It would be difficult for us to refuse anything if it were not for the negative particle. As one of the most commonly used functional parts of speech, it helps us express our attitude to a given situation. We’ll talk about its role in the Russian language, as well as its varieties, in our article.

Particles

All parts of speech are usually divided into two large groups. The first includes independent words. They have their own meaning and are the basis of our speech. However, it would be difficult for us to compose a text using only this group. Therefore, the so-called service particles come to their aid. These include the negative particle. However, this is not the only variety of this group.

There are also the following:

• Forming the form: let, would, come on.
• Interrogative: really, really, really.
• Exclamation marks: how, what.
• Requirement: then, ka, s.
• Doubt: whether.

Each of them has its own specific purpose and special role in the Russian language. It would be difficult to express emotions without using particles.

"Nor"

Difficulties often arise in writing negative particles. It turns out that “not” and “neither” have completely different meanings. Each of the rules has a historical basis.

We will write “neither”:

• When we want to strengthen the existing denial. Let's compare two sentences:

1. There were no fish in the lake. 2. We didn’t see a single fish in the lake.

In the second sentence the negation is stronger than in the first. The emphasis is placed on the fact that the fishermen did not observe any fish at all in the reservoir, absolutely none.

• In complex sentences. This particle is very often used in the dependent clause.

For example: Everywhere I went, I thought about the sea.

I can’t learn the rules, no matter how hard I try.

• When using homogeneous and enumerated members.

Neither mathematics, nor biology, nor physics were completed by Petya on time.

• There is no predicate. Very often you can substitute the words “impossible” or “no” to them.

For example: No fire, no smoke (no).

Neither lie down nor rest (impossible).

The main function that this negative particle conveys is reinforcement.

"Not"

This auxiliary part of speech has a slightly different meaning. Usually we use “not” when we want to refuse something or give the word an antonymous meaning. Let's consider other cases when “not” is a negative particle:

• A double “not” is pronounced when making a statement.

For example: I couldn’t help but say this. I understood that it was impossible not to confess.

• In some exclamatory sentences denoting surprise we also write “not”:

How can you not admire this city! What color did not the sky flicker during a thunderstorm?

It is worth distinguishing between the spellings of “not” and “neither” in pronouns. In this situation, everything depends on the stress. In a strong position we write “E”: no one, NOT with anyone, NOT with anyone. We use “I” without emphasis: Not at all, NOT for anyone, NOT about anyone.

and gerunds

It is not easy for schoolchildren to remember the spelling rules for a given particle with different groups of speech. Each of them has its own spelling features. How is the particle “Not” written with participles? The answer to this question is simple: always separate. We immediately recall its similar spelling with the verb. The participle is formed precisely from it. Hence the same principle of their writing. For example: not doing - not doing, not sunbathing - not sunbathing.

However, there are cases when a word without this important particle is simply not used. In this case, we will write it together. Let's look at an example: To be indignant about the rain - to shout, indignant about the rain. Both with a verb and with a similar gerund, the negative particle is written together.

This rule is easiest for students to remember, since there are very few exceptions to it.

Particle "not" with nouns

The rules for spelling words are not always simple. For example, noun, as well as adj. and adverbs have their own pattern of using them with the particle “not”.

We will write it together in the following cases:

• Forming an antonym with “not”. For example: friend - foe, weather - bad weather, handsome - ugly, few - a lot.
• Impossibility of using words without “not”: Clumsy, scoundrel, slob, violently.

“Not” is written separately if:

• There is a clear contrast. It is usually expressed by the conjunction “a”. For example: The man turned out to be not his friend, but his enemy. Not luck, but complete collapse and disappointment awaited us.
• Denial is emphasized: It was not my mother (but someone else) who called on the phone. We came not in the evening, but at night.
• There is a gain. For example: Our neighbor is not tall at all. My sister is by no means a sneak.

We have presented the main cases when the particle “not” with nouns is written both together and separately. Do not forget that adverbs with adjectives also fall under this rule. If you remember this important feature, then you won’t have to remember the spelling “not” for each part of speech separately.

"Not" with participles

Another case when a negative particle is written “not” rather than “neither” is when it is used with participles. Many people confuse its spelling with participles. These parts of speech are formed from verbs, but with “not” they are written completely differently.

