Gaius Julius Caesar - one of the most famous people in human history. He is famous for establishing imperial power in the huge Roman state. Before Caesar, Rome was a republic and was governed by an elected body - the Senate.
Julius Caesar was born in Rome in 100 BC. His path to power has begun in 65 BC , when Caesar was elected aedile - organizer of spectacles. This position in ancient Rome was much more important than it might seem to us now. The Romans were very fond of spectacles. The most famous slogan of the riots of the Roman poor - "Meal'n'Real!". The Colosseum amphitheater, which could seat up to 50 thousand people, has survived to this day in Rome. It hosted fights between gladiators and animals. Julius Caesar knew how to stage magnificent spectacles, for which he earned the love of the Romans.
In 60 BC he was elected chief judge, and two years later, while seeking the post of consul, he won over to his side two prominent citizens of Rome - Pompey and Crassus. Together with them, Julius Caesar formed an influential political alliance - the first triumvirate (“union of three husbands”). This political body replaced the government and greatly limited the power of the Senate. Senators, concerned that Julius Caesar had achieved too much power, attempted to get rid of him. They sent him as governor to Gaul (modern France, Switzerland and Belgium), where the war was then going on. However, Caesar turned out to be not only a cunning politician, but also a talented commander.
The Gallic campaign was very successful, and Caesar significantly expanded the boundaries of the Roman state. As a result, Julius Caesar added to his popularity among the people his popularity in the army. The Roman legions in Gaul were ready to follow him anywhere.
In 49 BC The Roman Senate made a last desperate attempt to remove Caesar from power. He was ordered to leave his troops in Gaul and report to Rome. Julius Caesar understood that fulfilling the demands of the Senate would put an end to all his ambitious dreams. However, disobeying the Senate meant starting a war with powerful Rome. By then the triumvirate had collapsed. Crassus died in a military campaign, and Pompey took the side of the senators and led their troops.
A few days Caesar with his legions stood by the Rubicon River in Northern Italy, not daring to invade the possessions of Rome. However, ambition took over, and Caesar entered the civil war. This war was quick and successful, luck was on the side of Julius Caesar. He entered Rome as a winner, where he was greeted by enthusiastic crowds of people. Pompey fled outside Italy and a year later was finally defeated and killed.
After this victory, the power of the Senate was greatly weakened, and in 45 BC Caesar was appointed dictator for life. But even this seemed not enough to him: he strove for absolute power, which he could pass on by inheritance. However, the patience of the senators was not unlimited. In response to the dictator's demands, a group of senators hatched a conspiracy. The supporters of the republic were led by Caesar's closest friend Brutus and Cassius, an ally of Pompey who was pardoned by Caesar.
In 44 BC Caesar was killed right in the Senate chamber. The conspirators stabbed him with daggers. However, this did not save the Roman Republic. The Roman people were outraged by the death of Caesar. Brutus and Cassius had to flee to Greece. There they tried to gather an army, but were defeated by Caesar's friend Mark Antony. From that time on, Rome became an empire, and Caesar's adopted son Augustus Octavian became the first emperor of Rome.
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CAESAR (Caesar) Gaius Julius (100 or 102 - 44 BC), Roman dictator in 49, 48-46, 45, from 44 - for life. Commander. He began his political activity as a supporter of the republican group, holding the positions of military tribune in 73, aedile in 65, praetor in 62. Seeking a consulate, in 60 he entered into an alliance with C. Pompey and Crassus (1st triumvirate). Consul in 59, then governor of Gaul; in 58-51 he subjugated all of Trans-Alpine Gaul to Rome. At 49, relying on the army, he began the struggle for autocracy. Having defeated Pompey and his supporters in 49-45 (Crassus died in 53), he found himself at the head of the state. Having concentrated in his hands a number of the most important republican positions (dictator, consul, etc.), he actually became a monarch. Killed as a result of a Republican conspiracy. Author of "Notes on the Gallic War" and "Notes on the Civil Wars"; carried out a calendar reform (Julian calendar).
CAESAR Gaius Julius (Gaius Julius Caesar), (July 13, 100 - March 15, 44 BC), Roman politician and commander. The last years of the Roman Republic are associated with the reign of Caesar, who established a regime of sole power. The name of Caesar was turned into the title of the Roman emperors; Subsequently, the Russian words “tsar”, “Caesar”, and the German “Kaiser” came from it.
