGf Ps. - Gottingen, 1974. - Bd. 2. - S. 153 - 156.

Hornstein H. Promovior From a Levinian perspective.- J. Of. Soc. Issues, 1972. - N. 28. - P. 191 - 218.

Jarle M. Lerbuch der Sozialpsychologie. - Gottingen - Toronto-Zurich: Hogrife, 1975. - 558 s.

Karylowski J. Evaluation of othersactsasa funktion of self - other similarityandself - esteem. - Zeszyty, Maukowe Psycholodii Um, z.3 (Podred. J. Reykowskiego). - Warszawa, 1974. - P. 68 - 77.

Luck H. E. Prosozialis Verhalten Empirische Untersuchungen zur Hilfeleistung. - Koln: Pahl-Rugenstein, 1975. - 128 s.

Reykowski J. Nastawienia egocentryezne i nastawienia prospolecznie. - Egozentric and prosocial orientations // Osobowoca spoleznie zachowanie sie ludzi. Personality and the social behavior of man (Podred. J. Reykowskiego). - Warsawa, 1976. - S. 169 - 233).

Schwartz S. H. The Activation of personal norms and prosocial behavior: Paper delivered at the conference on Mechanisms of Prosocial Behavior. - Warsawa, 1974. - 30 p.

Werbik H. Teorie der Gewalt. Eine neue Grundlage fur die Aggressionsforschung. - Munchen: Fink, 1974. - 206 s.

Antilogova L.N. ,

The article was published in the collection “Social work in Siberia”. Collection of scientific papers. Kemerovo: Kuzbassvuzizdat, 2004 - 180 p. (p. 35 - 44)
ISBN 5-202-00663-2
The collection represents the result of work within the framework of the project “Development of a regional resource center in the field of psychology and social work” of the megaproject “Development of Education in Russia” of the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) and includes materials prepared by specialists in the field of social work from the regions of Siberia and Far East.
Publication is carried out in agreement with the editorial board and compilers of the collections.
Original publication on the portal of the Social Psychological Faculty of Kemerovo State University.
For questions regarding purchasing the collection, please contact: Andrey Viktorovich Sery (mail:

Altruism in its most concise and precise definition is the selfless act of helping people. An altruist always helps other people, including when he receives nothing in return and may even suffer for helping people. Filled with a feeling of compassion for people, he can give his own to a complete stranger, without expecting either gratitude or reward.

Social psychologists have long tried to understand the nature of altruistic behavior, with varying answers to the question of what motivates people to behave altruistically. This or that specific answer to this question, as practice shows, depends on the individual psychological characteristics of the scientist who offers this answer. If he himself, as a person, is convinced that people never do anything for nothing or just like that, without counting on a certain benefit (it can also be understood in different ways, both idealistically and materialistically), then in explaining altruistic behavior such a scientist necessarily seeks and finds some kind of “benefit”. If he himself is a truly altruistic person, then he accordingly explains the similar behavior of other people, emphasizing the absence of any benefit in him and in his motivation.

With regard to altruism, understood as a motive for social behavior, two opposing points of view have emerged: biological and social. The biological point of view on the origin of altruism is that it, as a need and form of behavior, is considered innate, inherited by man from animals. This point of view is justified by the fact that not only in humans, but also in animals, especially higher ones, cases of caring for each other and helping each other can be observed. In addition, altruistic tendencies in behavior can be noticed quite early in children, and this fact is also considered as an indirect confirmation of the innate origin of altruism.

However, evidence of the social origin of this motive and the corresponding form of behavior seems no less convincing. They boil down to the following. If, for example, adults often show altruism in their interactions with children, then children, imitating them, begin to demonstrate it. It has been noted that the altruism of parents is often combined with manifestations of altruism in their children, and vice versa, the absence of altruistic behavior in parents is often accompanied by its absence in children.

All theories of the social origin of altruism are divided into two main groups: “selfish” and “selfless.” The first asserts that behind any altruistic behavior there is an open or hidden, conscious or unconscious benefit that people strive to derive from it. The second theories contain the idea that altruistic behavior does not contain any personal benefit for a person, that it is always selfless. The following options for a “selfish” explanation of altruistic behavior are proposed.