Everyone knows that participles have the ability to form phrases using dependent words. In the case when it is used specifically as part of a phrase, we will write it separately from “not”. Example: A student who did not complete the exercise received a bad grade. As you can see, the participle “not completed” is written separately from “not”, since it has the dependent word “exercise”. In this case, it is included, which explains its spelling with a negative particle.

However, there is another side to this rule. In the case where there is no revolution, the participle changes its spelling. Let's look at an example: The exercise remains uncompleted.

It would seem that the meaning of the sentence has not changed. However, the syntax is completely different. Now the participle does not have any dependent words with it. This means that there is no reason to write it with the particle separately.

Let's change this example with just one word: The exercise remained uncompleted by the students. We note the difference: now a word has appeared that forms a participial phrase (by the disciples). In such a situation, we will write it separately from “not”.

Well, and, of course, as with every rule, there are exceptions. If the participle is not used without this particle, then we will write it together, regardless of whether there is a revolution or not. For example: The raging wind did not subside until dawn.

Conclusion

In this article, we looked at the main cases when “not” is a negative particle, and when it plays other roles. It should not be confused with “ni”: they have different spelling features. However, the main function of “not” is still negation. In some interrogative and exclamatory sentences we can use it as an affirmative. Also, do not forget that with each part of speech it is written differently.

Particle– this is a service part of speech, which serves to express shades of meaning of words, phrases, sentences and to form word forms. Particles do not change and are not members of the sentence. (In school grammar, however, it is customary to emphasize the negative particle Not together with the word to which it refers; This is especially true for verbs.) Depending on the additional values ​​transmitted, the following are distinguished: semantic particles (Here He, approximately two), modal particles(Yes, we have met, Well, go) and formative particles, which convey different grammatical meanings: Let coming. Yes Hello participants of the rally!

Basic semantic particles

	Name	Particles	Meaning	Examples
	Index fingers	there, here it is and etc.	point to objects, phenomena	1. Here bream, offal, Here sterlet piece(I. Krylov). 2. Doctor's profession - This feat, it requires self-sacrifice, purity of soul and purity of thoughts(A. Chekhov).
	Clarifying	exactly, almost, exactly, exactly and etc.	clarify a word or expression	Mother almost didn't pay attention to me(I. Turgenev).
	Excretory-restrictive	only, just, only, just and etc.	give a word or group of words a restrictive connotation	Who am I? What am I? Only a dreamer, the blue of his eyes lost in the darkness...(S. Yesenin)
	Amplifiers	even, after all, same, and, neither and etc.	emphasize certain words	Even the clerk made some kind of disapproving sound(L. Tolstoy).
	Interrogative	really, really, really, really and etc.	express the question in interrogative sentences	Isn't it can I doubt it?(L. Tolstoy)
	Negative	not, nor, no, not at all, not at all, not at all and etc.	express denial. Particle No used when the answer to a question is negative and is separated by a comma	Independence, a sense of freedom and personal initiative in science Not less needed than, for example, in art or commerce(V. Chekhov). « So will you come to us?” – “ No, I won’t come"(L. Tolstoy).
	Affirmative	yes, exactly, that's right and etc.	express a statement	“Already married?” – “ Yes, I started my third year with Filippovki"(L. Tolstoy). Separated by a comma.
	Comparative	as, as if, as if, as if, exactly and etc.	express comparison. Used with a predicate	1. Dubrovsky as if woke up from sleep(A. Pushkin). 2. Ripe rye How golden sea.
	Exclamation marks	what the, how, oh and etc.	express emotions	1. Darling, How good! Well what the neck, what the little eyes!(I. Krylov). 2. To you, Kazbek, O guardian of the east, I, wanderer, brought my bow(M. Lermontov).

Shaping particles

Grammatical form	Particles	Examples
Imperative verb	let, let, yes, come on	Let the crowd will trample my crown: the singer’s crown, the crown of thorns!(M. Lermontov)
Verb conditional	would, b	I b forever forgot taverns and poetry wouldI stopped writing… (S. Yesenin)
Obsolete past tense form of the verb	was	We have begun was talk about the new district leader, when suddenly Olga’s voice was heard at the door: “Tea is ready.”(I. Turgenev).

Modal particles

Values	Particles	Examples
Expression of will (same meaning for formative particles)	Let it go, well, well, let it go, let it go, let it go	No, It's not you that I love so passionately(P.)
Attitude to action: question, statement, denial, comparison	Yes, no, or whatever	You know whether are you a Ukrainian night? ( G.) Go ahead How You know.
Exclamatory-expressive	What the hell	Well what the neck, what the little eyes! (Kr.)