Youth
He came from a noble patrician family: his father served as praetor and then proconsul of Asia, his mother belonged to the noble plebeian family of the Aurelians. Young Caesar's family connections determined his position in the political world: his father's sister, Julia, was married to Gaius Marius, the de facto sole ruler of Rome, and Caesar's first wife, Cornelia, was the daughter of Cinna, Marius's successor. In 84, young Caesar was elected priest of Jupiter. The establishment of the dictatorship of Sulla in 82 and the persecution of Marius's supporters affected Caesar's position: he was removed from the post of priest and a divorce from Cornelia was demanded. Caesar refused, which resulted in the confiscation of his wife's property and the deprivation of his father's inheritance. Sulla, however, pardoned the young man, although he was suspicious of him, believing that “there are many Maries in the boy.”
Beginning of military and government activities
Having left Rome for Asia, Caesar was in military service, lived in Bithynia, Cilicia, and took part in the capture of Mytilene. He returned to Rome after Sulla's death and spoke at trials. For the sake of improving his oratory, he went to Fr. Rhodes to the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon. Returning from Rhodes, he was captured by pirates, paid a ransom, but then took brutal revenge by capturing sea robbers and putting them to death. In Rome, Caesar received the positions of priest-pontiff and military tribune, and from 68 - quaestor, married Pompeia, a relative of Gnaeus Pompey - his future ally and then enemy. Having taken the post of aedile in 66, he was engaged in the improvement of the city, organizing magnificent festivals and grain distributions; all this contributed to his popularity. Having become a senator, he participates in political intrigues in order to support Pompey, who was busy at that time with the war in the East and returned in triumph in 61.
First triumvirate
In 60, on the eve of the consular elections, a secret political alliance was concluded - a triumvirate - between Pompey, Caesar and the winner of Spartacus, Crassus. Caesar was elected consul for the year 59 jointly with Bibulus. Having carried out agrarian laws, Caesar acquired a large number of followers who received land. Strengthening the triumvirate, he married his daughter to Pompey.
Gallic War
Having become proconsul of Gaul at the end of his consular powers, Caesar conquered new territories for Rome here. In the Gallic war, Caesar's exceptional diplomatic and strategic skill and his ability to exploit contradictions among the Gallic leaders were revealed. Having defeated the Germans in a fierce battle on the territory of modern Alsace, Caesar not only repelled their invasion, but then, for the first time in Roman history, he undertook a campaign across the Rhine, crossing his troops over a specially built bridge. Caesar also made a campaign to Britain, where he won several victories and crossed the Thames; however, realizing the fragility of his position, he soon left the island.
In 56, during a meeting of the triumvirs in Luca with Caesar, who had arrived for this purpose from Gaul, a new agreement was concluded on mutual political support. In 54, Caesar urgently returned to Gaul in connection with the uprising that had begun there. Despite desperate resistance and superior numbers, the Gauls were again conquered, many cities were captured and destroyed; by 50 Caesar had restored the territories subject to Rome.
Caesar the General
As a commander, Caesar was distinguished by decisiveness and at the same time caution. He was hardy; on a campaign he always walked ahead of the army - with his head uncovered in the heat, in the cold, and in the rain. Caesar knew how to set up soldiers with a short and well-constructed speech, he personally knew his centurions and the best soldiers and enjoyed extraordinary popularity and authority among them.
Civil War
After the death of Crassus in 53, the triumvirate disintegrated. Pompey, in his rivalry with Caesar, led the supporters of traditional Senate republican rule. The Senate, fearing Caesar, refused to extend his powers in Gaul. Realizing his popularity among the troops and in Rome itself, Caesar decides to seize power by force. On January 12, 49, he gathered the soldiers of the 13th Legion, gave a speech to them and made the famous crossing of the river. Rubicon, thus crossing the border of Italy (legend attributes to him the words “the die is cast”, uttered before the crossing and marking the beginning of the civil war).
In the very first days, Caesar occupied several cities without encountering resistance. Panic began in Rome. Confused Pompey, the consuls and the Senate left the capital. Having entered Rome, Caesar convened the rest of the Senate and offered cooperation in joint government. Caesar quickly and successfully carried out a campaign against Pompey in the territory of his province - Spain. Returning to Rome, Caesar was proclaimed dictator. Pompey, teaming up with Metellus Scipio, hastily gathered a huge army, but Caesar inflicted a crushing defeat on him in the famous battle of Pharsalus; Pompey himself fled to the Asian provinces and was killed in Egypt. Pursuing Pompey, Caesar went to Egypt, to Alexandria, where he was presented with the head of his murdered rival. Caesar refused the terrible gift, and, according to biographers, mourned his death.
