Absolute age.

AGE. The concept of “age,” at first glance, looks simple and unambiguous, like the answer to the question “How old are you?” or “What year were you born?” In reality, everything is much more complicated. The word “age” denotes the duration of the existence of an object, its location in time. Absolute, calendar or chronological age expressed by the number of time units (minutes, days, years, millennia, etc.) separating the moment of the appearance of an object from the moment of its measurement. This is a purely quantitative, abstract concept. Conditional age or developmental age is determined by establishing the location of an object in a certain evolutionary-genetic series, in a certain development process, on the basis of some qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Both of these concepts are widely used both in historical and biological sciences and in the sciences of inanimate matter. However, they are not the same. Determining the chronological Time of an object is called dating. Establishing a conditional age is an element of periodization , which involves the choice of not only chronological units of measurement, but also the system of reference itself and the principles of its division. Any periodization is an attempt to structure the flow of time, highlighting certain chronological segments that have some meaningful meaning. Although periodization is logically more complicated than dating, virtually any dating and the very need to clarify the chronological age of an object implies some kind of periodization, within the framework and in connection with which it is carried out.

It is characteristic that the concept of chronological time and the terms expressing it historically arose much later than the division of human life into such stages as childhood, adulthood and old age, or ideas about cosmic and social cycles. The etymology of the Slavic terms "age" and "age" shows that words going back to the original meaning of "years" or "time" arose later than words going back to the meanings of "growth" and "strength". The word "age" comes from the root "growth"; its semantics is associated with the concepts of “give birth”, “feed”, “raise”, “educate”. The words “old”, “elderly” are later formations from this root: “old” means grown up, lived. The concepts describing duration, course and one’s own “life time” (English, “life time”, German “Lebenszeit”) are historically the most recent. They arose on the basis of the undifferentiated concept of “life”, in which quantitative characteristics (time, duration) were not yet separated from the life processes themselves. The most ancient Slavic chronological concepts are those that go back to the meaning of “eternity”, “forever”. And the word “age” originally meant “vital force,” going back to Indo-European verbs with the root veik - “to exert force,” “to be able,” etc.

Age categories remain ambiguous in modern science. Since the individual development of a person, like any other organism, is ontogenesis with a phylogenetic program embedded in it, its periodization is based on the identification of a number of universal age processes(growth, maturation, development, aging), during which the corresponding age properties (differences). Both are summarized in the concept age stages(phases, stages, periods) or stages of development(childhood, adolescence, maturity, old age, etc.). Age properties are how the average individual of a given chronological age and/or being at a given age stage differs from the average individual of another age. Age-related processes show how age-related properties are formed and in what way (gradually or abruptly, spasmodically) the transition from one age stage to another occurs.

A five-year-old child is always somewhat different from a fifteen-year-old, and this latter is always different from a fifty-year-old man. But these differences can be studied and described in different ways.

Individual development described in such concepts as “ontogenesis”, “course of life”, “life path”, “life cycle”, “biography”, their components (“stages of development”, “ages of life”, etc.) and derivatives ( "age properties"). His standards are multidimensional. Biological age determined by the state of metabolism and body functions in comparison with the average statistical level of development characteristic of the entire population of a given chronological age. Social age. of an individual is measured by relating his level of social development (for example, mastery of a particular set of social roles) to what is statistically normal for his peers. Mental age is determined by correlating the level of mental (mental, emotional, etc.) development of a given individual with the corresponding normative, average indicators. In addition, there is subjective, experienced age personalities; we are talking about age self-awareness, how old a person feels, how he perceives his age, whether he considers himself young or old, a child or an adult; subjective age depends on the tension, eventful content of life and the perceived degree of self-realization of a person.

Individual development, which is studied by developmental physiology and developmental psychology (now more accurately called developmental psychology), always occurs in a specific social system. Therefore, the second group of age categories is social and age processes And social and age structure of society, described in terms such as “age stratification”, “age division of labor”, “age strata”, “age groups”, “generations”, “age cohorts”, etc.

Third frame of reference – age symbolism, reflection of age-related processes and properties in culture. Age symbolism includes normative criteria of age, i.e. culturally accepted age terminology, periodization of the life cycle indicating the duration and tasks of its main stages; age stereotypes – traits and properties attributed to persons of a given age and set by them as an implied norm; ideas about how the growth, development and transition of an individual from one age stage to another should proceed; age rites - rituals through which culture structures and formalizes the relationships between age strata, classes and groups, and age subculture - a specific set of characteristics and values by which representatives of a given age stratum recognize and affirm themselves as different from all other age communities “We” .

