Primer (ABC). Az, beeches, lead... in children's language

ABC BOOK, alphabet

For the initial literacy training; serves the purposes of raising children, developing their speech and logic. thinking. B. is traditionally a source of information about the life of the country, its people, and its culture. Includes material that shapes students’ standards of behavior and relationships between elders and younger ones. Basic structural units of B. - letters, letter combinations, syllables, numbers, grammatical. information, appeals to children and parents, instructions, text and illustrative materials, diagrams, tables. Educational teacher work on B. is usually divided into three periods: preparatory, alphabetic and post-primary.

In Russia, the prototypes of birch were alphabet tablets and birch bark letters (13th century). The formation of the genre of B. was influenced by Means. used in education for the purposes of the explanatory “alphabet” of Gury of Kazan, fragments of the Bible, Psalter, Book of Hours, etc. In the 2nd half. 15th century in Rus', texts adapted for children that introduced writing and grammar became widespread (“Eight of the Honor of the Word”, “Writing in Slovenian about literacy and its structure”, “Conversation about learning to read and write”, etc.). In the 14th-17th centuries. acrostic alphabets were created.

The first printed B. in church glory. language in Russian The edition was “Azbuka” by Ivan Fedorov (Lvov, 1574), built on the basis of alphabets. method (see article Teaching to read and write), The address to children and parents and the afterword spoke about knowledge, which is the adornment of a person, about honesty, obedience and hard work, and contained advice on education. The arrangement of the alphabet - in forward and reverse order, staggered, vertically - made it possible to develop motor and visual skills. studying. Learning to read and write began with combinations of sounds, then more difficult to understand combinations of two consonants and a vowel were given. The ABC contains the rudiments of grammar. concepts, some information about stress. For reading, the author selected and processed texts from the Bible, forming the following. humanistic beginning program education. To consolidate and improve reading and writing skills, the textbook used an adapted alphabetic acrostic poem, texts of prayers, excerpts from parables and apostolic epistles, selected in such a way that they seemed to constitute advice for parents.

The ideas of Ivan Fedorov formed the basis of the ABC of L. Zizania (Vilno, 1596). It consisted of the Staroslav alphabet. language, two-three-letter syllables of Greek. language, prayers, their explanations, explanatory dictionary “Vocabulary”. In the ABC, Zizania also addressed the sound composition of words - phonetics. The textbook lacked extensive grammar. concepts and acrostics. Collecting information on history, geography, etc., Zizaniy turned to op. Aristotle, “World Chronicle, or Cosmography” by Marcin Bielski (1551, translated into Belarusian, language, 1584), used the “Greek Lexicon” by Svidos (Milan, 1499) and other sources. The simplicity of presentation and teaching methods that are understandable to many have made the ABC popular not only in Russia, but also abroad.

In 1618, a textbook for teaching literacy was published, called. for the first time the word “B.” appeared. (“A Primer of the Slovenian language, those who want to learn to read the scriptures for useful guidance” - Evyevsky B.). The arrangement of syllables in it was strictly thought out, reflecting the characteristics of Staroslav. language. In grammar In part, the influence of M. Smotritsky’s “Grammar” (1619) is noticeable.

B. Spiridon Sobol (1631) in addition to traditions. The material included the beginnings of the theory of versification. Illustrations were introduced into it for the first time (engraving on the title, ending).

Moscow The alphabet book begins with the publication of B.V.F. Burtsev-Protopopov (1634; supplemented and republished in 1637, 1657, 1664, 1669). The textbook includes material for teaching numbers and numerals, more attention is paid to syntax and punctuation, grammar. information. The afterword describes the method. recommendations. A new word in the fatherland. ABC book was published in 1679 in Moscow by B. Simeon of Polotsk. The author sought to combine with instilling in students reverence for Christ. teaching, morality. In special The preface speaks in poetic form about the benefits of education. The textbook not only provides the alphabet, but also names the syllables, highlights three-letter words, etc. An important milestone in the history of the development of teaching. The books were the first in Russia illustrated by B. Karian Istomin. T.n. Small B. (“A Primer in Persons”, written in 1692, published in 1694), designed by the engraver L. Bunin, was based on the idea of visual teaching. It differed from the previous ones both in content and in structure - there was no syllable combination from the church. texts included only prayers. Ch. The author paid attention to the study of Staroslav. language in Russian editors. The book contains a “Word to the Reader,” which provides information about the book, its purpose and originality, and recommendations for its use. The colorful capital letters with different colors attracted attention. decorations formed from one or two figures of a warrior, townsman, etc. in clothes, with weapons, etc., depict images of animals and plants. B.'s illustrations and texts were informative. load, entertainment facilitated, comprehension and learning. material. Here are the lowercase letters Slav., Greek, Lat. languages, each letter of the alphabet is dedicated to moralizing. poetry. All letters, words, pictures for them, poems are located on one sheet of paper to make it easier to see. perception of everything material. B. Karion Istomin was for the first time addressed not only to boys, but also to girls. “Big” by Karion Istomin (1696) in Means. degree repeated B. Simeon of Polotsk, included texts from historical-lit. character.

In 1701, B. Fedor Polikarpov came out in Moscow - one of the last to introduce students to the basics of Staroslav. language. In it, for the first time, compare was introduced, teaching. material in Slavic, Greek. and lat. languages and carried out their basics. What was also new was the inclusion of three language themes. dictionary, in which specially selected vocabulary is systematized (words that provide information about the land and people, their activities and needs), translated into Greek. and lat. languages.

B. 2nd floor. 17th century contained sayings and proverbs, sayings of philosophers, samples of business correspondence. With the introduction of civil one of the first fonts was the ABC, which was part of the Honest Mirror of Youth (1717). max. popular teacher a guide to teaching literacy in the beginning. 18th century was repeatedly reprinted (printed in Cyrillic) by B. Feofan Preokopovich (1720), combining information on grammar, arithmetic, history, and geography in one book. From B., printed by citizens. font, the “ABC” by A. A. Barsov (1768) stood out, containing, in addition to prayers and commandments, general education. information about the seasons, countries of the world, states and their capitals, as well as instructions.

ABCs and B. 17 - beginning. 19th centuries chapters were compiled arr. based on letters. method of teaching literacy - only after developing reading skills did students move on to writing. For this purpose, the textbooks included samples of business correspondence and other exercises. Whole engravings were also published. cursive alphabets, specially created for teaching writing and repeating each other in content.

In the 19th century B.'s edition reflected the class differentiation of students. Expensive, colorfully designed textbooks appeared. books: “A gift to children in memory of 1812” (1814), “A Gift for Children or a New Russian Alphabet” (1815), which became a noticeable phenomenon in children’s art. books. The search for rational teaching methods is reflected in the “ABC” by M. Gutt (1820), in the first part the author reported on “reading rules and method”, in the second he gave texts for exercises. The material is presented lesson by lesson and reinforcement is provided. The next step towards facilitating learning to read and write was the appearance of letters composed according to the syllabic method. “The Magnificent Russian Alphabet” was published. A gift for good children" (1844) and "ABC" by A. Daragan (1846). Texts, engravings and color illustrations depicted the life of a noble estate, the games of landowners' children and other subjects. Preem have spread among the people. citizen and church alphabet with religious texts. content (“Russian primer for teaching reading”, 1846). "Rus. ABC" by N. Grech (1846) also included material for the development of speech, spelling and vocabulary. The material in it was arranged in a “gradual order”, groups of vowels and consonants were classified, voiceless and voiced consonants were correlated, and comparative words were italicized (for example, brother - take).

The improvement of B. as a textbook went along the lines of enriching its content and introducing new teaching methods. "Rus. ABC" by V. A. Zolotoe" (1856, 1860) and "ABC for Peasant Children" by F. D. Studitsky (1860) were the first alphabet books compiled on the basis of sound analytical. way. Along with Studitsky’s book, a cut-out alphabet was used, from which the children made up words and expressions. For reading, the author included stories, poems close to children by A. S. Pushkin, A. V. Koltsov, I. S. Nikitin, P. P. Ershov, fables by I. A. Krylov. The author believed that pictures distracted students' attention. A dictionary is provided to help you consolidate what you have learned. Zolotov’s ABC, in addition, contained a section “Numeracy” with a multiplication table. In textbooks for primary literacy training in the 60s. 19th century (“Russian alphabet”

G. Bely, 1857; “ABC” for teaching 4-5 year old children by A. Belyaeva, 1863, and “Rus. ABC" for children 6 years old M. Grebenik, 1867) great attention was paid to orthoepy. According to Belyaeva's alphabet, children learned Russian at the same time. and foreign languages. The ABCs were well illustrated. The predominant texts at the beginning of the book were relit, and by the end of the book the themes were gradually replaced by fiction. and knowledgeable. stories.