While in Egypt, Caesar intervened in political intrigues on the side of Queen Cleopatra; Alexandria was subdued. Meanwhile, the Pompeians, of whom Cato and Scipio took the leading roles, were gathering new forces based in North Africa. After a campaign in Syria and Cilicia (it was from here that he wrote in his report “he came, he saw, he conquered”), he returned to Rome and then defeated the supporters of Pompey at the battle of Thapsus (46) in North Africa. The cities of North Africa expressed their submission, Numidia was annexed to the Roman possessions, turned into the province of New Africa.
Caesar the Dictator
Upon returning to Rome, Caesar celebrates a magnificent triumph, arranges grandiose shows, games and treats for the people, and rewards the soldiers. He is proclaimed dictator for a 10-year term, and soon receives the titles of “emperor” and “father of the fatherland.” Caesar carries out laws on Roman citizenship, on government in cities, on the reduction of grain distributions in Rome, as well as a law against luxury. He reforms the calendar, which bears his name.
After the last victory over the Pompeians at Munda (in Spain, 45), Caesar began to be given immoderate honors. His statues were erected in temples and among images of kings. He wore red royal boots, red royal vestments, had the right to sit on a gilded chair, and had a large honorary guard. The month of July was named after him, and a list of his honors was written in gold letters on silver columns. Caesar autocratically appointed and removed officials from power.
Conspiracy and assassination of Caesar
Discontent was brewing in society, especially in republican circles, and there were rumors about Caesar's desire for royal power. His relationship with Cleopatra, who lived in Rome at that time, also made an unfavorable impression. A plot arose to assassinate the dictator. Among the conspirators were his closest associates Cassius and the young Marcus Junius Brutus, who, it was claimed, was even the illegitimate son of Caesar. March 15, 44 BC e. - on the Ides of March - at a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators, in front of the frightened senators, attacked Caesar with daggers. According to legend, seeing young Brutus among the murderers, Caesar exclaimed: “And you, my child” (or: “And you, Brutus”), stopped resisting and fell at the foot of the statue of his enemy Pompey.
Caesar also went down in history as the largest Roman writer - his “Notes on the Gallic War” and “Notes on the Civil War” are rightfully considered an example of Latin prose.
Gaius Julius Caesar - famous ancient Roman politician, statesman, outstanding commander, writer; his name became the title of the Roman emperors and became the basis for a similar title in different languages (Kaiser, Caesar, Tsar). He was born in 100 or 102 BC. e., July 13 (other biographical sources give the date July 12), was the successor of the noble patrician Yuliev family. His father was a praetor, later a proconsul of Asia, his mother belonged to the Aurelius, a noble plebeian family.
Thanks to this origin and connections of his family, young Caesar had excellent prerequisites for a further brilliant political career. His aunt was the wife of Maria, practically the sole Roman ruler. Julius received a very good education, was harmoniously developed, which was facilitated by physical education; all this also prepared his future successes.
In 84 BC. e. Caesar becomes a priest of Jupiter, however, established in 82 BC. e. Sulla's dictatorship significantly worsened his position; he lost his position. In addition, he was required to divorce his wife, to which the former priest refused. Because of this, his father's inheritance was taken away from him, and his wife's property was confiscated. There was no direct threat to life and health from Sulla; the dictator pardoned him, although he was wary. Nevertheless, Julius Caesar, in order to avoid possible reprisals, left for Asia Minor, where he was in military service.
In 78 BC. e., when Sulla died, Julius Caesar returned to Rome and became actively involved in public life. He often spoke in court and, in order to become a more skillful orator, studied with the famous Rhetor Molon in Rhodes. His career began with his appointment as priest-pontiff and military tribune. In this post, he actively advocated for Marius's supporters to have their rights restored. In 65 BC. e. Caesar becomes a very popular person - this was facilitated by his election as aedile. As part of this position, he organized grain distributions; He was also in charge of organizing festivals, special events, urban improvement, and gladiator fights. In 52 BC. e. Caesar is a praetor, then for two years he was governor of the province of Hispania Fara. Being in this position demonstrated that Caesar had outstanding administrative abilities and knew military affairs well.