Although each of these subjects is inherently complex, physiologists and psychologists have long played a leading role in the study of individual development; relatively recently they were joined by sociologists. The study of age stratification of society is the field of sociology and demography, while age symbolism is studied mainly by anthropologists, folklorists and historians. As science develops, age categories are increasingly differentiated, acquiring a system of specific indicators. Thus, biological age is divided into skeletal (bone), dental age, age of sexual development, etc. Social age is a set of normative role properties and identities derived from the age division of labor and the social structure of society. Concepts such as preschool, school, student, worker, retirement age, marriage age or the age of civil majority make sense only in the context of the social relations of a particular society and change with them.

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Absolute age is the time elapsed from the beginning of soil formation to the present. It ranges from a few years to millions of years. The absolute age of the soils of a large territory of our country is calculated in millennia and tens of thousands of years.

The absolute age of the soils of the East European Plain, Western Siberia, North America and Western Europe, determined by the radiocarbon method, ranges from several hundred to several thousand years. Finally, an important factor in soil formation, especially in recent times, is human economic activity, which is analyzed in more detail below.

Schematic map of bituminous content of sediments in the western Bering Sea.

Determining the absolute age of this longest column showed that its maximum age is 83 thousand years. The rate of sediment accumulation is approximately 20 cm per 1 thousand years. The rate of sediment accumulation for cores taken from the Anadyr shelf turned out to be significantly higher - 1 5 - 2 zh per 1 thousand years.

Schematic map of sediment bituminous content in the western Bering Sea.

Determining the absolute age is of great interest for the study of the history of the Earth, but the methods of this group are still far from perfect and have limited application. Therefore, modern geology to solve its problems still mainly uses determinations of the relative age of rocks. Relative chronology underlies all geological sciences, including modern historical geology.

The Absolute Age Laboratory of the Mining and Geological Institute (M. A. Harris and others) has carried out extensive work on studying the geochemistry of K and Ar isotopes in magmatic, sedimentary, metamorphic and metasomatic formations of the Southern Urals. Interesting data were obtained on the patterns of distribution of K and Ar isotopes in geological formations of different composition and age. As a result of the research, some geological ideas were clarified and corrected and a geochronological scale of the Urals was compiled, on which magmatic, sedimentary, metamorphic formations and ore formations were dated in absolute terms.

Characteristics of isotope decay.

Determining the absolute age of rocks is also based on the use of certain rather long-lasting radioactive decay processes. As is known, radioactivity consists of the spontaneous decay of nuclei of unstable isotopes and their transformation into stable isotopes or new elements. The decay process is accompanied by the release of a - and P - CHZSTIC and energy in the form of gamma radiation and proceeds at a rate strictly constant for each radioactive isotope. Thus, the decay of the nuclei of the original (mother) element is accompanied by the formation of nuclei of a stable (daughter) isotope. It can be seen that the isotopes of uranium differ significantly not only in the decay products, but also in its rate.

Determination of the absolute age of rocks is carried out by studying the natural radioactivity of minerals. Therefore, knowing the half-life, the age of the rock is calculated from the amount of new radioactive elements formed and remaining in the rocks. Based on such calculations, the duration of eras, periods, epochs and centuries, as well as the age of the earth’s crust as a whole, were determined.

Typical data on strontium content in rocks.

To establish an absolute age using the rubidium-strontium method, accurate data on the strontium concentration in some silicate minerals are needed. The rubidium-strontium method is based on the accumulation of 87Sr over geological epoch through the decay of radioactive 87Rb and requires accurate knowledge of not only the total strontium content, but also the total rubidium content and the isotopic composition of strontium.

To establish the absolute age of methyl violet ink, it is proposed to use a number of reagents of varying concentrations, under the influence of which different changes in the color of strokes occur depending on their age. This technique, as indicated, has not received practical application.

Currently, the absolute age of the earth's crust is estimated by geologists to be between 30 and 35 billion years. Such a significant discrepancy is explained by the fact that there is still no consensus on this issue. It should be thought that intensive studies of the earth's interior, the ocean floor and the natural satellites of our planet, in particular the Moon, will help in the near future to significantly clarify these data. The table schematically shows the modern geochronological scale. Almost no plant or animal remains were found in rocks of this age. The rocks contain fossils of invertebrate animals. This is the era of the origin of life on our planet, it is characterized by intense tectonic movements, which geologists judge by studying rock strata. Intense volcanic activity also occurred at this time.