The most important direction in the development of Russian. ABC books 19th century associated with the name of K. D. Ushinsky. “Native Word” (1864; went through 147 editions), which included “The ABC” and “The first book after the ABC”, had the goal of “exercising all children along with learning to read and write, developing, strengthening, giving useful information, stimulating initiative and, as if in passing, achieve learning to read and write." Distinguishes, the peculiarity of the ABC is systematic. introduction of material for the development of a child’s speech based on logic. processing specific knowledge about objects and phenomena of surrounding life. For the first time, the study of the native language began with the analysis of sounds in words, which taught children about the articulation of speech. Together with the teacher, the children analyzed words, compared sounds and wrote the elements of letters and their combinations in the alphabet. We started writing after analysis, i.e. wrote meaningfully, and did not copy from a model. Then, looking for familiar letters in short words, the children read the words and sentences. This method of teaching literacy is called “writing-reading method” (as opposed to “reading-writing” based on the letter-composition method). Gradually the sentences became more complex, but still included simple words. Thus, Ushinsky anticipated phonological. the principle of teaching literacy, which became the basis of education only in the 2nd half. 20th century In “Native Word”, reading materials are systematized and thematically combined for the first time. According to the topics, there are educational stories accessible to children. content. The textbook provided: preparation, exercises (drawings, elements of letters, letters, their connections); words and sentences; reading printed text (alphabet, separate vowel letters - printed and handwritten); reading words and short sentences; reading texts in the “First book after the ABC”. This structure varied in subsequent textbooks (N.F. Bunakov, “The ABC and lessons of reading and writing in three books,” 1871; V.I. Vodovozov, “Russian alphabet for children,” 1873). Based on Ushinsky’s ideas, the “Primer for joint teaching of reading and writing with pictures and articles for initial exercises in explanatory reading for public schools” by D. and E. Tikhomirov (1873, went through 161 editions) was created, which was distinguished by its clarity of structure and design, didactically appropriate arrangement of material. It combined folklore texts with excerpts from Russian poems. poets of the 19th century

In 1872, L. N. Tolstoy’s “ABC” was published (in 1875 - “New ABC”), compiled according to the “auditory method”, but, according to the author, suitable for any method of teaching in Crimea. The letters, supported by pictures, are given in printed and handwritten fonts with variant styles. Having memorized the letters, the students moved on to reading two, three four- and five-letter syllables. max. valuable in the ABC are stories and fairy tales written by Tolstoy, the fables of Aesop presented by him, as well as proverbs and sayings, riddles, carefully selected from Russian. folklore

Based on Ushinsky’s ideas, A. Anastasyev’s “School of Literacy” (1897), N. A. Korf’s “Our Friend” (1871), and M. I. Timofeev’s “ABC” (1908) were created. The sound method of teaching literacy was transformed by V.P. Vakhterov (“Russian Bukvar”, 1898) and V.A. Flerov (“New Russian Bukvar”, 1922). Vakhterov believed that letters should be introduced immediately, reinforcing the sound of words. This idea was the basis for primers built on the sound analytic-synthetic. way of learning.

From the beginning 20th century and until mid. 30s B. were published, compiled using the “whole words” method: “A Word” by P. P. Mironositsky (1909), “From the Village. The ABC" by A. Gorobets (1922), "Sun" by V. Polyakov, "Labor and" by E. Shalyta (1924), "Stream" by L. Bogoyavlensky, M. Zhebu-neva, M. Rybnikova (1926). Without giving sound exercises for the analysis and synthesis of sounds and syllables, they developed mechanical skills. reading texts to suggestive pictures and inhibited the development of literate writing skills.

During the eradication of illiteracy, books of various types were published: for the mountains. and sat down. schools, for teenagers and adults, for courses and clubs. This determined the specifics of each B. and the selection of examples and texts in them. In 1919, the “Military Primer” was published, in 1920-24-2 ed. first owl mass textbook for adults by D. Yu. Elkina and others (2nd ed. entitled “Down with Illiteracy?”), “Workers’ and Peasants’ Primer for Adults” by V.V. Smushkova, “A Primer for Workers” E Y. Go-lanta et al.

Mn. B.'s authors combined the “whole words” method with sound or syllabic methods. Characteristic in this regard are B.: E. A. Fortunatova and L. K. Shleger “First Steps” (1922), P. O. Afanasyev “Read, Write, Count” (1925), S. P. Redozubova “Our Words” ". Their structure and content were aimed at combining auditory and visual abilities in children. and motor components of perception.

In the 30-40s. B., compiled according to the “whole words” method, were replaced by B., which restored sound analytical-synthetic in the methodology of teaching literacy. method (primers by A.V. Yankovskaya and H.M. Golovin, 1937). In 1945, new stable ones were published by B. Redozubova and A. I. Voskresenskaya, who consolidated in the book-varistics the methods of teaching literacy, promoted by Vakhterov and Flerov, but in content reflecting the Soviet Union. reality, in structure - features of modern times. rus. language. Developed by Redozubov and implemented in his B. system of teaching literacy based on practical. children's mastery of basic Russian sounds speech (phonemes) formed the basis of the textbook compiled by the team of authors of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR (1953) and the ABC for teaching 6-year-old children in the family of Yankovskaya, Voskresenskaya, and Redozubov (195S). “ABC” contains pictures for conversations, the basics of reading, writing, and materials for self-help. practical and work activities (sculpting, drawing, designing, etc.). In addition to B., didactic books were published in 1959. materials prepared by teacher M.I. Syapsha. In 1966-81, an updated art book was published. regarding B., whose consultants were S.V. Mikhalkov, lud. V. Serov, psychologist-methodologist. L. K. Nazarova. The illustrative material of B. was made up of works by artists A. Kanevsky, A. Pakhomov, A. Plastov, E. Charushin and others. The text of the textbook was also significantly updated: it included dep. works by A. Prokofier, G. Sapgir and other poets, as well as specially prepared texts (some of them turned out to be unjustifiably politicized and difficult to understand). In 1972, Nazarova’s ABC Book Companion was published, which made it possible to differentiate the education of children with disabilities. level of the previous preparation.

Research by D. B. Elkonin (60-70s) on the problems of teaching literacy, the structure and content of literacy, taking into account the latest achievements of modern times. linguistics and psychology are reflected in experiments. B. author (1961, parts 1-2, 1969-72). In the textbook, the introduction of letters was preceded by a period of sound analysis, when the child mastered the sound structure of the word, its organic connection with the meaning of the word. The sound form of a word is presented in B. in the form of sound diagrams-models. The author proposed a general method of reading any open syllable, when the child, when reading a consonant letter, learned to focus on the subsequent vowel. In 1981, B. (stable since 1982) was published by V. G. Goretsky, V. A. Kiryushkin, A. F. Shanko. For the first time in school. practice B. was published as part of the educational method. set, which also included “Recipes”, didactic. material “We read ourselves”, method. teacher's guide. B. for 7-year-old students (3-year elementary school) and “ABC” for 6-year-old students (4-year elementary school), prepared by the same team of authors, are built on principles new to alphabet studies. The model of the sound (phoneme) structure in it is transformed taking into account the pronunciation and the relatedness of sounds in words. Relying on diagrams and word models greatly facilitated children's difficult phonic analysis and transition to reading. The arrangement of letters (sounds) and sound combinations according to the principle of their frequency in the language made it possible to enrich the vocabulary and content of texts, and special notes - to introduce words of different syllable-sound structures into texts from the beginning of learning to read and immediately teach to read words with stress. All this made it possible to reduce the inevitable large number of so-called. alphabetic (to a certain extent artificial) texts and earlier introduce students to literary art. works. B. contains many games, sound riddles, and puzzles, which contribute to the development of cognition. children's activity.

Since 1992, B. has been freed from overly politicized, ideological content; since the 30s. mandatory for B.

Russian experience primers published in the RSFSR since the 30s. was widely used in the development of similar manuals in the languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation, including for studying Russian as a non-native language.

Lit.: Babushkina A.P., History of Russian. det. Literary, M., 1948; Petrov A.N., On the history of the primer, “Rus. school", 1894, No. 4; 400 years of Russian book printing, vol. 1 - 2, M., 1964; Botvinnik M. B., At the origins of the teaching. books. Minsk, 1964; s g. o z e, Where did the primer come from, Minsk, 1983; his, Continuity and connection of the Eastern Slavs. primers of the 17th century, in the collection: Problems of school. textbook, in. 11, M., 1982; From the alphabet of Ivan Fedorov to modern times. primer (1574-1974), M., 1974; N a-z a r o v a L.K., Primer and system of means of teaching literacy, in the collection: Problems of school. textbook, in. 11, M., 1982; K a p n yu k G.V., The primer is a source of information about the life of the country, the people and their culture, in the same place, in. 14, M., 1984. L. K. Nazarova.

Russian pedagogical encyclopedia. - M: “Great Russian Encyclopedia”. Ed. V. G. Panova. 1993 .

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primer- Cm … Synonym dictionary

ABC- And; and. 1. The Russian alphabet, created on the basis of the ancient Slavic Cyrillic alphabet (as a subject of study in preschool age). Teach, learn the alphabet. Know the whole alphabet. // About the system of conventional signs used in which literature. environment or what... encyclopedic Dictionary

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Introduction

1. Theoretical approaches to the study of the features of modern primers and alphabets

2.4 Comparative analysis of modern primers

2.5 Main proposals based on the results of the analysis

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The relevance of the course work lies in the fact that for a long time the first book for teaching literacy is the primer. The word is synonymous with the word alphabet and has two meanings: 1) a system of arrangement of graphic signs - letters in alphabetical order (named after the Greek letters alpha, beta, etc.) with their full name; 2) an initial teaching aid for teaching literacy. Here the name alphabet indicates the teaching method itself - memorizing letters in alphabetical order.

The ABC book is extremely important in a person’s life. It is often the first book that a small child begins to study independently. With the help of a primer, a child learns to read and write, thereby raising his knowledge of his native language to a new, higher level. It is the exercises with the primer that allow the child to clearly and finally realize that he belongs to his native language and native culture. The primer develops the child’s logical thinking, which significantly increases the level of his intelligence and is a significant step in the formation of his individuality, contributes to the development of the child’s aesthetic views, and helps him correctly perceive the world around him in all its diverse beauty. The primer is also indispensable for the spiritual education of a little person, the formation of moral and civic qualities of the individual. The primer significantly expands the child’s erudition and gives rise to a lot of knowledge, which leads the child onto the road leading to an adult, independent life.