In 60 BC. e. Julius Caesar entered into a voluntary political alliance with M. Crassus and G. Pompey, who were prominent figures in the political horizon. The consequence of the creation of this so-called. The first triumvirate was the election of Caesar as consul. This happened in 59 BC. e. Together with Caesar, Bibulus was appointed to the same position, but he performed the duties rather formally. Caesar-consul managed to implement a number of laws aimed at strengthening the state system. He distributed land to veterans, reduced the farm-out amount of taxes by a third, etc., thanks to which he attracted a huge number of people to his side.
When the consulate ended, Gaius Julius Caesar became proconsul of Gaul. His powers included the ability to recruit troops and carry out military operations. Caesar did not fail to take advantage of the right and, demonstrating outstanding strategic and diplomatic talents, the ability to see the situation and use it, carried out the successful conquest of Trans-Alpine Gaul (campaigns of 58-51 BC). Caesar managed not only to repel the attacks of the Germans - he himself (and this was a precedent in Roman history) marched with legions across the Rhine. Caesar became famous as an outstanding commander who had a huge influence on his charges and could inspire soldiers with the power of words. Personal example also played an important role: Caesar, hardy and brave, in any weather with his head uncovered, invariably led the army.
When in 53 BC. e. one of the members of the secret alliance, Crassus, died, a new stage in Caesar's biography as a politician began: a struggle broke out between him and Pompey for the sole possession of power. Caesar understood perfectly well that he had enormous authority both in Rome and in the troops outside it, and therefore decided to take military action. In 49 BC. e., January 12, together with the soldiers of the 13th Legion, he undertook the crossing of the Rubicon River that went down in history. The battles lasted for more than one year, Pompey was forced to flee to the provinces located in Asia, after which he was killed in Egypt. According to legend, Caesar mourned the death of his former ally and rival when his head was brought to him.
Returning to Rome, Julius Caesar felt like a winner. He organizes large-scale shows, the warriors receive awards from his hands, and the people receive generous treats. He is appointed dictator for a 10-year term, and after some time he is awarded the titles of “father of the fatherland” and “emperor”. Caesar, being in a new status, issues laws on city government, on Roman citizenship, a law directed against luxury and reducing the distribution of bread in Rome. He also carried out a reform of the calendar, which is now named in his honor. Despite the fact that the republican form of government was maintained in Rome, Caesar's power became practically unlimited, because the main republican positions, for example, consul and dictator, go to him.
As Caesar's power grew and strengthened, resentment grew in society, especially among ardent supporters of the republic. A group of opponents, among whom were Marcus Junius Brutus (there were rumors about him as the illegitimate son of the emperor) and his closest ally Cassius, decided to take his life. This intention was realized on March 15, 44 BC. e. right at the Senate meeting. Having attacked Julius Caesar with daggers, the conspirators inflicted many wounds on him, and he died from one or more of them or from loss of blood.
The name of Caesar remained in history, mainly due to his extraordinary, in many ways ambiguous state and political activities, and talent as a commander. However, he also declared himself as a talented writer, although activity in this field was not an end in itself for him, but rather one of the auxiliary methods of political struggle. Two of his works have survived to this day - “Notes on the Gallic War”, as well as “Notes on the Civil War”, which are considered classics of Latin prose. It is known that he wrote a treatise on grammar, several pamphlets and poems, and collections of letters and speeches. The activities of Julius Caesar turned out to be so large-scale that the development of all of Western Europe under its influence underwent dramatic changes in the sphere of politics and culture.
Caesar Gaius Julius (102-44 BC)
Great Roman commander and statesman. The last years of the Roman Republic are associated with the reign of Caesar, who established the regime of sole power. His name was turned into the title of the Roman emperors; From it came the Russian words “tsar”, “Caesar”, and the German “Kaiser”.
He came from a noble patrician family. Young Caesar's family connections determined his position in the political world: his father's sister, Julia, was married to Gaius Marius, the de facto sole ruler of Rome, and Caesar's first wife, Cornelia, was the daughter of Cinna, Marius's successor. In 84 BC. young Caesar was elected priest of Jupiter.
Establishment of Sulla's dictatorship in 82 BC led to Caesar's removal from his priesthood and a demand for a divorce from Cornelia. Caesar refused, which resulted in the confiscation of his wife's property and the deprivation of his father's inheritance. Sulla later pardoned the young man, although he was suspicious of him.