Age is one of the fundamental and complex categories of psychology. There are two levels of analysis of this concept:

Absolute(or calendar, chronological) age is expressed by the number of time units (minutes, days, years, millennia, etc.) separating the moment of the appearance of an object from the moment of measuring its age. This is a purely quantitative, abstract concept that denotes the duration of the existence of an object, its localization in time. Determining absolute age is called dating.

Conditional age (or age of development) is determined by establishing the location of an object in a certain evolutionary-genetic series, in a certain development process, on the basis of some qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Establishing a conditional age – element periodization, which involves the choice of not only chronological units of measurement, but also the system of reference itself and the principles of its division.

Analysis of individual human development shows that the category of age from the point of view of the life path of a particular person can be considered from several perspectives.

Biological age is determined by the state of metabolism and body functions in comparison with the average statistical level of development characteristic of the entire population of a given chronological age - the genetic, morphological, physiological and neurophysiological changes that occur in the body of each person are taken as a basis. Thanks to the statistical data obtained about at what chronological age what changes should occur, certain age standards were established. Accordingly, if at a given age a person has not yet experienced the expected changes, it means that he is lagging behind in his biological development, that is, his biological age is less than his chronological age. If, on the contrary, changes have occurred that should occur at an older age, then they say that the biological age of a person exceeds his chronological age.

Psychological age is established by correlating the level of mental (mental, emotional, etc.) development of an individual with the corresponding normative level.

Social age measured by relating a person's level of social development (for example, a measure of mastery of a particular set of social roles) with what is statistically normal for his peers.

There is also subjective age personality, having an internal frame of reference. This concept means a person’s own assessment of his age, age-related self-awareness, which depends on the tension and eventful fullness of life. The basis of subjective age is self-awareness. Therefore, subjective age is relatively free from chronological age. A person may feel older than his age, younger, or corresponding to his age.

The subject of psychological research is the psychological age of a person, and the main task in this regard is the search for a frame of reference and chronological units of measurement, that is, the construction of a periodization of mental development.

The purpose of any periodization is to identify points on the development line that separate qualitatively unique periods from each other. The question is what determines qualitative originality. In the history of psychology, attempts have been made repeatedly to construct a periodization of mental development. Their systematization was undertaken by L.S. Vygotsky in his work “The Problem of Age”. The scientist divided all the periodizations existing at that time into three groups, and did this so methodologically successfully that modern periodizations, as a rule, successfully fit into the proposed systematization.

The first group consisted of periodizations created not by dividing the development process itself into stages, but by analogy with the stepwise construction of other chronological systems. This is, in particular, the well-known periodization S. Hall , created by analogy with ideas about the stages of development of society. He distinguished the stage of digging and digging (0–5 years), the stage of hunting and capturing (5–11 years), the shepherd stage (8–12 years), the agricultural stage (11–15 years), the stage of industry and trade (15–20 years), correlating them with the animal stage of development of society, the period of hunting and fishing, the time of the end of savagery and the beginning of civilization, sometimes romanticism, etc.

To the second group (the most numerous) L.S. Vygotsky classified periodizations that are based on any one (less often several) individual sign of development. An example of this type of periodization is the diagram P.P. Blonsky , built taking into account dentition (the appearance and change of teeth) and, accordingly, includes edentulous childhood, deciduous childhood, the period of tooth change, the stages of eruption of premolars and canines, and permanently dentate childhood.

Freud’s periodization of psychosexual development can also be included in this group, suggesting the following phases of personality development: 1) oral phase (1st year of life): erogenous zones - in the mouth area; forms of behavior - grabbing, holding, sucking, biting; 2) anal phase (2nd – 3rd years of life): erogenous zones – in the anus; forms of behavior - interest in the functions of departure; 3) phallic phase (from 3 to 6 years): erogenous zones - in the area of the primary genital organs; forms of behavior - exploring your genitals; 4) latent phase (from 5–6 years to 11–12 years, i.e., the stage of puberty): erogenous zones are not distinguished and there are no specific forms of behavior; 5) genital phase (phase of puberty): all erogenous zones and forms of behavior are activated.