In addition, the primer is not only a means of education and training for the younger generation, but also a document of material culture, scientific and historical significance. After all, the primer, in a specific, unique, compressed and limited in size form, reflects the main aspects of the life of the country at a certain stage of time. By studying the primer, you can clearly see the basic ideological and political views of society, the state of its spiritual and moral health, the situation of various segments of the population, a reflection of the everyday life and way of life of the people, its ethnographic features, the development of the national language and literature, information on the history of national book publishing. Thus, the primer is an essential source of cultural, scientific and historical information about a person, society, and state.

Teaching students the alphabet is a mandatory component of the modern educational process that meets the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard. There are various approaches and techniques regarding the ways of learning letters, the sequence of accessing them and the features of memorization.

Recently, there has been a tendency to study letters in alphabets and primers, which is determined by the principle of frequency, which dictates the order of letters in textbooks, depending on the frequency of use of a particular letter. Following this principle allows you to quickly expand the amount of reading and writing that is available to your child. However, the practical purpose of the primer, which is built taking into account this principle, cannot reveal general linguistic patterns to the younger student, and prevents the solution of linguistic problems that develop his thinking and bring his linguistic consciousness to a new level.

The object of the course work is modern primers included in textbook sets for primary schools.

The subject of the course work is the features of construction, the sequence of studying sounds and letters, literary material for reading, speech development and illustrative material of primers, most often used in the educational space of Russia.

The purpose of the course work is a comparative analysis of the primers most often used in the educational space of Russia, and the introduction of one’s own rational proposals based on the results of the analysis.

In accordance with the purpose of the study, the following tasks are determined:

Consider theoretical approaches to the study of the features of modern primers and alphabet books;

To characterize modern primers that are most often used in the educational space of Russia: primers by L.E. Zhurova and A.O. Evdokimova, alphabet N.G. Agarkova and Yu.A. Agarkov and the ABCs of V.G. Goretsky, V.A. Kiryushkina and L.A. Vinogradskaya;

Conduct a comparative analysis of modern primers and develop basic proposals based on the results of the analysis.

The course work examines the features of the following primers:

Program - “Prospective Primary School”, N.G. Agarkova, Yu.A. Agarkov “ABC” Textbook on teaching literacy and reading 1st grade.

Program - “Primary school of the 21st century”, L.E. Zhurova, A.O. Evdokimov “A Primer” in 2 parts, 1st grade.

Program - “School of Russia”. Goretsky V.G., Kiryushkin V.A., Vinogradskaya L.A. "ABC" in 2 parts, 1st grade.

1. Theoretical approaches to the study of the features of modern primers and alphabets

1.1 Essence, meaning and history of the development of the primer

The primer is the first educational book that falls into the hands of a child. This is where literacy begins. According to it, every person learns to write and read. Agree, the Primer is an ageless book, it is the beginning of all beginnings.

The purpose of the Primer is to introduce the child to the world of letters, to teach them to read in their native language. It is with him, the Primer, that each person begins to climb the mountain of knowledge.

The life of this textbook book is interesting; It probably cannot be any other way, because from the pages of the Primer, time, near and far, which has become our history, speaks to us.

6 centuries ago, printed alphabets were called primers. These were eight-sheet manuals that included only the alphabet and syllables. Thin books became dirty, lost, and often thrown away. Many examples of primers were saved by inquisitive foreigners, who exported them to non-Slavic countries as “eastern rarities.”

16th century. Book printer Ivan Fedorov prints the first Russian Primer. The only copy is now in the library of Harvard University in the USA. The book in Old Church Slavonic has no title. It is composed of five eight-sheet notebooks.

Some pages are decorated with screensavers of leaves, flowers and pine cones.

In the alphabet there are acrostics, in which each line is dedicated to a religious truth and begins with a specific letter.

In the 17th century, Vasily Burtsev-Protopopov, the head of the department that provided the school with books, printed in his printing house “A primer of the Slovenian language, that is, the beginning of learning for children...”. The Primer looks elegant and simple. Burtsev uses red to highlight letters, syllables and section names. His primer, like Fedorov’s, contains the alphabet in forward and reverse order, sections on grammar, and even the legend of Chernoritsa the Brave.

After 59 years, Karion Istomin, a monk of the Moscow Chudov Monastery, a famous educator, poet, artist, bookmaker, published 2 handwritten “Facebooks” for teaching the children of Peter I. These were art books, painted with multi-colored paints and gold.

A year later, a printed edition of Istomin’s Primer was published in the amount of one hundred and six copies. For the first time in a Russian primer, a method of visual presentation of the material is used: 400 drawings, entertaining pictures with poems helped to easily learn the alphabet. Each letter occupies a separate page. At the head of the letter row is a man in armor, whose pose resembles its outline. There are no prayers and instructions, and Istomin’s “moralizing poems” about the benefits of learning, work and the sciences evoke a “desire to learn” and at the same time turn this primer from a book pleasing to God into a small encyclopedia of “civil customs and righteous deeds.”

At the end of the 17th century, Karion Istomin published a typesetting Primer for the royal court in a small edition, only 20 copies. It includes not only his own poems, but also the works of Russian writers: Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom, Basil the Great. Removes some religious articles. Thus, a “literary primer” is obtained. Until the first quarter of the 18th century.

Istomin's primer has gone through more than one edition.

18 century. Poet, writer, translator Fyodor Polikarpov creates a textbook that fully corresponds to the spirit of the era of enlightenment of Peter I. A new era - new content and design. There is a table of contents, instructions for the student; texts in Slavic, Greek and Latin are grouped by topic. Illustrations, edifying poems, and the red color for the design of words and parts of the text made Fyodor Polikarpov’s Primer the brightest monument of Russian educational typography.

“An honest mirror of youth or an indication for everyday life” - this is the name of the Primer of 1717, published as a collection from various authors. This is one of the first books for teaching literacy in the new civil font, which Peter 1 ordered to be printed. The primer approved the final model of the new style of letters of the Russian alphabet. It was intended for school and home education.

In Tsarist Russia, different primers are printed: for children from rich families - in color, with beautiful pictures, for poor peasant and working children - small, without illustrations. In the Year of Literature, which has been declared 2015, I would like to remember the great writer Leo Tolstoy. In Yasnaya Polyana, with his own money, he organized a school for peasant children and created “ABC” for it. Many stories from this ABC are still used to teach children to read.

And here are ABC books from the 20th century. The 1937 Bukvar required a portrait of Lenin and a description of his care for children. Experienced, even famous artists were involved in the illustration: Ezhkova V., Bogdanov V., Nikulina T., whose drawings were not overloaded with details and were positively educational and brightly expressive in nature. The primer was published by a team of authors 13 times. And the latter remained unchanged for almost 40 years. It is rich in subject pictures and series of drawings and, of course, differs from its predecessors, but the purpose of the Primer is still the same - to teach a child to distinguish sounds and letters, to read words and small texts.

The Primer, the first book of a schoolchild, the ageless book, the beginning of all beginnings... The significance of the Primer is great not only in the life of an individual, but also of the entire people. Because the Primer reflects the spirit of the times, clearly shows how the people’s “heads work” and how they, the people, think about the future of their children. According to the collector of Primers Juris Cybuls (there are 3000 Primers of different nations in his collection), this is a miniature encyclopedia, which provides knowledge about the history, geography, culture of one’s people, achievements in various fields of life in a visual, understandable and entertaining way; like a drop of water, both the requirements and the level of the era are reflected. For me, the Primer is a symbol of knowledge, and also where the Motherland begins.

1.2 The main differences between the alphabet and the primer

Learning to read and write begins with the alphabet and primer. Their centuries-old history is evidence of the exceptional importance of systematizing methods for studying the alphabet as the basis of writing and reading, without which the acquisition of new knowledge is limited only by human empirical experience. The alphabet and primer perform common functions, but differ in the structure and content of educational material.

ABC is a system of ordered letter signs, compiled on the basis of the alphabet for teaching reading and writing.

The primer is a textbook for mastering the skills of syllabic reading and writing letters based on the alphabet.

The primer performs the same function, but its structure and content differ significantly from the alphabet. Learning the alphabet using a primer is combined with mastering the skills of syllabic reading, as well as writing individual letters and simple words. This approach to learning the basics of grammar activates the child’s visual, auditory and mechanical memory, thanks to which the learning of the material occurs faster and better.

The Russian alphabet has a more ancient history than the primer. Its first fragments are contained in birch bark documents and “The Tale of Bygone Years” - a monument of ancient Russian literature of the early 12th century.

The primer appeared much later. The creator of the first book for teaching literacy was the founder of printing in Rus', Ivan Fedorov, who in 1574 published a colorfully illustrated textbook containing the alphabet and reading material.

Modern primers are a joint work of linguists, teachers, and psychologists, as a result of which criteria are developed for maximum compliance of the textbook with the developmental goals of the educational process. Studying the primer is included in the compulsory educational program for the first grade of primary school.

The alphabet is traditionally produced in book format with illustrative and textual additions, but it also has other versions: in the form of tables, light and sound panels, letter mosaics, cubes, puzzles for adding syllables and words.

Initial familiarization with the alphabet is provided for in the educational programs of preschool educational institutions.