Having left Rome for Asia Minor, Caesar was in military service, lived in Bithynia, Cilicia, and participated in the capture of Mytilene. He returned to Rome after the death of Sulla. To improve his oratory, he went to the island of Rhodes.
Returning from Rhodes, he was captured by pirates, ransomed, but then took brutal revenge by capturing sea robbers and putting them to death. In Rome, Caesar received the positions of priest-pontiff and military tribune, and from 68 - quaestor.
Married Pompeii. Having taken the position of aedile in 66, he was engaged in the improvement of the city, organizing magnificent festivities and grain distributions; all this contributed to his popularity. Having become a senator, he participated in political intrigues in order to support Pompey, who was busy at that time with the war in the East and returned in triumph in 61.
In 60, on the eve of the consular elections, a secret political alliance was concluded - a triumvirate between Pompey, Caesar and Crassus. Caesar was elected consul for 59 together with Bibulus. Having carried out agrarian laws, Caesar acquired a large number of followers who received land. Strengthening the triumvirate, he married his daughter to Pompey.
Having become proconsul of Gaul, Caesar conquered new territories for Rome. The Gallic War demonstrated Caesar's exceptional diplomatic and strategic skill. Having defeated the Germans in a fierce battle, Caesar himself then, for the first time in Roman history, undertook a campaign across the Rhine, crossing his troops across a specially built bridge.
He also made a campaign to Britain, where he won several victories and crossed the Thames; however, realizing the fragility of his position, he soon left the island.
In 54 BC. Caesar urgently returned to Gaul in connection with the uprising that had begun there. Despite desperate resistance and superior numbers, the Gauls were again conquered.
As a commander, Caesar was distinguished by decisiveness and at the same time caution, he was hardy, and on a campaign he always walked ahead of the army with his head uncovered, both in the heat and in the cold. He knew how to set up soldiers with a short speech, personally knew his centurions and the best soldiers and enjoyed extraordinary popularity and authority among them
After the death of Crassus in 53 BC. the triumvirate fell apart. Pompey, in his rivalry with Caesar, led the supporters of Senate republican rule. The Senate, fearing Caesar, refused to extend his powers in Gaul. Realizing his popularity among the troops and in Rome, Caesar decides to seize power by force. In 49, he gathered the soldiers of the 13th Legion, gave them a speech and made the famous crossing of the Rubicon River, thus crossing the border of Italy.
In the very first days, Caesar occupied several cities without encountering resistance. Panic began in Rome. Confused Pompey, the consuls and the Senate left the capital. Having entered Rome, Caesar convened the rest of the Senate and offered cooperation.
Caesar quickly and successfully campaigned against Pompey in his province of Spain. Returning to Rome, Caesar was proclaimed dictator. Pompey hastily gathered a huge army, but Caesar inflicted a crushing defeat on him in the famous battle of Pharsalus. Pompey fled to the Asian provinces and was killed in Egypt. Pursuing him, Caesar went to Egypt, to Alexandria, where he was presented with the head of his murdered rival. Caesar refused the terrible gift and, according to biographers, mourned his death.
While in Egypt, Caesar became immersed in the political intrigues of Queen Cleopatra; Alexandria was subdued. Meanwhile, the Pompeians were gathering new forces based in North Africa. After a campaign in Syria and Cilicia, Caesar returned to Rome and then defeated the supporters of Pompey at the Battle of Thapsus (46 BC) in North Africa. The cities of North Africa expressed their submission.
Upon returning to Rome, Caesar celebrates a magnificent triumph, arranges grandiose shows, games and treats for the people, and rewards the soldiers. He is proclaimed dictator for 10 years and receives the titles of “emperor” and “father of the fatherland.” Conducts numerous laws on Roman citizenship, reform of the calendar, which receives his name.
Statues of Caesar are erected in temples. The month of July is named after him, the list of Caesar's honors is written in gold letters on silver columns. He autocratically appoints and removes officials from power.
Discontent was brewing in society, especially in republican circles, and there were rumors about Caesar's desire for royal power. His relationship with Cleopatra also made an unfavorable impression. A plot arose to assassinate the dictator. Among the conspirators were his closest associates Cassius and the young Marcus Junius Brutus, who, it was claimed, was even the illegitimate son of Caesar. On the Ides of March, at a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators attacked Caesar with daggers. According to legend, seeing young Brutus among the murderers, Caesar exclaimed: “And you, my child” (or: “And you, Brutus”), stopped resisting and fell at the foot of the statue of his enemy Pompey.