A special place in the periodizations of the second group is occupied by periodization J. Piaget , which is based on the development of intellectual structures. The development of intelligence is represented in periodization as a factor in achieving balance with the environment and is described through four stages: 1) the pre-operational stage of thinking (sensorimotor intelligence) with its reflexes and adaptive reactions; 2) stages of pre-conceptual and intuitive thinking (internal actions with images, symbols); 3) stages of concrete operations and 4) stages of formal operations.

By analogy with the stages identified by J. Piaget, periodization is based on L. Kolberg lies the formation of morality. From these positions, the periodization distinguishes the premoral level (associated with an orientation toward avoiding punishment and receiving rewards), the level of conventional morality (associated with an orientation toward a model or authority), and the level of autonomous morality (associated with an orientation toward a social contract and generally accepted moral norms).

There are many options for periodization of the second group. All of them are named L.S. Vygotsky is monosymptomatic, since most of them are based on only one, albeit important, sign of development.

In the third group L.S. Vygotsky included periodizations associated with identifying the essential features of mental development itself. This group includes E. Erikson’s periodization, an important advantage of which is that it covers the entire life of an individual, and not just early ages. E. Erikson identified 8 phases of development: 1) the first phase (infancy, first year of life) is characterized by the child’s primary trust or distrust of the environment; 2) the second phase (early childhood: 2 – 3 years of life) is characterized by autonomy or shame and doubt; 3) the third phase (preschool age: 4–5 years of life) is characterized by initiative or a feeling of guilt; 4) the fourth phase (school age: from 6 to 11–12 years, i.e. until puberty) is characterized by a sense of value and hard work or low value; 5) the fifth phase (adolescence) is characterized by personal individuality, identity or diffusion of identity; 6) the sixth phase (youth: 20–30 years) is characterized by closeness, intimacy and solidarity or isolation; 7) the seventh phase (maturity: 30–40 years) is characterized by creativity, integrativeness or stagnation; 8) the eighth phase (adulthood (plus old age): from 40 years and older) is characterized by integrity of personality or duality and despair.

L.S. Vygotsky also proposed his own periodization. He singled out in development stable And critical ages (periods). In stable periods, there is a slow and steady accumulation of minute quantitative changes in development, and in critical periods these changes are detected in the form of irreversible new formations that arise abruptly. According to L.S. Vygotsky, stable and critical periods in development alternate: 1) crisis of the newborn, 2) stable period of infancy, 3) crisis of the first year of life, 4) stable early childhood, 5) crisis of three years, 6) stable preschool age, 7) crisis of seven years, 8) stable primary school period, 9) pubertal crisis, 10) stable adolescence, 11) crisis of 17 years, etc.

Line L.S. Vygotsky in modern Russian psychology was continued by A.N. Leontyev and D.B. Elkonin. Their position on the issue of periodization can be expressed in several theses:

1) the inconsistency of many periodizations of mental development is due to the fact that their foundations were taken, although characteristic, but outwardly separate signs of development, and not the internal essence of this process, while the foundations of periodization must be sought only in the internal contradictions of development itself;

2) the periodization of mental development must be built taking into account the change from one integral activity to another, the child’s personality changes as a whole in its internal structure, and the laws of change of this whole determine the movement of each of its parts;

3) when considering the sources of mental development, each period should be associated with the most significant type of holistic activity of the child (leading activity);

4) the holistic activity of the child, specific for each of his ages, determines those mental changes that arise in him for the first time, – neoplasms. It is these neoplasms that serve as the main criterion for dividing child development into separate ages; at each age level there is always a central new formation that determines the development process as a whole and characterizes the restructuring of the child’s entire personality on a new basis.

From the point of view of A.N. Leontyev and D.B. Elkonin, the basis of mental development is a change in activity, which determines the occurrence of neoplasms; at the same time, the achieved new formations are a prerequisite for the formation of a new type of activity, transferring the child to a new stage of development.

A new type of activity, which underlies the holistic mental development of a child at a given age, is called leading. Leading activity is 1) an activity in which other new types of activity arise and within which are differentiated; 2) activities in which private mental processes are formed or restructured (for example, in a game - imagination, in learning - logical thinking); 3) activity on which the main psychological changes in the child’s personality observed during a given period of development depend. Thus, leading activity is activity, the development of which determines the most important changes in mental processes and psychological characteristics of the individual at a given stage of its development.

The periodization is based on A.N. Leontiev’s concept is the actual type of leading activity. Accordingly, it distinguishes: 1) infancy with direct emotional communication between a child and an adult; 2) early childhood with objective activities; 3) preschool childhood with play; 4) school age with learning; 5) adolescence with socially useful activities and communication with peers; 6) adolescence with educational and professional activities.