Thus, the difference between the alphabet and the primer is as follows:

1. The alphabet contains an ordered system of letter characters arranged in alphabetical order. The ABC book combines the alphabetical arrangement of letters with exercises for syllabic reading.

2. The primer is the first compulsory textbook for elementary school students, containing information about the grammar of the Russian language. ABC is an illustrated book publication or another type of manual intended for learning the alphabet.

3. The history of the emergence of the alphabet is closely connected with the development of writing and dates back to the period of the creation of ancient Russian chronicles. The first primers in Rus' appeared simultaneously with printing.

1.3 Reading as a type of speech activity

The importance of reading and books as a means of education, upbringing and human development is well known. Reading is a source of acquiring knowledge, spiritual and mental development of the individual. The process of reading itself presupposes the work and creativity of the reader, since the reading process includes creative, intellectual and labor activity - emotional empathy, co-creation, the involvement of reconstructive imagination, mental operations (inferences, assessments, relationships). Therefore, it is so important from childhood to instill in a child a love of reading, an interest in books and show its role in a person’s life, to equip the student with the ability to read - an appropriate level of technical skills, meaningful reading aloud and silently, and the ability to work with different types of texts and children's books.

Reading belongs to one of the highest intellectual functions of a person. Formed reading as an action is part of his cognitive activity. The essence of the process is the semantic analysis of symbolic material, the purpose of which is the perception and comprehension of the information contained in the text. Therefore, reading is considered by many psycholinguists as a type of information retrieval and cognitive activity.

Famous psycholinguists A.A. Leontyev, I.A. Zimnyaya, psychologists A.N. Soklov, N.I. Zhinkin consider reading as one of the types of speech activity along with listening, speaking and writing. Being an activity, reading has basic structural elements that are interconnected: motivational-incentive, procedural-operational and control-evaluative phases.

The motive for reading is need. A primary school student who is mastering reading first has a need to learn to read. that is, master the sound system and the process of reading itself - the emergence of words from letters. This piques his interest. Having mastered the initial reading (literacy), the student changes the motive for reading: he is interested in understanding what thought lies behind the words. As reading develops, the motives become more complex, and the student reads with the goal of learning some specific fact or phenomenon; even more complex needs appear, for example, to know the motive of the hero’s action in order to evaluate it; find the main idea in a popular science text, etc.

Thus, the driving force behind reading is a motivational need. Next comes a more complex phase - tentatively - research. It is associated with orientation in the text and involves analytical-synthetic work (orientation in the topic of the text, general content, outlining the planning of one’s work).

The next, higher level of activity is performing. It requires certain knowledge of methods of activity - those sequential techniques that will help to form a certain skill and achieve the goal of reading.

Reading as an activity should include self-control and assessment, therefore the process of learning to read requires the reader to check their results, i.e., the compliance of educational actions with the main educational task (for example, checking the accuracy of compliance with the plan, choosing a particular passage of text on a certain topic, etc.). d.).

One of the most important tasks of elementary school is to develop the ability to read not only as a subject-specific speech activity (in the lessons of the native language - reading), but also as an interdisciplinary educational skill that will fully function in teaching mathematics, natural history, mastering grammatical rules and exercises, etc. d.

Reading as an interdisciplinary skill requires not only a certain level of technical skills developed in reading lessons, but also specially organized work on understanding educational texts contained in primary school textbooks.

Knowledge of the types of these texts and the features of their structures is the basis for developing methods of action with each of them and determining a generalized action with any educational text.

To implement reading as an interdisciplinary skill, there must be a solid base - a certain level of subject skills: the formation of reading aloud and silently, understanding the content of the text and its meaning (subtext). And then the acquired skills are consolidated when reading other educational texts, the range of methods of action expands, the levels of understanding are enriched, and the silent reading technique is improved. Thus, interdisciplinary skills should be formed in conjunction with subject ones, on their basis.

Reading as one of the types of speech activity is not formed in isolation from its other types. Reading is most closely related to listening. The student understands audible reading more easily. Therefore, starting from the first year, listening to various texts should be introduced into education. It should be combined with independent reading. The child must be able to hear folk and poetic speech, distinguish between business and artistic speech by ear, navigate the topic and content of the text he listened to, and express his judgments about the events, facts, and phenomena he listened to.

Reading is directly related to oral speech. With the help of oral speech, the expressiveness of reading is practiced; When reading, means of verbal expressiveness are used, as well as coherent oral speech to convey the content of the text and communication between readers.

The object of a child's reading is written speech - a printed word, a sentence, a text. Therefore, the student must distinguish between these units when reading and be able to read not only individual sentences, but also a coherent text that has its own distinctive features - coherence, semantic unity, the main problem, a certain structure. The reliance of reading on different types of speech activity expands the possibilities of reading and creates conditions for nurturing a culture of speech and reading in their interrelation.

The main result of reading is understanding the text. This is a very complex analytical and synthetic process. Understanding is associated with decoding text, i.e. translating readable words into your own code - your own words. Study of speech mechanisms N.I. Zhinkin showed that reading (decoding) is easier than writing (coding). However, understanding a spoken or written text causes great difficulties for an inexperienced reader, since he needs to make a “transition from externally expressed complete words to the general meaning of the message.” .

The child needs to paraphrase the text or equivalently replace some words with others that are close to his experience.

The process of understanding a literary text is associated primarily with imaginative thinking, with the processes of imagination, and the development of the reader’s emotional sphere. The content does not overflow, does not go into the reader’s head, but is reproduced, recreated by him according to the guidelines given in the work. The final result of reading is determined by the mental and spiritual activity of the reader, his creativity.

The perception of texts by younger schoolchildren does not correspond to the perception of a mature reader and has a number of features. It is characterized by:

Fragmentation, lack of integrity in the perception of the text;

Weakness of abstracting and generalizing perception;

Dependence on life experience;

Connection with the child’s practical activities;

Pronounced emotionality and spontaneity, sincerity of empathy;

The prevalence of interest in the content of speech rather than in the speech form;

Insufficiently complete and correct understanding of figurative and expressive means of speech;

The predominance of the reproductive (reproducing) level of perception.

So, in the research of psychologists, the most important conditions for the functioning of reading as an interdisciplinary skill have been outlined:

Reliance on the principle of the relationship between teaching reading both as a subject and as an interdisciplinary skill;

The relationship between teaching reading and other types of speech activity (speaking and writing, listening);

Implementation of all components of educational activities in

relationships in the process of learning to read;

Development of students' personal perception and

reading independence;

Orientation in teaching at different levels of text understanding;

Use for reading texts of various types;

Taking into account the cognitive capabilities and characteristics of the cognitive activity of a junior schoolchild who began learning to read at an earlier age (from six years old);

Using a differentiated approach to the content, methods and means of teaching reading;

Constantly turning to reading, to books;

Translation of analytical-synthetic reading into synthetic, automatic.

Reading is precisely the kind of activity that can develop students. If it is properly organized and the child can read, reading is a means of cognition, learning, development and education of the child’s personal qualities and his worldview.

2. General characteristics and comparative analysis of modern primers included in textbook sets for primary schools

2.1 Analysis of the primer by L.E. Zhurova and A.O. Evdokimova

The authors of the analyzed Primer are L.E. Zhurova and A.O. Evdokimova. This textbook and three workbooks constitute a complete set of educational materials for teaching first-graders literacy, reading and writing. The course is based on the ideas of D.B. Elkonina. A special feature of the textbook and workbooks is the special focus on the formation of educational activities. A significantly extended preparatory period ensures that a six-year-old schoolchild adapts to learning, introduces him to linguistic reality, and prepares the child’s hand for writing. A literary listening lesson is held once a week.

Research Primer edited by L.E. Zhurova and A.O. Evdokimova is aimed, of course, at first-graders who are learning to read. But at the same time, it concentrates methodological conditions for comprehensive teaching of reading to children who have different levels of preschool reading preparation. For example, those starting to learn to read in most cases are introduced to one new letter, and the focus is on mastering the main principle of Russian graphics and the reading tool based on it. Work on this tool is also necessary to improve the reading technique of children who are already reading. The same elements of the pages of the primer, for example, columns of syllables, carry different groups of students performing different tasks: one group, under the guidance of the teacher, learns the reading tool, and the other reads independently, each at their own pace, finding words among the syllables, after which they begin joint reasoning of decisions made.

Simultaneously with learning to read, the primer implements the purposeful study of the Russian language course by students. Helps the child enter the world of observing language, the lexical meaning of words, their structure and changes, the similarity between the lexical meaning of a word and its sound composition, stress, etc. It is on this basis that work is built on the culture of language use and the culture of speech; the foundations of the phonetic skills of first-graders are created, which is required for the successful mastery of both Russian graphics and spelling, and, accordingly, for the future understanding of literate writing. Promotes understanding of the graphics of the Russian language and provides propaedeutic work on spelling: familiarity (at a practical level) with the signs of the most popular spellings (“dangerous places when writing”); the beginning of the direct creation of orthographic foresight of schoolchildren, i.e. ability to find spellings; creates conditions for students’ practical understanding of all types of speech activity: speaking, listening, reading; to create a culture of speech behavior.

When considering the material in the Primer, you can pay attention to the versatility of the content, bright design and logical structure of the material. All content material in the textbook is aimed at student-centered learning. Two types of font are convenient for children's perception. Children themselves can identify words that can be easily read. Using the example of individual sentences and poems, children learn the correct pronunciation of words, stress, and intonation.