TO formative Particles include particles that serve to form the conditional and imperative forms of the verb. These include the following: would(conditional mood indicator), let, let, yes, come on(indicators of the imperative mood). Unlike semantic particles, formative particles are components of the verb form and are part of the same part of the sentence as the verb, and are emphasized along with it even when placed in a non-contact manner, for example: I would not late if would it didn't rain .

Semantic particles express semantic shades, feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

In some studies, other groups of particles are also identified, since not all particles can be included in these groups (for example, supposedly, they say).

Particle neither acts as a negative in the constructions of an impersonal sentence with an omitted predicate ( In the room neither sound) and as an intensifying one in the presence of an already expressed negation ( In the room Not audible neither sound). When repeated, the particle neither acts as a repeating coordinating conjunction ( Can't hear it in the room neither rustles, neither other sounds).

Postfixes are not particles - Xia (-sya), -this, -either, -something and consoles Not And neither as part of negative and indefinite pronouns and adverbs, as well as participles and adjectives, regardless of combined or separate spelling.

A semantic particle - That must be distinguished from the word-forming postfix - That, acting as a means of forming indefinite pronouns and adverbs. Let's compare: Which- That, Where- That (postfix) – I- That I know where to go(particle).

And sentences, but gives them additional meaning, coloring, and in some cases serves to form new forms of words. The most common is the particle “not”, expressing negation. Often these auxiliary parts of speech are used to enhance emotional connotation: “really”, “even”, “directly”, “exactly”, etc.

If, based on the characteristics given, you could not determine what part of the speech in front of you is a conjunction or a particle, there is one way that can help you. Try to isolate what interests you from the phrase and look at the result. If you remove the conjunction, then either its parts will be inconsistent with each other (for example, remove the “or” in this one). Isolating a particle in most cases will not lead to such a matching problem (try removing the “zhe” particle here). Also, if you remove a particle, the meaning of the phrase may change to the opposite (in the case of particles “not”, “not at all”, “hardly”, etc.).

There are so-called parts of speech. They are, but spelled differently. For example, the conjunction “too” and the pronoun with the particle “the same”. In such cases, replacing the word comes to the rescue. The conjunction can usually be replaced by a simple one (“and”): “I was there too” = “And I was there.” The combination “same” cannot be replaced in this way. In addition, the “same” particle can be removed from it without losing the meaning of the sentence: “He re-read the same publication again” = “He re-read that publication again.”

Students first become acquainted with unions in elementary school. Later, when they begin to study the structure of compound and complex sentences, they will need to learn to distinguish between types of conjunctions, and also - unions from allied words (pronouns and adverbs).

First of all, you need to know that unions- these are auxiliary parts of speech. They do not answer any questions, unlike independent parts of speech, and do not have any independent meaning (attribute, action, state, etc.). Conjunctions are necessary in order to connect homogeneous members or simple sentences into complex ones . For example, in the sentence “Forests, fields and meadows are covered with a blanket of snow,” the conjunction “and” connects homogeneous “fields” and “meadows.” But in the sentence “Forests, fields, meadows are covered with a blanket of snow, and winter is coming into its own,” the conjunction “and” connects simple sentences as part of a compound sentence. Conjunctions are divided into two main groups: coordinating (and, or, either, a, yes , but, but, however, etc.) and subordinates (what, that, if, because, etc.). Remember that essays unions are needed both to connect homogeneous members when listing, and in complex ones to connect two independent simple sentences. And here are the subordinates unions and conjunctions help to attach a subordinate clause in a complex sentence. Learn to distinguish subordinate clauses unions from allied words (and adverbs). Conjunctive words perform the work of conjunctions, but they answer a question, have a specific meaning and perform some syntactic role, like any other independent part of speech (adjective, pronoun, etc.). So, in the sentence “I knew what was for lunch today” the word “what” is, because. it is the subject, answers the question “what?”, indicates the subject. But in the sentence “I knew that I wouldn’t make it to the station in time,” the word “what” is a subordinating word. It does not have any specific meaning, it is not, but only attaches a subordinate (explanatory) clause to the main sentence. Keep in mind that all coordinating unions belong to three: connective (and, not only - but also, yes - in the meaning and), divisive (either, or) and adversative (but, but, and, yes - in the meaning but). In addition, unions can be simple (consisting of one word) or compound (include two or more words). For example, in the sentence “I couldn’t come to visit them because I didn’t calculate my time,” the conjunction “since” is subordinating and compound. And in the sentence “The winter was cold, and we rarely go to the mountains,” the conjunction “and” is coordinating, connecting and simple.