Caesar went down in history as the largest Roman writer; his “Notes on the Gallic War” and “Notes on the Civil War” are rightfully considered an example of Latin prose.
Gaius Julius Caesar (lat. Gaius Iulius Caesar). Born July 12 or 13, 100 BC. e. - died March 15, 44 BC. e. Ancient Roman statesman and politician, commander, writer. Consul of 59, 48, 46, 45 and 44 BC. e., dictator 49, 48-47 and 46-44 BC. e., Pontifex Maximus from 63 BC. e.
Gaius Julius Caesar was born into the ancient patrician Julian family.
In the V-IV centuries BC. e. Julia played a significant role in the life of Rome. Among the representatives of the family came, in particular, one dictator, one master of cavalry (deputy dictator) and one member of the college of decemvirs, who developed the laws of the Ten Tables - the original version of the famous laws of the Twelve Tables.
Like most families with an ancient history, the Julias had a common myth about their origins. They traced their lineage to the goddess Venus through Aeneas. The mythical version of the origin of the Julians was already well known by 200 BC. e., and Cato the Elder recorded a version about the etymology of the family name Yuliev. In his opinion, the first bearer of this name, Yul, received his nickname from the Greek word “ἴουλος” (fluff, the first hair on the cheeks and chin).
Almost all Julias in the V-IV centuries BC. e. wore the cognomen Yul, who was probably originally the only one in their family. The branch of the Julius Caesars most certainly descended from the Julius Iuli, although the links between them are unknown.
The first known Caesar was a praetor in 208 BC. e., mentioned by Titus Livy.
The etymology of the cognomen "Caesar" is not known with certainty and was forgotten already in the Roman era. Aelius Spartian, one of the authors of the lives of the Augustans, recorded four versions that existed by the 4th century AD. e.: “The most learned and educated people believe that the first one who was so named received this name from the name of the elephant (which in the language of the Moors is called caesai), which he killed in battle; [or] because he was born from a dead mother and was cut out from her womb; or because he came out of his mother’s womb with long hair; or because he had such brilliant gray-blue eyes, which do not exist in people".
Until now, the reliable etymology of the name is unclear, but more often the origin of cognomen is assumed to be from the Etruscan language (aisar - god; The Roman names Cesius, Caesonius and Caesennius have a similar origin).
By the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. Two branches of the Julius Caesars were known in Rome. They were closely related to each other, but not clearly established. Two branches were recorded in different tribes, and by the 80s BC. e. they also had a completely opposite political orientation, focusing on two warring politicians.
The future dictator's closest relatives were guided by Gaius Maria (Julia, Gaius's aunt, became his wife), and the Caesars from another branch supported Sulla. Moreover, the latter branch played a greater role in public life than the one to which Guy belonged. Guy's relatives on the side of his mother and grandmother could not boast of kinship with the gods, but they all belonged to the elite of Roman society - the nobility. Caesar's mother, Aurelia Cotta, belonged to the wealthy and influential plebeian family of the Aurelians. The relatives of Guy's grandmother, Marcia, traced their line back to the fourth Roman king, Ancus Marcius.
Caesar's date of birth remains a matter of debate among researchers. Sources' evidence on this issue varies. Indirect indications from most ancient authors allow us to date the birth of the dictator to 100 BC. BC, although Eutropius mentions that at the time of the Battle of Munda (March 17, 45 BC) he was 56 years old. In two important systematic sources about the life of the dictator - his biography of authorship and - the beginning of the text with stories about the circumstances of his birth has not been preserved.
The reason for the discrepancies in historiography was, however, the discrepancy between the timing of Caesar's master's degrees and the known practice: Caesar held all the master's degrees earlier than the normal sequence (cursus honorum) by about two years.
Because of this, Theodor Mommsen proposed to consider the date of birth of Caesar as 102 BC. e. Since the beginning of the 20th century, other options for solving the discrepancy began to be proposed. Guy's birthday is also causing debate - July 12 or 13. Macrobius mentions the fourth day before the Ides quintile (July 12) in his Saturnalia. Dio Cassius, however, says that after the death of the dictator, the date of his birth was moved from July 13th to July 12th by a special decree of the second triumvirate. Thus, there is no consensus on the date of birth of Caesar. The year of his birth is most often recognized as 100 BC. e. (in France it is more often dated to 101 BC, as suggested by Jerome Carcopino). The dictator's birthday is equally often considered to be July 12 or 13.