The primer teaches you to identify the need for information and find it yourself using the minimax principle. A student can learn the maximum, but must master the minimum. The teacher himself determines the amount of material that will be used in the lesson and may not clutter the lesson by reading absolutely all the words from the pages of the Primer. If you use a double lesson, then, along with reading, you can comprehensively use work in a typing notebook and work in copybooks. Gradually mastering the system of symbols, the child begins to gain the first experience of working independently with an educational book. Over time, the student will understand that the primer contains not only pictures that can be looked at, words, sentences, short stories that should be read - it also contains tasks that need to be completed. First, he will learn to understand tasks presented by conventional symbols, and then, having learned to read to one degree or another, he will begin to “draw out the meaning” of the authors’ attitudes from special headings. Working with materials from alphabetic pages, he will for the first time encounter short messages in which the results of joint observations and spelling rules are formulated. Thus, these elements prepare the student in advance for subsequent independent communication with textbooks.

An equally important role is assigned to sounds in the Primer. With their help, students develop phonemic awareness and the ability to analyze sounds. An important place on the pages of the Primer is given to syllabic and sound-letter analysis of words. The importance of this exercise can hardly be overestimated: it promotes better reading comprehension, the development of phonemic awareness and the ability to write correctly.

The Primer contains a lot of material for exercises in reading techniques: 1) columns of syllables for reading, compiled according to the principle from simple to complex; 2) columns of words; 3) a column with pairs of words that have a distinctive feature; 4) proposals; 5) a poem that includes the words analyzed in this lesson. You can use various types of exercises in reading techniques: read a syllable; add one letter to a syllable to make a word; add another syllable to a syllable to make a word; find certain syllables in words; create a new word from several syllables; read aloud; working with a syllabic table - composing syllables and words from letters, etc.

The educational side of teaching is also very clearly evident in the content of the pages of the textbook. The characteristic features of the lessons we analyze in the Primer L.E. Zhurova and A.O. Evdokimova, serves as a methodological system, which, along with the formation of subject skills, is focused on organizing conditions for the personal development of schoolchildren and installing a system of subject-based learning activities for them, provided for by the Federal State Educational Standard of NEO. From the above, we can conclude that the authors of the primer strive to ensure the personal development of primary school students in a variety of methodological ways. They develop in children an interest in the first educational book, a desire to learn with its help, acquire knowledge and skills; form an understanding of a new social role - the student; contribute to the emergence of elements of self-esteem and the desire to overcome educational difficulties.

In literacy lessons, curiosity is born, and to satisfy it, the desire to learn to read well appears. It is known that the stage of learning to read and write is classified into three periods: preparatory, basic, and final. The preparatory period includes learning letters and actually learning to read. The work built during this period on the basis of the primer prepares children for learning the Russian language. The main period of learning to read and write consists of becoming familiar with letters and their work, and developing the initial ability to read. The last lessons before the holidays form the final period of literacy training. Learning to read and write seems to be one of the most important stages in the overall development of a person as an individual, and his further education, and sometimes his choice of life path, depends on which alphabet, with which primer a child begins his entry into the world of the Russian language and literature.

To get a real idea of what primers are used today, it is necessary to turn to their analysis from the point of view of phonetics, to determine their features and specifics. For this purpose, an attempt was made to analyze the “Primer” by L.E. Zhurova and A.O. Evdokimova, and specifically solve the following problems: determine the mandatory educational material necessary for teaching first-graders literacy, reading and writing; analyze the amount of knowledge and skills acquired by first-graders in the process of learning using this primer; compare the combination of traditional and innovative components. "Primer" L.E. Zhurova and A.O. Evdokimova, recommends to students numerous poems, riddles, stories, games, plot pictures, solving crosswords, puzzles, introduces children to the skills of forming syllabic and sound patterns of words and talks about the Russian language as a system.

A distinctive aspect of the primer under study is its versatility. The authors offer psychological and pedagogical conditions, ways and means of developing the speech of primary schoolchildren and propose lesson developments. They assure that the lesson should be built not only on one type of activity (for example, only reading or only writing), the method of receiving the material should be fractional, and this leads to the fact that the child’s attention focused on such a method will not let him get bored and getting distracted during class. Thus, according to the authors, tasks must be presented “mixed up”. The analyzed primer contains all modern methodological requirements, including the requirement for student-centered learning.

2.2 Analysis of the alphabet by N.G. Agarkova and Yu.A. Agarkova

“ABC” is based on the concept of “Prospective Primary School”, in which the principles of developmental education interact with the traditional principles of accessibility and strength of knowledge acquisition.

The purpose of the course is to teach children basic reading and writing based on familiarization with the general principles of the structure of the graphic system of the Russian language.

The methodological basis of the literacy (reading and writing) course is the traditional analytical-synthetic principle in its modern interpretation. In the educational process, this principle is implemented through a graphic action, which has a complex phonemic-letter nature and is determined by the principles of the graphic system of the Russian language: phonemic and positional (syllabic).

Let us note some specific features of this educational book:

In "ABC" the following order of entering sounds and letters is proposed: at the first stage, vowel letters are entered, denoting one vowel phoneme (a, o, e, i, ы, у), then consonant letters, denoting unpaired phonemes in terms of deafness and voicedness (m , l, n, r, j). This set of letters is enough to begin the formation of a mechanism for implementing the positional principle of graphics: the phonemic meaning of a letter is recognized by its surroundings. And only after this are letters suggested that are followed by paired consonants in terms of deafness and voicedness, ь and ъ, as well as the letters e, e, yu, i, which can have different phonemic correspondence in different positions. This order is not accidental; it allows one to form an idea of the differential characteristics of consonants and methods of their graphical recording in stages: first hardness-softness, and only then deafness-voicedness. Step by step, children become familiar with two graphic situations regulated by the positional principle of writing: the designation of hardness and softness of consonant phonemes in writing and the designation of phonemes .

The issue of verbal material for teaching reading was resolved in a special way. It is known that the need to limit alphabetic material to words containing only previously learned letters significantly impoverishes reading texts, making the alphabet page primitive and uninteresting for children. The computer program “ABV” was compiled, which made it possible to create special texts for reading, maximally rich in words with the sounds and letters being studied, and to concentrate on an alphabetic page a large number of words with the introduced sounds and letters.

In addition to specially created texts for reading, “ABC” includes works of other genres: poems, riddles, proverbs, sayings, tongue twisters, nursery rhymes, teasers, etc., that is, something that meets the age-related needs of children and contributes to the development of cognitive interest.

a) the technique of building up - gradually increasing the sound chain and creating new syllables and words (pei - pei - burdock - burdock; we - soap - washed - washed), which allows you to develop children's graphic attentiveness and form the technique of conscious reading. Reading words in such chains is realized alternately at two levels: syllabic (chanting) and orthoepic (reading a fully formed word with the emphasis: skill - skill). This is the technology for mastering the initial skill of reading.

b) the technique of reconstructing words - comparing words in minimal pairs that differ from each other by one phoneme (letter) allows you to practice not only reading techniques, but also to form an idea of the meaningful function of phonemes and thereby develop phonemic hearing not at the level of declarations, but in reality educational action (willow - cornfield, dream - elephant, loaf - bud, bunny - husky, game - needle, etc.

In the process of mastering literacy, children form initial ideas about the basic units of language (sound, word, phrase, sentence, text). In this case, a special modeling system is used, which makes it possible to graphically represent linguistic units at different levels of abstraction and convey systemic relationships between them (for example, the text is presented in the form of a house in which sentences “live”, united by a common roof - a title, etc. ). The authors of “ABC” have developed phonetic-graphic schemes that make it possible to correlate pronunciation and spelling, moving, depending on the tasks being solved, from sound to letter or from letter to sound. In this case, two different types of symbols for sounds are used: first, the most abstract icons, indicating only the class to which the sound belongs (vowel or consonant, voiceless - voiced, hard - soft), and then transcription signs representing a specific sound. At the same time, the adopted transcription system is simplified for educational purposes: for example, two degrees of vowel reduction in the Russian language are ignored (p[a]liet, trav[a]), that is, the same sound is established in the final open syllable as in the first pre-shock This pronunciation is, in principle, possible in the modern state of the language, but not the only one.

In this educational book, the issue of Russian syllable division is resolved in a non-traditional way for most primers. It is known that most linguists are inclined to the opinion that a syllable in the Russian language is constructed according to the law of ascending sonority and at the same time tends to be open. It follows from this that in the groups of intervocalic consonants “noisy + noisy”, “noisy + sonorant”, “sonorant + sonorant” both sounds go to the subsequent syllable (sha-pka, ve-sna, vo-lna). It is precisely this syllable division that is consistently carried out in “ABC” both at the phonetic and graphic levels. The data available in the literature prove that this is how most children who cannot yet read divide syllables into syllables. And then at school they are usually retrained, “hammering” the natural sense of native speakers, which, of course, should be avoided.

2.3 Analysis of the alphabet by V.G. Goretsky, V.A. Kiryushkina and L.A. Vinogradskaya

ABC V.G. Goretsky and others are included in the set of textbooks for primary schools of the “School of Russia” educational system.

The ABC course is based on V.G. Goretsky, V.A. Kiryushkina, L.A. Vinogradskaya and others are based on the syllabic-sound analytical-synthetic method, which takes into account the data of linguistic, pedagogical and methodological science, is educational and developmental in nature, ensures intensive speech development of children and a high level of consciousness of reading and speech.

Learning to read and write consists of two interrelated processes (learning initial reading and writing) and is reinforced by work on the development of speech at its main levels: sound (sound culture), word (vocabulary work), sentence, coherent utterance (text).