• 1. Social exchange theory. According to this theory, any interaction and any relationship between people in society is governed by the so-called “social economy”. Altruism, according to supporters of this theory, is the exchange of psychological “services” between people: recognition, love, respect, affection, etc. When acting altruistically, a person does this prudently - hoping for the same reciprocal relationship. He, however, organizes his altruistic actions in such a way that he will be able to “pay less” and “get more in return.”
• 2. The theory of disguised egoism. This theory states that people engage in altruism to gain self-satisfaction, to feel proud of themselves, to gain the favor of those they help, to increase self-esteem, to enhance self-esteem, or to satisfy other purely personal needs.

An alternative to these theories are explanations that do not emphasize the benefit that the altruist derives for himself, or consider cases where a person cannot explain his altruistic behavior in any way. Examples of such “disinterested” theories are as follows.

• 1. Theory of empathy. This theory contains the idea that altruistic behavior is guided by a person’s natural ability to sympathize and empathize with people. This feeling always arises in a person if he sees how other people suffer, and this is quite enough for the manifestation of altruistic behavior.
• 2. Social-normative theory. According to this theory, people behave altruistically because they have internalized a social norm that instructs all people to always behave in this way. Such a norm can be, for example, instructions for believers contained in a particular religious teaching, or a norm of social responsibility that is part of the values ​​of the corresponding society.

Along with the explanations described above, there is also an evolutionary biological explanation of altruism. It is based on the assumption that the tendency to altruistic behavior is embedded in the genetic development program of not only humans, but also many, especially higher, animals. Proponents of this theory, observing the behavior of animals aimed at helping their own kind, conclude that altruistic behavior has a biological basis, that it is based on an instinctive desire to maintain and preserve the species: “Our genes force us to take care of those with by whom we are related by blood"1.

Accordingly, there is a situational explanation of altruism, that is, a situational theory of altruism. Discussing the issue of situational influences on the manifestation of altruism, scientists identify the following factors:

• the presence or absence of other people at the moment of altruistic behavior;
• reactions of significant people to their behavior;
• a person’s acceptance of responsibility in the event of refusal to provide assistance to another person;
• imitation of other people;
• the similarity or difference of a person from those people to whom he provides assistance;
• gender factor;
• age factor;
• a person’s own psychological state at a given moment in time;
• individual characteristics of a person;
• person's attitude towards religion.

In the presence of other people who are witnesses to his action, a person will be more inclined to behave altruistically than in an anonymous situation where no one is watching him. This is explained by a person’s desire to look good in the eyes of the people around him. If a person is observed by people who are significant to him, whose personal affection he especially values ​​and who themselves value altruism, the person will be even more inclined to display altruism than in the case described above. If there is a danger that, by refusing to help another person, the individual will bear personal responsibility for this, for example, responsibility under the law, then he will naturally be inclined to show altruism, although not out of his own desire or conviction.

Young children usually show altruism by simply imitating adults people and other children, and this happens long before the time when they realize the need to behave in this way even if other people behave differently. Altruism can result from simple imitation in a group or crowd, when other people surrounding a given person behave altruistically.

It has been noticed that we not only show sympathy for those people who are similar to us, but we also strive to help precisely such people to a greater extent. In this case, altruistic behavior is governed by the similarity or difference between those we help and ourselves.

In most modern cultures, men are considered the strong and women the weaker sex. This attitude towards people of different sexes requires a man to help a woman in all situations where we are talking about a lack of physical effort or providing purely physical assistance. Therefore, cultural norms dictate that men in such social situations behave altruistically towards women. If the situation is such that a man needs female help, then women behave in a similar way. This is an altruistic motivation based on gender differences.

The situation is similar in cases where it is necessary to provide assistance to a person of a certain age. It is recognized that children and older people are in greater need of assistance than middle-aged people. Therefore, in relation to these two age categories of people, more altruism is manifested than in relation to adults who are able to help themselves.

All three remaining factors (a person’s own psychological state at a given moment in time; a person’s individual characteristics; a person’s attitude towards religion) are related to the individual characteristics of a person demonstrating altruism. Therefore, when explaining altruistic behavior, it is necessary to take into account the state (mood) of both the one who shows altruism and the one who accepts altruistic help. There are personal characteristics that promote or hinder the manifestations of altruism. Such behavior is facilitated by, for example, empathy, kindness, responsibility, decency, while selfishness, aggressiveness, callousness and indifference to people hinder it.