Particles are a functional part of speech. They are intended to form the forms of words or introduce different shades of meaning into a sentence. Difficulties in the Russian language are caused by homonymous conjunctions, as well as prefixes and suffixes. It is necessary to learn how to differentiate between them in order to avoid grammatical errors when writing.

Instructions

Particles give statements various modal and emotional shades of meaning (denial, reinforcement, bewilderment, admiration, limitation, etc.). They never change and are not members of a sentence. According to their meaning and role in a statement, particles are usually divided into three categories: formative, negative and modal (or subjective-modal).

Shaping particles serve to form the morphological moods of the verb (conditional, subjunctive and imperative). These are the particles “would”, “let”, “let”, “so that” and “-those”, which in writing merges with the verb. For example, “would go”, “let (let) go”, “”; “if only he were my friend”, “let’s sing”, “so that it’s quiet.” Please note that the particle “would (b)” can appear not after, but before the verb to which it refers: “I would learn to draw,” “I would do it even better.”

The particles “not” and “neither” are considered negative. They should be distinguished from homonymous prefixes, which are written together with words. The particle “not” gives a negative meaning to a sentence or individual words, but sometimes (with a double negative) it brings a positive meaning. For example, in the sentence “This should not happen,” the particle “not” makes the entire statement negative. And in the sentence “He couldn’t help but help,” the double negative “not - not” takes on a positive meaning.

Modal or subjective-modal particles introduce various semantic shades into a sentence, and also serve to express the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

Particles that serve to introduce semantic nuances into a sentence are divided into four groups: interrogative (“a”, “whether”, “”, “really”); demonstratives (“here”, “there”); clarifying (“exactly”, “just”) and restrictive (“only”, “only”, “exclusively”, “almost”).

Particles expressing feelings are also divided into four groups: exclamatory (“what the”, “how”); intensifying (“same”, “even”, “nor”, ​​“after all”, “really”, “everything”), indicating doubt (“hardly”, “hardly”) and mitigating (“-ka”).

It is necessary to distinguish between particles and other parts of speech homonymous to them. For example, the conjunction “to” from the pronoun “what” with the particle “would”: “We’re going to the forest to get some fresh air” and “What would you like?” To the conjunction “so that” one can meaningfully add the expression “in order.” The particle “would”, it can be separated and rearranged to another place without loss of meaning: “What would you wish for?” or “What would you like?”

In the same way, one can distinguish the conjunctions “too”, “also” and the particle “the same”, which comes after the pronoun “that” and the adverb “so”. For example, in the sentence “The same as yesterday”, the particle “same” with the demonstrative pronoun “that”. It can be omitted, and the meaning of the sentence will not change: “The same as yesterday.” The conjunctions “also” and “also” are close in meaning to the conjunction “and”. For example, in the sentence “He also came,” the conjunction “also” can be replaced by: “And he came.”

note

The particles “-taki”, “-s”, “-ka”, “-that” are written with a hyphen: “wrote after all”, “go-ka”, “no-s”, “he”.

Sources:

• Spelling particles in Russian
• how to distinguish a conjunction from a pronoun

The particle can sometimes be confused with other service particles. Although it is not a full-fledged part of the sentence, it can cause confusion, which can lead to, for example, adding an extra comma. From time to time it is worth reviewing the school curriculum and refreshing your memory of basic things in order to avoid simple mistakes.

The particle belongs to the auxiliary parts of speech and serves to express various semantic shades of the words and, as well as to form the forms of words. They are not members and do not change. All existing particles can be divided into two categories: semantic and formative.

Although particles are not members of a sentence, in school it is customary to underline a particle not together with the word to which it refers; As a rule, this word is a verb.

Semantic particles, as the name suggests, are necessary to express shades of meaning, subtleties, and nuances. Depending on the meaning, they are classified into the following groups:
1) negative: not, neither, not at all, far from, not at all;
2) interrogative: really, really, whether (l);
3) indicative: here, there;
4) clarifying: exactly, directly, just, exactly, exactly;
5) restrictive / excretory: only, only, almost, solely, then;
6) exclamation marks: what for, how, well (and);
7) intensifying: even, same, neither, after all, really, after all, well;
8) emollients: -ka, -to, -s;
9) with the meaning: hardly (hardly), hardly (hardly).