The textbook “ABC” contains significant educational potential aimed at forming the foundations of the Russian civic identity of primary schoolchildren, mastering basic national values, obtaining knowledge of native and local history by children, as well as multiculturalism, reflecting the unity and diversity of cultures of the peoples of Russia.

In reading and writing lessons, the problem-search method of teaching predominates. In addition, the course “Teaching Literacy” by V.G. Goretsky, V.A. Kiryushkina, L.A. Vinogradskaya et al. assumes the organization of project activities in the context of the implementation of a system-activity approach.

1. Ensures the achievement of the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard for the results of mastering the basic educational program of primary general education.

2. Meets the tasks of spiritual, spiritual and moral development and education of the personality of a citizen of Russia.

3. Takes into account the age and psychological characteristics of students.

4. Implements the scientific principle, taking into account the level of education.

Personal, including the readiness and ability of students for self-development, the formation of motivation for learning and knowledge, value and semantic attitudes of students, reflecting their individual personal positions and qualities; formation of the foundations of civic identity;

Meta-subject, including universal learning activities mastered by students (cognitive, regulatory and communicative), ensuring mastery of key competencies that form the basis of the ability to learn, and interdisciplinary concepts;

Subject-based, including the reading and writing skills mastered by students during the study of the academic subject, their transformation and application, as well as the system of fundamental elements of scientific knowledge in Russian graphics and spelling.

The selection and construction of the content of the educational material of the textbook was carried out with a focus on the formation of basic national values:

Patriotism - love for Russia, for one’s people, for one’s small homeland, service to the Fatherland: studying the themes “Native land, forever beloved” (Part I, pp. 14-15), “Russia is my Motherland” (Part I, pp. 110-111), “To live - to serve the Motherland” (Part II, p. 34), etc.

Social solidarity - trust in people, institutions of the state and civil society, justice, mercy, honor, dignity: studying the topics “Consent is stronger than stone walls” (Part I, p. 12), “Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself” (Part I, p. 118).

Citizenship - service to the Fatherland, rule of law, civil society, law and order, multicultural world: studying the themes “To live - to serve the Motherland” (Part II, p. 34), “God is not in power, but in truth” (Part II , p. 74).

Family - love and loyalty, health, prosperity, respect for parents, care for elders and younger ones: studying the topic “You don’t need a treasure when there is harmony in the family” (Part I, p. 10), texts “Gifts for the holiday” ( Part I, p. 122), “Grandfather became old” (Part II, p. 19), etc.

Labor and creativity - respect for work, creativity and creation, determination and perseverance: studying the topics “He who loves to work cannot sit idle” (Part I, pp. 6-7), “Like the master, so is the work” ( Part I, pp. 48-49), etc.

Science - the value of knowledge, the pursuit of truth, the scientific picture of the world: studying the themes “Live and learn” (Part I, p. 16), carrying out research on the history of aviation and astronautics” (Part II, pp. 50-57 ) and fleet (part II, pp. 70-71).

Traditional Russian religions - ideas about faith, spirituality, human religious life, tolerance, formed on the basis of interfaith dialogue: studying the topic “God is not in power, but in truth” (part 2, p. 74).

Art and literature - beauty, harmony, the spiritual world of man, moral choice, aesthetic development, ethical development: studying the texts “It is bad for him who does no good to anyone” (Part II, p. 95), etc., making illustrations for fairy tales .

Nature - native land, protected nature, planet Earth, ecological consciousness: studying the themes “About our little brothers” (Part I, pp. 90-95), the texts “Hungry, cold” (Part II, p. 8) and etc.

3. Compliance of the content of the textbook with the age and psychological characteristics of students.

The level of personal development of students in this age group, which is expressed in the wording of tasks, in the selection of language material (the use of vocabulary familiar to students, folklore and literary works known to first-graders), in appealing to the personal experience of children (the use of familiar folklore and literary images, proverbs and sayings, texts on topics close to first-graders (animals, nature, fairy tales, etc.).

Leading activities typical for students of this age group. A feature of children’s first days at school is the transition from play as the leading activity of a preschooler to educational activity. To ease the difficulties of this transition, “ABC” has a pre-letter period, which is an intermediate link between play and educational activities: children retell fairy tales familiar from the preschool period (based on the illustrations and plot pictures of “ABC”), classify objects typical for preschoolers and schoolchildren according to textbook illustrations, compare the life situations proposed in the textbook with those that they observed in their everyday life (pp. 4-9). At the same time, there is a process of assimilation of concepts about oral and written speech, words and sentences, syllables, stress, sounds in nature and speech, vowels and consonants, and the syllabic role of vowels. Children work a lot with sign-symbolic means of representing information (schemas of sentences, words, syllables). And only at the end of the pre-letter period do children begin to study letters denoting vowel sounds, that is, the process of adaptation to educational activity is, in principle, completed. In the future, game moments are of an educational nature (Part I, pp. 29, 34, 39, 44, 46, etc.).

In addition, “ABC” takes into account that recently, most often in the classroom there are children who differ in the degree of readiness for school. Therefore, “ABC” contains material for each lesson both for children who are just learning to read, and material for students who learned to read in preschool.

Reliance on the life experience of students of this age group, including the experience of residents of urban and rural areas.

The life experience of first-graders is small, but it still exists. “ABC” contains tasks for children to compose stories based on their life experiences: about children’s games (Part I, p. 12), about the sounds of the surrounding world (Part I, p. 13), about holidays in the countryside (Part .I, p.14), etc. At the same time, some texts are aimed at broadening the child’s horizons, introducing him to something he has not yet encountered in his life.

Introduces the theory on which Russian graphics is based, that is, the syllabic principle of Russian graphics. For this purpose, a transcription of the sounds to which the studied letters correspond is introduced into the ABC, rules are given that show the role of “non-iotated” and “iotated” letters in the construction of syllables, and they are brought to the generally accepted in linguistics formulations of the names of letters “a letter denoting a vowel sound”, “ letter denoting a consonant sound." Children’s understanding of what Russian graphics are based on will allow them to more consciously assimilate the rules of Russian spelling and lexical phenomena such as homophones, homographs and paronyms, as well as carry out a phonetic analysis of the word, composing its sound and letter composition. This is also facilitated by the numerous observations of a phonological nature available in the ABC (Part I - pp. 34, 46, 50, 51, 66, 67, 81, 89, 93, 102, 107; Part II - pp. 13, 22 ).

Provides the opportunity to expand the student’s information field. In “ABC,” in addition to the actual information about Russian graphics and the development of book printing, many phenomena of reality are reported: plants, animals, human professions, tools, agricultural work, methods of measuring time, space exploration, the territory of our country, Christianity. In accordance with age capabilities, there are few research assignments and projects in ABC. These are studies devoted to the sights of Moscow (Part I, p. 84), the development of aeronautics and aviation (Part II, p. 56), the development of navigation and underwater work (Part I, p. 104), methods of measuring time and the development watchmaking (part II, pp. 4-5). Completing these research tasks will require “non-reading” children to talk with adults or visit museums, and for “reading” children, in addition, reading children’s encyclopedias and searching for information on the Internet, which requires a lot of effort from first-graders. The gradual accustoming of children to work with different sources of information is facilitated by means of “navigation” (indications of where to get the necessary information: from conversations with classmates when working in pairs and groups, from an explanatory dictionary, from an electronic application to the ABC), for which There are special icons on page 2 of both parts of the textbook and in the margins.

The formation of interest directly in learning the Russian language is facilitated by incidental work on vocabulary. These are observations on homonyms (part I - p. 30, 55, 60, 66, 82, 106, 113, 116; part II - p. 6, 21, 76), homographs (part I, p. 57, 77), phraseological units (part I, p. 70), homophones (part I, p. 108), antonyms (part II, p. 43, 72). ABC also contains tasks of increased difficulty. They are marked with a special icon in the margins of the textbook. The initial differentiation according to the degree of readiness for school in the alphabet itself is carried out by highlighting special texts for children who learned to read in the preschool period, for which there are special icons on page 2 and in the margins. In addition, the methodological manual proposes another method of working with “reading” first-graders: their advanced reading of the texts in this paragraph, and then voicing it out as a model for “non-reading” children.

Possibilities of the methodological apparatus of the textbook “ABC. 1st grade" V.G. Goretsky, V.A. Kiryushkina, L.A. Vinogradskaya and others are aimed at implementing a system-activity approach as the main mechanism for achieving personal, meta-subject and subject results in mastering the basic educational program of primary general education.

The structure and content of the textbook contains a system of tasks aimed at including younger schoolchildren in the activity-based mastery of educational material in order to master universal educational actions and develop the ability to independently successfully assimilate new knowledge, skills and competencies, including the leading educational competence - the ability to learn.

For this purpose, the methodological apparatus of the textbook is built taking into account the possibility of using in teacher practice a wide range of modern technologies, methods, forms, techniques and other educational resources for organizing educational work with students in the process of both classroom and extracurricular activities:

Orientation of educational material, methods of its presentation, teaching methods towards the maximum inclusion of students in educational activities;

...

Definition

ABC- a system of ordered alphabetic signs, compiled on the basis of the alphabet for teaching reading and writing.

Primer– a textbook for mastering the skills of syllabic reading and writing letters based on the alphabet.

Comparison

The Russian alphabet has a more ancient history than the primer. Its first fragments are contained in birch bark documents and the Tale of Bygone Years, a monument of ancient Russian literature from the early 12th century.