All these theories, strictly speaking, are not alternative and complement each other. People in different situations will probably be guided by different considerations, showing altruism, and, most likely, not by one, but by several considerations at once. Those motives for altruistic behavior that a person prefers will also depend on his own individual characteristics. Therefore, when developing theories of altruism, it is necessary to include both a personal component and an analysis of the situation in which a person exhibits altruistic behavior.

Altruism comes from the Latin word “alter”, which means “other” or “others”. This is the principle of human moral behavior, implying selflessness in actions aimed at meeting the needs of those around them, while infringing on one’s own interests and benefits. Sometimes in psychology, altruism is regarded either as an analogue or as a component of prosocial behavior.

The concept of altruism, as opposed to egoism, was first formulated by the French philosopher, founder of sociology, Francois Xavier Comte in the first half of the 18th century. Its original definition was: “Live for the sake of others.”

Theories of altruism

There are three main complementary theories of altruism:

• Evolutionary. Based on the concept “preservation of the species is the driving force of evolution.” Proponents of this theory consider altruism to be a biologically programmed quality of living beings that maximizes the preservation of the genotype;
• Social sharing. Subconscious consideration in any situation of the basic values ​​of the social economy - feelings, emotions, information, status, mutual services. When faced with a choice - to provide help or pass by, a person always instinctively calculates the consequences of the decision, mentally weighing the effort expended and the bonuses received. This theory interprets the provision of selfless help as a deep manifestation of selfishness;
• Social norms. According to the rules of society, which determine the behavioral responsibilities of an individual within boundaries called norms, providing selfless help is a natural human necessity. Modern sociologists have put forward this theory of altruism as based on the principles of reciprocity - mutual support of equals, and social responsibility - assistance to people who obviously do not have the opportunity to reciprocate (children, the sick, the elderly, the poor). The motivation for altruism in both cases is social norms of behavior.

But none of these theories provides a complete, convincing and unambiguous explanation of the nature of altruism. Probably because this quality of a person should also be considered on a spiritual plane. Sociology, on the other hand, is a more pragmatic science, which significantly limits it in the study of altruism as a property of human character, as well as in identifying the motives that encourage people to act unselfishly.

One of the paradoxes of the modern world is that a society that has long and firmly placed price tags on everything - from material goods to scientific achievements and human feelings - continues to generate incorrigible altruists.

Types of altruism

Let's consider the main types of altruism, from the point of view of the above theories as applied to certain situations:

• Parental. An irrational, selfless, sacrificial attitude towards children, when parents are ready to give not only material wealth, but also their own life for the sake of saving their child;
• Moral. Realization of your spiritual needs to achieve a state of inner comfort. For example, volunteers who selflessly care for terminally ill patients show compassion, being content with moral satisfaction;
• Sociable. A type of altruism that extends to the immediate environment - acquaintances, colleagues, friends, neighbors. Free services to these people make existence in certain groups more comfortable, which in some way even allows them to be manipulated;
• Sympathetic. People tend to experience empathy, to imagine themselves in the place of another person, empathizing with him. In such a situation, supporting someone out of altruism is potentially projected onto oneself. A distinctive feature of this type of assistance is that it is always specific and aimed at a real final result;
• Demonstrative. It is expressed in the automatic, at the subconscious level, fulfillment of generally accepted norms of behavior. Assistance provided from such motives can be characterized by the expression “it’s the way it’s supposed to be.”

Often, the manifestation of mercy, philanthropy, selflessness, and sacrifice is interpreted as altruism. But there are main distinctive features that are unique to altruistic behavior only in combination:

Altruism helps to reveal the potential of an individual, since for the sake of others a person is often able to do much more than what he does for himself. Moreover, such actions give him confidence in his own abilities.

Many psychologists are confident that the tendency towards altruism in people is directly related to the feeling of happiness.

It is noteworthy that zoological scientists note manifestations of altruistic behavior in their natural habitat in dolphins, monkeys and crows.