Shape-forming particles are particles necessary for the formation or conditional mood: would, let, let, let, yes. Such particles are always components of the verb form, and therefore are part of the same part of the sentence as.
Some researchers identify an additional group of particles that do not fall into any of the above categories: supposedly, they say.

Classifications

Particles are also divided into primitive and nonprimitive by origin. The first group includes mainly colloquial and little-used particles like, you see, don’t let them, they say, I suppose, those, tea, well, sir, in, de, as well as yes, -ka, nor, yet. All other particles belong to the second group.

Please note that many particles in their properties are close to adverbs, conjunctions, interjections and introductory words.

There is a division and: into simple, composite, dissectable and non-dissectable particles. The first includes all particles consisting of one, the second - formed from two or more words, the third - all particles that can be separated by other words (as if not, if only not, even if, rather, if only, at least, almost (was), almost, etc.), to the fourth - those that cannot be separated in any way. There is also a small group of so-called phraseologized particles: whatever (it is), exactly, that’s the case, not otherwise (as), no matter what, that and (look / wait).

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A word, which is a formal means of connecting syntactic units.

The honors of some compound conjunctions (“not only... but also”, “both... and”) are found with different homogeneous members of the sentence or in different sentences that are part of the complex.

Those consisting of one are called simple: “and”, “a”, “but”, “or”, “yes”, “as”, “either”, “that”, “as if”. And conjunctions, which are a combination of significant and non-significant words, are compound. For example: “while”, “that is”, “as soon as”, “despite the fact that”, “in view of the fact that”, “while”, “as” and others.

Conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions convey equal, independent relationships between homogeneous members or parts of a complex. For example: “The house was on a hill and had a wide view.” In this, the coordinating conjunction “and” connects 2 simple sentences in a complex sentence. And in the sentence: “A light wind, then subsided, then woke up again” - the conjunction “that... that” connects homogeneous members of the sentence.

Subordinating conjunctions convey unequal, dependent relationships between parts of a complex sentence. For example: “We wanted (what?) to do it sooner” (expository clause). Or: “The book will be published (under what condition?) if it is accepted by the publishing house” (clause clause).

Types of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions

When making a morphological analysis of a conjunction, it is necessary to indicate its meaning and morphological features (coordinating or subordinating; unchangeable word), as well as indicate its syntactic role.

Coordinating conjunctions are divided into:

1) Connective, which include “and”, “yes”, “not only... but also”, “both... and”. For example: “It’s still snowing today.”
2) Adversatives: “but”, “a”, “yes” (meaning “but”), “but”, “however”. For example: “We were born in different countries, but we all don’t want war!”
3) Dividing, this group includes conjunctions “or”, “either”, “that... that”, “not that... not that”. For example: “Now to the right, now to the left the roar of falling trees.”

In turn, subordinating conjunctions are divided into:

1) Temporal: “when”, “before”, “while”, “only”. For example: “We were still sleeping when the telephone rang.”
2) Explanatory, this group includes: “what”, “so that”, “how” and others. For example: “He said that a friend was visiting him.”
3) Causal: “since”, “because”, “due to the fact that”. “Since the sun has set, it has become chilly.”
4) Conditional: “if”, “once”, “how soon”, “whether”, “if”. For example: “If only you wanted, if only you knew.”
5) Concessive: “although”, “despite the fact that”. “Although it was already morning, the city was still sleeping.”
6) Target: “in order”, “in order to”, “in order to”. For example: “To love music, you need to listen to it.”

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Creative work on the topic:

"Particles in Russian"

Performed:

7th grade student "A"

Balashova Svetlana

Morphological characteristics

A particle is an auxiliary part of speech that serves to express various semantic shades of any member of a sentence or a sentence as a whole, as well as to form moods. The particle introduces additional semantic shades into the sentence and serves to form word forms. Unchangeable part of speech. The particle is not a member of the sentence.

Morphological features: formative, negative, modal. Formatives serve to form the conditional and imperative mood of the verb. These include: yes, come on, let's, would (b), let, let. Negatives are used to express negation, strengthen negation, or give a sentence a positive meaning when double negative. These include: no, neither. Modals are used to express various shades of meaning and feelings in a sentence. These include: really, really, what for, how, here, only, only, really, etc.