D.B. Elkonin, relying on the experience of cultural-historical psychology L.S. Vygotsky, proposed to consider each period of development on the basis of four criteria, including: 1) the social situation of development as a system of relationships into which the child enters, and a method of orientation in these relationships; 2) main (leading) type of activity; 3) main developmental neoplasms; 4) crisis.

Dividing each period into two stages, D.B. Elkonin believed that at the first stage changes are carried out motivational-need spheres of personality, and on the second there is development operational and technical spheres. Scientists discovered the law of alternation, the periodicity of different types of activity at each stage: activity of one type, which orients the subject in the system of relations between people, in the norms and rules of interaction in society, is necessarily followed by activity of another type, in which orientation occurs in the ways of using objects. Each time, contradictions always arise between these two types of orientation.

Stages and stages of child development according to D.B. Elkonin:

– the stage of early childhood consists of two stages: infancy with the neonatal crisis (motivational-need sphere of the individual) and early age, the beginning of which marks the crisis of the 1st year of life (operational-technical sphere);

– the childhood stage begins with the crisis of 3 years, which marks the beginning of preschool age (motivational-need sphere). The second stage opens with the crisis of 7 years and moves into primary school age (operational and technical sphere);

– the stage of adolescence is divided into the stage of adolescence (motivational-need sphere), the beginning of which is the crisis of 11-12 years, and the stage of early adolescence (operational-technical sphere), associated with the crisis of 15 years. According to D.B. Elkonin, the crises of 3 and 11-12 years are crises of relationships, followed by new orientations in human relationships; and the crises of the first year, 7 and 15 years are crises of worldview that change orientation in the world of things.

Domestic developmental psychology accepts D.B.’s periodization as the main periodization of a child’s mental development. Elkonina. However, this periodization is limited to consideration only of early ages. In this regard, it is necessary to emphasize that one of the most pressing problems of modern psychology is the development of a detailed, scientifically based periodization of the mental development of an adult.

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"absolute age" in books

author Eskov Kirill Yurievich

CHAPTER 1 Age of the Earth and Solar System. Absolute and relative age. Geochronological scale

From the book Amazing Paleontology [The History of the Earth and Life on It] author Eskov Kirill Yurievich

CHAPTER 1 Age of the Earth and Solar System. Absolute and relative age. Geochronological scale First of all, we note that for scientists the very formulation of the question about the age of the Earth was once very revolutionary - for “age” implies the presence of a “date”

Absolute watchman

From the book Like a Blade author Bashlachev Alexander Nikolaevich

Absolute watchman This city slides and changes names. Someone carefully erased this address long ago. This street does not exist, and there is no building on it, Where the Absolute Watchman rules the ball all night. It is cast in an icy, neutral mold. He's a tight spring. He is mute and stern. General owner

An absolute gentleman

From the book by Elizabeth Taylor. Cleopatra of Hollywood author Benoit Sophia

An absolute gentleman Taste is formed gradually. About twenty years ago I happened to marry men whom I would not invite to dinner today. Elizabeth Taylor Concerned about the size and number of stains on the reputation of their actress, publicists from MGM (also

Absolute nightmare

author

Absolute nightmare

From the book Health Factory author Smirnov Alexey Konstantinovich

An absolute nightmare Medicine little by little. Maybe someone remembers how I talked about the terrible tablet Cifran? This antimicrobial tablet has nightmares and hallucinations as a side effect. I myself, of course, never ate it, but I gave it to my wife once, when

Absolute pitch

From the book Parting with Myths. Conversations with famous contemporaries author Buzinov Viktor Mikhailovich

Perfect pitch – Timo sings so well! And this is in two and a half years. You probably haven’t performed at such a tender age yet? – I started later – at the age of three. I read poetry at a club in Vilga. - So, the grandson followed in the footsteps of his grandfather-artist... - Timo, indeed,

Absolute pitch

From the book Human Superpowers author Mavlyutov Ramil

Absolute pitch As soon as such a person hears a sound, he can reproduce it absolutely accurately. Experts believe that such people first classify sounds and remember them by category, and then determine which category a given sound belongs to. They

17. Age of Christ and age of Andronicus

From the author's book

17. The age of Christ and the age of Andronicus According to the Gospels, Christ was between 30 and 50 years old at the time of the crucifixion, see discussion above. Let us remember that the age of 40 to 50 years seems to be implied in the Gospel of John and is mentioned by some older church writers.