Initial familiarization with the alphabet is provided for in the educational programs of preschool educational institutions.

Conclusions website

The alphabet contains an ordered system of letter signs arranged in alphabetical order. The ABC book combines the alphabetical arrangement of letters with exercises for syllabic reading.
The primer is the first compulsory textbook for elementary school students, containing information about the grammar of the Russian language. ABC is an illustrated book publication or another type of manual intended for learning the alphabet.
The history of the emergence of the alphabet is closely connected with the development of writing and dates back to the period of the creation of ancient Russian chronicles. The first primers in Rus' appeared simultaneously with printing.

The primer cannot be called an alphabet, but it is often called the alphabet. About the alphabet we can say that it is the alphabet. This is how it turns out that the alphabet is both a primer and an alphabet. At different times, the first book for teaching children to read and write was called differently. Why such confusion?

What goes on the shelf and what on the wall?

The alphabet is letters arranged in a certain order. Each letter has its own name. In the Greek alphabet, the first two are Alpha and Vita, hence the word alphabet. When we see all the letters at once, we say: “This is the alphabet.” It is printed both on individual posters and on book spreads.

A book in which we will definitely see the alphabet is called a primer. Using it, children learn to read syllables, words, and small texts. We can put the primer on the shelf with all the other books. But there is confusion with the alphabet. For some reason, primers are allowed to be called ABC. Although its name comes from the first two letters of the Slavic alphabet - Az and Buki. Initially, it consisted only of letters arranged in a certain order. Learning the alphabet means knowing the names of letters and pronouncing them in alphabetical order.

The alphabet, like the alphabet, is printed on a poster, leaflet, and electronic and magnetic alphabets are also produced. They can be attached to the wall or to the refrigerator (if the letters are magnetic), making it more convenient to study.

History of the ABC book

So, the primer is the child’s first educational book. To get acquainted with its history, we need to go back five centuries. In 1578, Ivan Fedorov published the first primer in our country. Telling a child a date means saying nothing. That's why…

It happened a long time ago, so long ago, like in a fairy tale. In those days, there were few cities in Russia, but more villages. Most people lived in wooden houses - huts. Only some huts were small, while others were larger. In those days, stone houses had just begun to appear.

The common people dressed in shirts with belts, wore bear coats in winter, and birch bark bast shoes all year round. The rich preferred coats made of expensive furs and clothes made of velvet and cloth, which were decorated with precious stones. In the homes of the poor, dishes were made of wood or clay. The main food products were rye bread, millet, peas, oats, turnips, cabbage, carrots, cucumbers, and sometimes fish. The houses were illuminated with a torch - a wooden chain, which was fixed in a special stand and burned. The rich could afford meat products, they ate sausage with buckwheat porridge, and on their table they had dishes made of metal. Their houses were lit with candles.

For entertainment, both for the rich and for the poor, there were musicians, singers and dancers. The Russian Tsar, Ivan the Terrible, who ruled at that time, also loved to look at them. He was the first king, since earlier rulers were called princes. They called him formidable for a reason; he was cruel. But he also did good things for Russia. He annexed new territories to the country and established relations with Western countries. Another important contribution to the history of our state is the development of printing. After all, books used to be copied by hand. This is difficult and long work. There were few books and they were very expensive.

Then in Moscow, on the orders of Ivan the Terrible, the Printing House was built - a printing house. Ivan Fedorov was appointed to manage it. The first book published was called "The Apostle". Then a collection of prayers appeared - “Book of Hours”.

Five years after opening, there was a fire in the printing house. Ivan Fedorov tried to continue working, but after some time he was left without premises again. He went to the city of Lviv, which at that time was part of Poland (now Ukraine). There he published the ABC in Russian in 1574. Only one copy of the first primer has survived to this day. It is kept in the library of Harvard University in the USA.

The first primer with pictures appeared in Russia more than a hundred years after Fedorov’s ABC. And about two hundred years later, books were published that are still being published. This is “Native Word” by the teacher K. D. Ushinsky and “ABC” by the famous writer L. N. Tolstoy, author of the novel “War and Peace”.

Many primers were published after the first of them came out of print. The largest collection of books for teaching children to read is kept in the Russian State Library in Moscow (formerly the Lenin Library). And in Moscow there is a monument to Ivan Fedorov. It was installed more than a century ago in 1909. All this confirms that a book is of great importance to a person. Printing in printing houses has made books more accessible, there are enough of them for everyone - just read and learn!

Some guys ask: “Why study?” Then, so as not to sit at home with a torch, like in ancient times, without televisions, computers and other wonderful things. And in order to invent something new, making the world a better place for everyone. To fly on a spaceship to the stars. For this, every person in our country must study well. Let not everyone become astronauts, but we also need those who will build a spaceship; we need a skilled mechanic who will make the correct and most reliable screws for this ship. If no one studies, people will have to live in caves rather than in huts, because even to build a house, knowledge is needed.

Of course, studying is not so easy; studying is work. The first and most important stage is learning to read. Your faithful assistants will help you in this matter - the alphabet, alphabet and primer.

textbook for beginners literacy training; serves the purposes of raising children, developing their speech and logic. thinking. B. is traditionally a source of information about the life of the country, its people, and its culture. Includes material that shapes students’ standards of behavior and relationships between elders and younger ones. Basic structural units of B. - letters, letter combinations, syllables, numbers, grammatical. information, appeals to children and parents, instructions, text and illustrative materials, diagrams, tables. Educational teacher work on B. is usually divided into three periods: preparatory, alphabetic and post-primary.

In Russia, the prototypes of birch were alphabet tablets and birch bark letters (13th century). The formation of the genre of B. was influenced by Means. influence used in education. for the purposes of the explanatory “alphabet” of Gury of Kazan, fragments of the Bible, Psalter, Book of Hours, etc. In the 2nd half. 15th century in Rus', texts adapted for children that introduced writing and grammar became widespread (“Eight of the Honor of the Word”, “Writing in Slovenian about literacy and its structure”, “Conversation about learning to read and write”, etc.). In the 14th-17th centuries. acrostic alphabets were created.

The first printed B. in church glory. language in Russian The edition was “Azbuka” by Ivan Fedorov (Lvov, 1574), built on the basis of alphabets. method (see article Teaching to read and write), The address to children and parents and the afterword spoke about knowledge, which is the adornment of a person, about honesty, obedience and hard work, and contained advice on education. The arrangement of the alphabet - in forward and reverse order, staggered, vertically - made it possible to develop motor and visual skills. memory is learning. Learning to read and write began with combinations of sounds, then more difficult to understand combinations of two consonants and a vowel were given. The ABC contains the rudiments of grammar. concepts, some information about stress. For reading, the author selected and processed texts from the Bible, forming the following. humanistic beginning program education. To consolidate and improve reading and writing skills, the textbook used an adapted alphabetic acrostic poem, texts of prayers, excerpts from parables and apostolic epistles, selected in such a way that they seemed to constitute advice for parents.

The ideas of Ivan Fedorov formed the basis of the ABC of L. Zizania (Vilno, 1596). It consisted of the Staroslav alphabet. language, two-three-letter syllables of Greek. language, prayers, their explanations, explanatory dictionary “Vocabulary”. In the ABC of Zizania, attention was also paid to the sound composition of words - phonetics. The textbook lacked extensive grammar. concepts and acrostics. Collecting information on history, geography, etc., Zizaniy turned to op. Aristotle, “World Chronicle, or Cosmography” by Marcin Bielski (1551, translated into Belarusian, language, 1584), used the “Greek Lexicon” by Svidos (Milan, 1499) and other sources. The simplicity of presentation and teaching methods that are understandable to many have made the ABC popular not only in Russia, but also abroad.

Moscow The alphabet book begins with the publication of B.V.F. Burtsev-Protopopov (1634; supplemented and republished in 1637, 1657, 1664, 1669). The textbook includes material for teaching numbers and numerals, more attention is paid to syntax and punctuation, grammar. information. The afterword describes the method. recommendations. A new word in the fatherland. ABC book was published in 1679 in Moscow by B. Simeon of Polotsk. The author sought to combine literacy teaching with instilling in students a reverence for Christ. teaching, morality. In special The preface speaks in poetic form about the benefits of education. The textbook not only provides the alphabet, but also names the syllables, highlights three-letter words, etc. An important milestone in the history of the development of teaching. The books were the first in Russia illustrated by B. Karian Istomin. T.n. Small B. (“A Primer in Persons”, written in 1692, published in 1694), designed by the engraver L. Bunin, was based on the idea of visual teaching. It differed from the previous ones both in content and in structure - there was no syllable combination from the church. texts included only prayers. Ch. The author paid attention to the study of Staroslav. language in Russian editors. The book contains a “Word to the Reader,” which provides information about the book, its purpose and originality, and recommendations for its use. The colorful capital letters with different colors attracted attention. decorations formed from one or two figures of a warrior, townsman, etc. in clothes, with weapons, etc., depict images of animals and plants. B.'s illustrations and texts were informative. load, entertainment facilitated the perception, comprehension and memorization of the lesson. material. Here are the lowercase letters Slav., Greek, Lat. languages, each letter of the alphabet is dedicated to moralizing. poetry. All letters, words, pictures for them, poems are located on one sheet of paper to make it easier to see. perception of everything material. B. Karion Istomin was for the first time addressed not only to boys, but also to girls. “Big Primer” by Karion Istomin (1696) in Means. degree repeated B. Simeon of Polotsk, included texts from historical-lit. character.