Modal particles introduce the following semantic shades:

1) question: whether, really, really, for example: Have you prepared the previous material for today’s lesson? Didn't you make the right choice by continuing your education?

2) instructions: here, there, for example: Here are the necessary tools for the practical lesson;

3) clarification: exactly, just, for example: This particular specialist will be in demand to work in our company;

4) allocation, restriction: only, only, exclusively, for example: Only those who passed will be allowed to take the exams. A medical worker must be an exceptionally kind, sympathetic, merciful person;

5) exclamation: what the, like, for example: How nice it is for a teacher to see the success of his students!

6) doubt: unlikely, hardly, for example: It is unlikely that you will cope with the task if you do not make an effort;

7) strengthening: even, really, after all, after all, for example: How many times have they repeated the basic terms;

8) mitigation, requirement: - ka, for example: Repeat this topic again.

Also, particles are a class of words that express diverse relationships realized in an act of speech or text, namely: the relationship of what is being communicated to the participants in the speech act (speaker, listener), as well as the relationship between them; the relationship of what is being reported to reality (in terms of its reality, unreality; reliability, unreliability); the relationship between statements and their components. By expressing these relationships, particles realize their meanings. Some meanings of the particle contain semantic components that modify the content of what is being communicated (only, total, was, not, nor).

Particles, in addition, serve to form morphological and syntactic moods (would, let, let). In the “Grammar of the Modern Russian Literary Language” particles are classified on a different basis - by function. There are three main categories: syntactic (would, let, yes, come on, etc.), subjective-modal (after all, even, really, really, etc.) and negative (not, nor) particles. Among the subjective modal particles, intensifying (-that, even, after all, here, right), excretory (only, only), etc. differ in meaning. In the “Russian Grammar” the main categories of particles are also distinguished by function. Characterizing a sign (action or state) by its course over time, by the completeness or incompleteness of implementation, by effectiveness or ineffectiveness (it was, it happened, it happens, etc.). Particles in this grammar are also classified according to their structure: they are divided into primitive and non-primitive, into simple (and, fortunately, more, etc.) and composite; composite particles are divided into dismemberable (that would be, here and, like this, etc.) and non-dividable (it would be good, if only, if only, etc.); within the constituent particles, phraseological particles are distinguished (no, no, and; which of that, etc.). Thus, the question of classes of particles and the principles of their isolation is solved in different ways. When studying particles as lexical units in their system, a large number of intersecting subclasses are discovered, interconnected by a variety of relationships.

Various classifications can be applied to particles as units of language, taking the individual meaning of a particle as a classification unit (for example, in the classification proposed below). The most adequate to linguistic reality are those classifications that reflect the semantic properties of particles. However, analysis of the semantics of particles is impossible without taking into account the specifics of their functioning. According to the main classification criterion - semantic, particles are divided into eleven categories. Modal particles expressing different types of subjective relations. With the help of such particles, meanings associated with two types of modality are expressed: reality/irreality and reliability/unreliability.

The meanings “possibility”, “desirability”, “necessity” associated with the opposition reality/irreality correspond to the particular meanings of expectation expressed by particles (simple, and, precisely, nevertheless, after all; for example, And you agreed!), surprise (well, look how), motivations, encouragements, demands, wishes (come on, well, so that, otherwise, let, if, when, it would be good; for example, I wish I was alive!; So that I would be good meeting!), reminders/memories (tea, more, same; e.g., Take some candy! - I can’t see the candy!; Do you remember her: she also sang a song to you!), assumptions (perhaps, as if, exactly, as if, like , definitely, not at all; e.g., As if someone came in?), fears (unequal); Associated with the opposition of reliability/unreliability are the particular meanings of confirmation (yes, exactly), assumption (albeit, well, good), doubt, distrust [yes, no, directly, perhaps; eg: I'll find you a book! -Yes, you will find it! (meaning “you won’t find it”); I stay. No, really? (meaning “I can’t believe it”)]. Emotionally expressive particles expressing various emotional characteristics (threat, surprise, dissatisfaction, annoyance, irony, ridicule): well, see, see, simply, directly. Some researchers classify these words (except simply, directly) as interjections as words serving the sphere of emotions. They come close to particles when they function as a modal component of a sentence.