18. Age of Faust and age of Andronicus-Christ

From the author's book

18. The age of Faust and the age of Andronicus-Christ The question - at what age Faust sold his soul to the devil, is interesting for assessing the age of Faust-Christ, according to the German version. As we have already noted, the term of his contract with Mephistopheles was 24 years, p. 43. According to Just Christophe

17. THE AGE OF CHRIST AND THE AGE OF ANDRONIK

From the book Tsar of the Slavs author

17. THE AGE OF CHRIST AND THE AGE OF ANDRONIK According to the Gospels, Christ was between 30 and 50 years old at the time of the crucifixion, see discussion above. Let us remember that the age of 40 to 50 years seems to be implied in the Gospel of John and is mentioned by some older church writers.

19.4. The age of Prince Kurbsky and the age of Bachelor Carrasco

From the book Don Quixote or Ivan the Terrible author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

19.4. The age of Prince Kurbsky and the age of Bachelor Carrasco It is very interesting to compare the data on the age of Prince Kurbsky and Bachelor Carrasco. Here is what Cervantes says about the bachelor: “This TWENTY-FOUR-YEAR-OLD young man was chubby, snub-nosed, and large-mouthed,” part 2, p. 28.

Absolute

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (AB) by the author TSB

Chapter 9 Adolescence: It's Not Just About Sex Age: Twelve to Twenty

From the book Secrets of your child’s brain [How, what and why children and adolescents from 0 to 18 think] by Amodt Sandra

Chapter 9 Adolescence: It's More Than Sex Ages: Twelve to Twenty The start of your child's adolescence—a turbulent period with hormonal surges and unpredictable behavior—can be scary. In fact, at this age it happens

X. GOD IS ABSOLUTE

From The Urantia Book author inhabitants of Heaven

X. GOD THE ABSOLUTE There are a number of properties of the eternal reality of the Deity-Absolute that cannot be fully explained to the finite space-time mind, but the actualization of God the Absolute would be a consequence of the unification of the second empirical

Absolute age is the duration of existence (“life”) of a breed, expressed in years. The absolute ages of rocks are given on a geochronological scale. To determine it, methods are used based on the use of radioactive transformation processes that take place in some chemical elements that make up the rocks. Some elements are used to establish ages in millions of years (uranium), while others make it possible to calculate shorter periods of time (carbon).

Earth's geological time scale

Zon (eonoteme)	Era (erathema)	Period (system)	Period index	Typical Organisms	Absolute age, million years
Neochron	Cenozoic	Quaternary		Man, milk	90-95
(Phanerozoic)	SKAYA KZ	Neogene	N	nourishing, color
		Paleogene	£	woven plants
	Mesozoic	Chalky	TO	Cephalopods,	550-570
	Skye MZ	Jurassic	J	shellfish, pres
		Triassic	T	Mocking
	Paleozoic	Permian	R	Amphibians and	600-620
	SKAYA PZ			Spore
		Coal	WITH	Pisces, shoulder-	400-410
		Devonian	D	Gie
		Silurian	S	The first problems	>1500
		Ordovician	ABOUT	Vonochnye
		Cambrian	e
Paleochron	PR		-	-	-
(cryptozoic)	AR
Planetary stage of earth

Relative age makes it possible to determine the age of rocks relative to each other, i.e., to establish which rocks are older and which are younger. To establish relative age, two methods are used: stratigraphic and paleontological.

The paleontological method makes it possible to determine the age of sedimentary rocks in relation to each other, regardless of the nature of the occurrence of layers, and to compare the age of rocks occurring in different areas. Animal and plant organisms developed gradually, sequentially. The remains of extinct organisms were buried in the sediments that accumulated during the period of time when they lived.

All geological time was divided into segments. This is how the geochronological scale was created. Names were proposed for the rock layers that formed during these periods of time, which made it possible to create a stratigraphic scale. The longest period of time - eon. The shortest segment is century Each period of time received a name and designation in the form of an index, and on geological maps - its own color.

Periods allocating to eras (departments), for example, the Triassic period is divided into lower (T,), middle (T2) and upper (T3) epochs. Each era is divided into centuries (tiers), for example K dat, which reads Cretaceous, Upper Epoch, Danish Age. The superscript gives the name of the century. The modern Quaternary period is divided into eras designated by Roman numerals - Qj, Qu, Q n, and Q (V. In addition, signs indicating the genesis (origin) of rocks are placed before the index Q, for example, aQ, M - alluvial rocks (river) origin, eoQn - aeolian (wind) genesis, mQ, - marine origin, etc.