In 1701, B. Fedora Polikarpov came out in Moscow - one of the last to introduce students to the basics of Staroslav. language. In it, for the first time, a comparison was introduced, a presentation of the teaching. material in Slavic, Greek. and lat. languages and taught their basics. What was also new was the inclusion of three language themes. dictionary, in which specially selected vocabulary is systematized (words that provide information about the land and people, their activities and needs), translated into Greek. and lat. languages.

B. 2nd floor. 17th century contained sayings and proverbs, sayings of philosophers, samples of business correspondence. With the introduction of civil typeface, one of the first examples of B. was the “ABC”, which was part of the “Honest Mirror of Youth” (1717). max. popular teacher a guide to teaching literacy in the beginning. 18th century was repeatedly reprinted (printed in Cyrillic) by B. Feofan Preokopovich (1720), combining information on grammar, arithmetic, history, and geography in one book. From B., printed by citizens. font, the “ABC” by A. A. Barsov (1768) stood out, containing, in addition to prayers and commandments, general education. information about the seasons, countries of the world, states and their capitals, as well as instructions.

ABCs and B. 17 - beginning. 19th centuries chapters were compiled arr. based on letters. method of teaching literacy - only after developing reading skills did students move on to writing. For this purpose, the textbooks included copybooks, samples of business correspondence, and other exercises. Whole engravings were also published. cursive alphabets, specially created for teaching writing and repeating each other in content.

In the 19th century B.'s edition reflected the class differentiation of students. Expensive, colorfully designed textbooks appeared. books: “A gift to children in memory of 1812” (1814), “A Gift for Children or a New Russian Alphabet” (1815), which became a noticeable phenomenon in children’s art. books. The search for rational teaching methods is reflected in M. Gutt’s “ABC” (1820), in the first part the author reported on “reading rules and method”, in the second he gave texts for exercises. The material is presented lesson by lesson, with repetition and reinforcement provided. The next step towards facilitating learning to read and write was the appearance of letters composed according to the syllabic method. “The Magnificent Russian Alphabet” was published. A gift for good children" (1844) and "ABC" by A. Daragan (1846). Texts, engravings and color illustrations depicted the life of a noble estate, the games of landowners' children and other subjects. Preem have spread among the people. citizen and church alphabet with religious texts. content (“Russian primer for teaching reading”, 1846). "Rus. ABC" by N. Grech (1846) also included material for the development of speech, spelling and vocabulary. The material in it was arranged in a “gradual order”, groups of vowels and consonants were classified, voiceless and voiced consonants were correlated, and comparative words were italicized (for example, brother - take).

The most important direction in the development of Russian. ABC book 19th century associated with the name of K. D. Ushinsky. “Native Word” (1864; went through 147 editions), which included “The ABC” and “The first book after the ABC,” had the goal of “exercising all the child’s abilities along with learning to read and write, developing, strengthening, giving a useful skill, stimulating initiative and, as it were, in passing, to achieve learning to read and write.” Distinguishes, the peculiarity of the ABC is systematic. introduction of material for the development of a child’s speech based on logic. processing specific knowledge about objects and phenomena of surrounding life. For the first time, the study of the native language began with the analysis of sounds in words, which gave children an idea of the articulateness of speech. Together with the teacher, the children analyzed words, compared sounds and wrote the elements of letters and their combinations in the alphabet. We started writing after analysis, i.e. wrote meaningfully, and did not copy from a model. Then, looking for familiar letters in short words, the children read the words and sentences. This method of teaching literacy is called “writing-reading method” (as opposed to “reading-writing” based on the letter-composition method). Gradually the sentences became more complex, but still included simple words. Thus, Ushinsky anticipated phonological. the principle of teaching literacy, which became the basis of education only in the 2nd half. 20th century In “Native Word”, reading materials are systematized and thematically combined for the first time. According to the topics, there are educational stories accessible to children. content. The textbook provided: preparation, exercises (drawings, elements of letters, letters, their connections); writing words and sentences; reading printed text (alphabet, separate vowel letters - printed and handwritten); reading words and short sentences; reading texts in the “First book after the ABC”. This structure varied in subsequent textbooks (N.F. Bunakov, “The ABC and lessons of reading and writing in three books,” 1871; V.I. Vodovozov, “Russian alphabet for children,” 1873). Based on Ushinsky’s ideas, the “Primer for joint teaching of reading and writing with pictures and articles for initial exercises in explanatory reading for public schools” by D. and E. Tikhomirov (1873, went through 161 editions) was created, which was distinguished by its clarity of structure and design, didactically appropriate arrangement of material. It combined folklore texts with excerpts from Russian poems. poets of the 19th century

In 1872, L. N. Tolstoy’s “ABC” was published (in 1875 - “New ABC”), compiled according to the “auditory method”, but, according to the author, suitable for any method of teaching, which is taught by the teacher. The letters, supported by pictures, are given in printed and handwritten fonts with variant styles. Having memorized the letters, students moved on to reading two, three, four- and five-letter syllables. max. valuable in the ABC are stories and fairy tales composed by Tolstoy, the fables of Aesop presented by him, as well as proverbs and sayings, riddles, carefully selected from Russian. folklore

Based on Ushinsky’s ideas, A. Anastasyev’s “School of Literacy” (1897), N. A. Korf’s “Our Friend” (1871), and M. I. Timofeev’s “ABC” (1908) were created. The sound method of teaching literacy was transformed by V.P. Vakhterov (“Russian Bukvar”, 1898) and V.A. Flerov (“New Russian Bukvar”, 1922). Vakhterov believed that letters should be introduced immediately, reinforcing the sound analysis of words. This idea was the basis for primers built on the sound analytic-synthetic. way of learning.

From the beginning 20th century and until mid. 30s B. were published, compiled using the “whole words” method: “A Word” by P. P. Mironositsky (1909), “From the Village. The ABC" by A. Gorobets (1922), "Sun" by V. Polyakov, "Work and Play" by E. Shalyta (1924), "Stream" by L. Bogoyavlensky, M. Zhebu-neva, M. Rybnikova (1926). Without giving sound exercises for the analysis and synthesis of sounds and syllables, they developed mechanical skills. reading texts to suggestive pictures and inhibited the development of literate writing skills.

In the 30-40s. B., compiled according to the “whole words” method, were replaced by B., which restored sound analytical-synthetic in the methodology of teaching literacy. method (primers by A.V. Yankovskaya and H.M. Golovin, 1937). In 1945, new stable ones were published by B. Redozubova and A. I. Voskresenskaya, who consolidated in the book-varistics the methods of teaching literacy, promoted by Vakhterov and Flerov, but in content reflecting the Sov. reality, in structure - features of modern times. rus. language. Developed by Redozubov and implemented in his B. system of teaching literacy based on practical. children's mastery of basic Russian sounds speech (phonemes) formed the basis of the textbook compiled by the team of authors of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR (1953) and the ABC for teaching 6-year-old children in the family of Yankovskaya, Voskresenskaya, and Redozubov (195S). “ABC” contains pictures for conversations, the basics of reading, writing, and materials for self-help. practical and work activities (sculpting, drawing, designing, etc.). In addition to B., didactic books were published in 1959. materials prepared by teacher M.I. Syapsha. In 1966-81, an updated art book was published. regarding B., whose consultants were S.V. Mikhalkov, lud. V. Serov, psychologist-methodologist. L. K. Nazarova. The illustrative material of B. was made up of works by artists A. Kanevsky, A. Pakhomov, A. Plastov, E. Charushin and others. The text of the textbook was also significantly updated: it included dep. works by A. Prokofier, G. Sapgir and other poets, as well as specially prepared texts (some of them turned out to be unjustifiably politicized and difficult to understand). In 1972, Nazarova’s ABC Book Companion was published, which made it possible to differentiate the education of children with disabilities. level of the previous preparation.

Research by D. B. Elkonin (60-70s) on the problems of teaching literacy, the structure and content of literacy, taking into account the latest achievements of modern times. linguistics and psychology are reflected in experiments. B. author (1961, parts 1-2, 1969-72). In the textbook, the introduction of letters was preceded by a period of sound analysis, when the child mastered the sound structure of the word and its organic connection with the meaning of the word. The sound form of a word is presented in B. in the form of sound diagrams-models. The author proposed a general method of reading any open syllable, when the child, when reading a consonant, learned to focus on the subsequent vowel. In 1981, B. (stable since 1982) was published by V. G. Goretsky, V. A. Kiryushkin, A. F. Shanko. For the first time in school. practice B. was published as part of the educational method. set, which also included “Recipes”, didactic. material “We read ourselves”, method. teacher's guide. B. for 7-year-old students (3-year elementary school) and “ABC” for 6-year-old students (4-year elementary school), prepared by the same team of authors, are built on principles new to alphabet studies. The model of the sound (phonemic) structure in it is transformed taking into account the pronunciation and the relatedness of sounds in words. Relying on diagrams and word models greatly facilitated children's difficult phonic analysis and transition to reading. The arrangement of letters (sounds) and sound combinations according to the principle of their frequency in the language made it possible to enrich the vocabulary and content of texts, and the use of special marks - to introduce words of different syllable-sound structures into texts from the beginning of learning to read and immediately teach to read words with stress. All this made it possible to reduce the inevitable large number of so-called. alphabetic (to a certain extent artificial) texts and earlier introduce students to literary art. works. B. contains many games, sound riddles, and puzzles, which contribute to the development of cognition. children's activity.

Since 1992, B. has been freed from overly politicized, ideological content; since the 30s. mandatory for B.

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