Addressative particles expressing semantics associated with the social sphere. This semantics can be reduced to the oppositions superior/inferior/equal; yours/someone else's. This category includes particles: -ka, -s (obsolete). In the meanings of a particle, the sign of categorical/non-categorical is revealed, which leads to the sphere of modal meanings. Contextual particles that serve to identify authorial behavior and to draw attention to certain components of a statement or text. Contextual particles can be associated with the organization of speech activity (yes, and, yes, no, here, there; for example, Yes, another piece of news; Yes, I almost forgot, I have a letter for you), with various kinds of clarifications regarding the chosen expressions, filling “emptiness” in speech (or that, namely), and with indications of the transmission of someone else’s speech (they say, de, they say, supposedly). Quantitative particles expressing a quantitative characteristic of a component of propositional content from the point of view of the speaker (only, only, like this).

Negative particles specialized in expressing negation (no, no). A phase particle (was), which modifies the propositional semantics of a verbal predicate, expressing that the action began or was assumed, but did not take place or was interrupted. Excretory particles expressing the meaning of inconsistency or correspondence between the assumed, expected and actual (only, only, even, even, precisely, and).

Identifying particles [same, and; for example, He was born here and lives here all his life; I have the same book (like the one on the display)], which serve to express anaphoric relations in the text (relations of coreference or equilexicality). Gradational particles expressing an increase in a characteristic (even). Replica particles and capable of functioning in dialogue as a replicating component (yes, okay, okay). Semantic classification covers this entire class of words, but does not reflect all the properties of this class. The second classification feature is the features of the functioning of the particle: some of them can function in a relatively closed statement (well, ek, only, there, you), others can bring the statement into a wider text, being non-union indicators of connection in the text (like, and, an Well, only, even, exactly). Particles can also be classified according to their correlation with the type of speech act: a question - is it possible, is it possible, is it possible; by impulse - let it, give it, well, so that, otherwise; statement - all other particles. This classification does not cover the entire class - some words in this regard are neutral, indefinite, not marked (only, even, total). Particles, being words that have a wide variety of parameters, can simultaneously be included in several classifications. Thus, the particle is even excretory, textual, not marked from the point of view of its relevance to the speech act; particles ek - emotional-expressive, functions in isolated statements and in statements; Is the particle modal, textual, interrogative (in relation to the speech act).

Separate writing of particles

The particles would (b), same (g), li (l) are written separately: would read, if, here, which, however, however, hardly, hardly.

Note. The rule does not apply to those cases when the specified particles are part of the word: so that, also, also, really, or, etc.

Hyphenated spelling of particles

Particles (suffixes) are written through a hyphen -de, -ka, koe- (koy-), (-kas - dialect), -or, -ni, -s, -tka, -tko, -to: you-de, she -here, here, here, look, someone, someone, someone, some, from somewhere, yes, sir, well, look, somewhere , once upon a time, something. Note. The particle -de (colloquial) is used when conveying someone else's speech, as well as in the meaning of the verb says (they speak) and in the meaning of particles they say, they say; cf.: And if I see that the execution is too small for him, I will immediately hang all the judges around the table (Kr.). - My fellow countryman turned to the commander at a rest stop: so and so, - allow me to leave, they say, it’s an expensive occasion, they say, since I’m a local resident, it’s just a stone’s throw from the yard (Tv.). The particle say (colloquial) was formed by merging two words: de and say.

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Problems HOW

like * * * like, * * * like, *** like

director of the USSR

According to the degree of complexity of forming the word “HOW” with commas in a sentence and it can be adverb, particle, union, union word And plural noun he has no equal in the Russian language.

And how often does righteous anger arise in the minds of students at those legislators of the rules of the Russian language who came up with all this!!!

Let's try to figure it out.

“HOW” adverb!

When is "HOW" an adverb? But when: if in your sentence it can be easily replaced with the following expressions given italics:

Here's how ( how) you need to pour it in glasses!
How ( to what extent/how much) it takes a long time, however!
How ( to what extent/to what extent) is breathing Lepota!
How ( When) I'll come back, she'll get it from me!
Is it not possible how ( somehow) cheaper?

Adverbs are not separated by commas just like that: unless they are parts of a more complex grammatical structure, in which a comma is used according to different rules.

Remember: if “how” can be easily replaced by the above expressions, then adverb“HOW” is NEVER separated by a comma. Neither left nor right.