The age of rocks in the form of indices is widely used in geological documentation (maps and sections), which is an integral part of the design of buildings and structures.

End of work -

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Geology and its branches

Geology and its branches.. geology is a complex of sciences about the composition of the structure of the history of the development of the earth.. at present, geology is a typical natural science that is complex in nature and consists of more..

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Permafrost
Permafrost is an underground zone close to the surface with a negative temperature that persists for centuries and millennia; zone thickness from 1 to hundreds of meters. Perennial - phenomenon

Origin, shape and structure of planet Earth. Geospheres
The question of the origin of the Earth is the most important question in natural science. For more than 100 years, the Kant-Laplace hypothesis was recognized, according to which the solar system was formed from a huge hot

Landslides. Geological conditions. Fighting methods
Landslides are the sliding displacement of rocks on slopes under the influence of gravity and with the participation of surface or groundwater. The highway embankments are subject to deformation as a result of sliding.

Temperature regime of the Earth's upper surface
The earth's crust has two sources of heat: from the sun and from the decay of radioactive substances in its lower part at the border with the upper mantle. In the bowels of the Earth, the temperature increases from a depth of 1300

Geological activity of rivers. Bottom and side erosion. The concept of erosion basis. Longitudinal and transverse profile of a river valley
Groundwater and temporary streams of atmospheric precipitation, flowing down ravines and gullies, are collected into permanent water streams - rivers. The area from which water flows to the river is called the river basin.

River erosion control
Lateral erosion is combated by strengthening the banks and regulating the flow of the river. Depending on the geological structure of the coast, the nature and location of erosion, strengthening is carried out by constructing embankments,

Ticket 4.
1. What is a mineral? Chemical composition and physical properties of minerals. A mineral is a natural chemical compound that has a certain constancy of composition.

Geological activity of wind. Aeolian deposits, their composition and form of occurrence (p. 307-311)
Winds constantly blow on the earth's surface. The speed, strength and direction of winds vary. They are often hurricane-like in nature. The wind does a lot of geological work: destroying

Ticket 5.
1. What is a mineral? Origin of minerals. Minerals of igneous rocks. A mineral is a natural chemical compound that has a certain constant

Filtration coefficient. Determination methods
The filtration coefficient is the filtration rate at a pressure gradient I = 1. The filtration coefficient of soils is mainly determined by the geometry of the pores, i.e. their size and shape. On the value of the coefficients

Minerals of sedimentary rocks. Artificial minerals
A mineral is a natural chemical compound that has a certain constancy of composition, structure and properties. The conditions under which minerals are formed in nature vary widely.

Geological processes in the frozen rock zone
The geological processes occurring in the permafrost zone are associated, first of all, with the wedging effect of freezing groundwater on rocks. In turn, this action depends on

Ticket 7.
1. What is a rock called? Igneous rocks, their origin and classification. Rocks are natural aggregate compounds of minerals of one silt

Forms of occurrence of igneous rocks in the earth's crust, their mineral composition, structure, texture. Isolation by cracks in the massif
Igneous (or igneous) rocks are rocks that were formed as a result of the crystallization of magma as it cooled in the depths. Depending on the conditions in which

Pressure waters. Their images on maps
Interstratal groundwater. These waters are located in aquifers between aquitards. They are non-pressure and pressure (artesian). Pressure (artesian) waters are associated with

Ticket 9.
1. Sedimentary rocks: origin, classification, forms of occurrence in the earth’s crust. General features of the mineral composition and texture of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary

Darcy's law. Filtration speed
Groundwater can move through rocks either by infiltration or filtration. During infiltration, water movement occurs when the pores are partially filled with air or water vapor.

Ticket 10.
1. What is called soil? Classification of soils according to GOST 25100-95. Soils are any rocks and solid industrial wastes lying on the surface of the earth’s crust and

The groundwater
Modern concepts of geoecological science define the hydrosphere as one of the main life-supporting geospheres; hydrosphere is an integral part of the natural environment, inextricably linked

Unconfined groundwater
Groundwater horizons that are constant in time and have a significant area of distribution, lying on the first aquitard from the surface, are called groundwater. They are characterized by a number of features:

Sedimentary rocks are chemogenic and organogenic
Chemogenic rocks are formed as a result of chemical precipitation from aqueous solutions. These rocks include various limestones, calcareous tuff, dolomite, anhydrite, gypsum, rock salt, etc.

Snow avalanches
Snow avalanches are the collapse of large masses of snow from steep mountain slopes. On high mountain ranges, snow constantly accumulates, forming large cornices overhanging the slopes. Under the influence of

Metamorphic rocks, their origin, occurrence patterns, mineral composition, structure, texture and properties in the sample and massif
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that are formed due to the transformation of igneous, sedimentary and other rocks. These transformations are called metamorphism. Change of minerals and forge

Seasonal permafrost. Heaving
Based on the duration of the frozen state of rocks, it is customary to subdivide the “generic” concept of “frozen rocks” into three specific concepts: short-term frozen rocks (hours, days),

Geological maps and sections
Geological maps and sections are the most important and mandatory geological documentation when addressing construction issues. Maps are drawn up for large areas where large construction projects are planned

Tectonic movements of the earth's crust. Folds, cracks and breaks in the earth's crust
Tectonic movements are the movements of matter in the earth's crust under the influence of processes occurring in the deeper interior of the Earth. These movements cause tectonic disturbances, i.e. changes

Formation and growth of a ravine. Board, thalweg and other elements of the ravine. The concept of erosion basis (p. 314-317)
Formation of ravines. When snow and rain melt on the slopes of the relief, individual streams form temporary streams. Streak erosion occurs, which leads to the formation of elongated relief depressions

Ticket 17

Mudflows. Proluvius (p. 317-320 and p. 314)
Proluvium, proluvial deposits are products of rock destruction, carried by temporary water flows (mudflows, etc.) to the foot of a hill or to gentle areas of slopes and intermountain plains. P

Ticket 18
15. Seismic phenomena: earthquakes and tsunamis. Magnitude and intensity of the earthquake. Seismic zoning and microzoning. Seismic phenomena manifest themselves in

Geological activity of glaciers
Currently, ice covers 10% of the land surface, 98.5% of the glacial surface is in the polar regions and only 1.5% is in high mountains. There are three types of glaciers: forge

Ticket 19
16. Land surface topography. Relief is the totality of all forms of the earth's surface - elevations, plains and depressions. These “irregularities” on the Earth’s surface are very dynamic

Quicksands
Quicksands are water-saturated loose rocks, usually sands, which, when opened by various mine workings, liquefy, begin to move and behave like heavy rocks.

Physical and chemical properties of groundwater, their hardness, aggressiveness
When assessing the properties of groundwater, the taste, smell, color, transparency, temperature and other physical properties of groundwater are examined, which characterize the so-called organoleptic properties

Ticket 21
27.What is flooding? Flooded, flooded and non-flooded territories (Taskbook p.238). Flooding is a rise in groundwater levels caused by rising mountains

Alluvial sediments of rivers, their composition, thickness. Alluvium channel, floodplain and ancient
A significant portion of alluvial sediments accumulates in river beds and floodplains. The total thickness of alluvial deposits in river valleys varies - from several meters to tens of meters

Accumulative activity of the sea
In the coastal zone, marine sediments (clastic rocks) are formed both due to the products of coastal destruction and due to the introduction of material by the wind and especially rivers. There are many people living in the seas

Engineering and geological surveys for construction
Engineering-geological surveys for construction is a technological process of obtaining, accumulating, processing and summarizing information about the engineering-geological conditions of the construction site

Composition of engineering-geological surveys
1. Collection and processing of survey and research materials from past years 2. Interpretation of aero- and space-materials, aerovisual observations 3. Reconnaissance survey, including

Weathering of rocks, its types. Weathering products. Eluvium, vertical zoning, sole shape (p. 300-305)
. The weathering process is understood as the destruction and change in the composition of rocks and building materials that occurs under the influence of various agents acting on the surface of the earth, among

Types of water in rocks (soils) and their influence on the condition and properties of rocks
Depending on the state of water in the soil, it is classified as follows: vaporous; bound - tightly bound (hygroscopic), loosely bound; free -

Ticket 25
25. The basic law of filtration is Darcy’s law. Filtration rate and actual velocity of groundwater (p. 266-267). Groundwater can move through rocks

Screes and landslides on slopes
Scree. On steep slopes, especially in mountainous areas where rocks are developed, the process of physical weathering is active. Rocks crack and debris rolls off