“HOW” particle!

When is "HOW" a particle? And when emotions overwhelm, but at the same time a particle can be replaced with another particle. For example, “come on!”, “damn it!” or just “damn” and the like.

Let's look at the examples and remember:

How?! Have you come again? ( righteous anger)
How? ( simple question, didn't hear)
How come there is no money? ( difficult questioning)
Right now I’ll give it to you! ( a hint after a difficult question)
How the prophetic Oleg is getting ready now ( poetic)

"HOW"- particle also not separated by commas.

“HOW” union!

First you have to remember what it is union? Having honestly searched the dictionaries for the definition of this obscure, but very important part of speech in grammar, this is what we found: “An unchangeable service word used to connect words and sentences.” There is also a more difficult to understand definition: “A conjunction is an auxiliary part of speech that connects homogeneous members of a simple sentence and simple sentences of a complex sentence, and also expresses the relationship between these syntactic units.” Let us remember for now that it is either a connection or a relationship.

The next thing about this difficult conjunction is that it can be simply “AS”, or it can be an integral part of another conjunction, for example: “SO AS”. The phrase “AS SO” is divided into the conjunction “AS”, the particle “SAME” and the conjunction “SO” (which, in turn, can be not only a conjunction, but also a pronoun and an adverb!). Aren't you tired?

Thus, if you decide to write correctly, you should learn to isolate the conjunction “HOW” from the host of other “HOW” that are not conjunctions. For this is the root of the overwhelming number of spelling errors.

Examples of spelling the conjunction “HOW”:

I'm tired as a dog! (In this case, you need to pay attention to the fact that a comma is placed before “HOW”!)
Tired as a dog! (In this case, you need to pay attention to the fact that a comma is NOT placed before “HOW!”)

The difference between these two similar sentences is that linguists have come up with the following rule: if the conjunction “HOW” comes before a simple sentence or just a phrase or just a word, then a comma is placed. If the conjunction “HOW” precedes a comparative phrase, then a comma is not used. It's clear?

The second is another example that explains this incredible complexity:
He sits on pins and needles! (This means that it is twitching, in this case “like on pins and needles” is a comparative phrase and it can be easily replaced, for example, with the word “restless”, “nervously”!)
He sits as if on pins and needles! (This means on sharp objects, there is no comparative phrase at all; “like on pins and needles” can be replaced in this case with sharp objects, real, sharp objects!)

In principle, these are all the rules regarding placing commas before the conjunction “HOW”: you will be able to determine what comes after it comparative phrase or explanation put/fail to put the comma correctly. If you fail, you will be wandering in the dark for a long time!

All other types of uses of “KAK” (except for the plural genitive case of a noun, which we wouldn’t even want to mention here!) belong to those types that characterize “KAK” as a conjunctive word. That is, it adds clauses of manner of action, clauses of additional clauses, clauses of time, other clauses.

In order to clearly distinguish subordinate clauses from non-clause clauses, and, even more so, from other types of sentences, you will have to take a short course in syntax (i.e., ways of combining words into phrases and sentences, a special section of grammar) of the Russian language. After going through which you will discover that in this very syntax in relation to “HOW” there is not only no order, but also something more or less similar to order. There are only prerequisites for establishing some semblance of order. Of course, with very eloquent exceptions.

Therefore, our recommendations are the following (well, since science has not yet established this for sure!): learn to distinguish subordinate clauses introduced by the conjunctive word “HOW” from comparative phrases and remember that the former are separated by commas, while the latter are not.

All other cases are tricky, not explained and you just have to remember them. Or contact specialists. Which, in turn, can give you mutually opposite answers.

A few examples to complete this.

A house is like a house. Hair black as pitch. Tell me how it turned out. Do it the right way. It's like hell in your house. You are a fool as you are. These shoes are just right for me.

If you saw the internal logic, honor and praise to you. We don't see her. Meanwhile, this is exactly how examples are presented in dictionaries and reference books.

And it’s impossible not to quote from here: http://orel.rsl.ru/nettext/russian/granik/sekr_punkt/05.htm:

We quote:
For example, in the sentence The air is clean and fresh, like a child's kiss a comma is required, but in sentences The forest was like a dream And Snow is like a dream In no case should a comma be inserted, because in the first sentence it separates the comparative phrase, and in others there is no phrase.

The forest was like a dream no comparative turnover???