The house where Caesar grew up was in the Subura area of Rome., who had a reputation for trouble. As a child, he studied Greek, literature, and rhetoric at home. Physical exercises, swimming, and horse riding were practiced. Among the teachers of young Guy, the great rhetorician Gniphon is known, who was also one of Cicero’s teachers.
Around 85 BC. e. Caesar lost his father: according to Pliny the Elder, he died bending down to put on his shoes. After the death of his father, Caesar, who had undergone the initiation rite, actually headed the entire Julian family, since all his closest male relatives older than him had died. Soon Guy became engaged to Cossucia, a girl from a wealthy family from the equestrian class (according to another version, they managed to get married).
In the mid-80s BC. e. Cinna nominated Caesar to the honorary position of Flaminus of Jupiter. This priest was bound by many sacred restrictions that seriously limited the possibilities of pursuing master's degrees. To take office, he first needed to marry a girl from a patrician family according to the ancient rite of confarreatio, and Cinna offered his daughter to Guy Cornelia. Young Julius agreed, although he had to break off his engagement to Cossucia.
However, Caesar's accession to office is questioned. According to Lily Ross Taylor, the Pontifex Maximus Quintus Mucius Scaevola (the enemy of Marius and Cinna) refused to perform the inauguration ceremony for Guy. Ernst Badian, however, believes that Caesar was nevertheless inaugurated. As a rule, Caesar's appointment is considered in historiography as an insurmountable obstacle to his further political career. However, there is also an opposite point of view: occupying such an honorable position was a good opportunity to strengthen the authority of the ancient family for this branch of the Caesars, not all of whose representatives achieved the highest magistracy of the consul.
Soon after his wedding to Cornelia, Cinna was killed by mutinous soldiers, and the following year a civil war began, in which Caesar probably did not participate. With the establishment of the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the beginning of proscriptions, Caesar's life was in danger: the dictator did not spare political opponents and personal enemies, and Gaius turned out to be the nephew of Gaius Marius and the son-in-law of Cinna. Sulla demanded that Caesar divorce his wife, which was not a unique case of proof of loyalty, but he refused to do so.
In the end, Sulla added Caesar's name to the proscription list, and he was forced to leave Rome. Sources report that Caesar hid for a long time, distributing bribes to the Sullans who were looking for him, but these stories are implausible. In the meantime, Guy's influential relatives in Rome managed to obtain a pardon for Caesar. An additional circumstance that softened the dictator was Caesar’s origins from the patrician class, representatives of which the conservative Sulla never executed.
Soon Caesar left Italy and joined the retinue of Marcus Minucius Terma, governor of the province of Asia. The name of Caesar was well known in this province: about ten years ago his father was its governor. Guy became one of the contubernals of Terme - the children of senators and young horsemen who studied military affairs and provincial government under the supervision of the current magistrate.
First, Therm entrusted the young patrician with negotiations with the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes IV. Caesar managed to convince the king to place part of his fleet at the disposal of Therma so that the governor could capture the city of Mytilene on Lesbos, which did not recognize the results of the First Mithridatic War and resisted the Romans.
Guy's stay with the Bithynian king subsequently became the source of many rumors about their sexual relationship. After successfully completing this assignment, Therm sent troops against Mytilene, and the Romans soon took the city. After the battle, Caesar was awarded the civil crown (lat. corona civica) - an honorary military award, which was awarded for saving the life of a Roman citizen. After the capture of Mytilene, the campaign in Lesbos ended. Soon Termus resigned, and Caesar went to Cilicia to its governor Publius Servilius Vatia, who was organizing a military campaign against the pirates. However, when in 78 BC. e. News came from Italy about the death of Sulla, Caesar immediately returned to Rome.
In 78 BC. e. Consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus tried to raise a rebellion among the Italians in order to repeal the laws of Sulla. According to Suetonius, Lepidus invited Caesar to join the rebellion, but Gaius refused. In 77 BC. e. Caesar brought the Sullan Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella to trial on charges of extortion during his governorship in Macedonia. Dolabella was acquitted after major court speakers came out in his support. The indictment delivered by Caesar turned out to be so successful that it was distributed in handwritten copies for a long time. The following year, Gaius began the prosecution of another Sullan, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, but he requested protection from the tribunes of the people, and the trial did not take place.
Soon after the failure of the trial of Anthony, Caesar went to improve his oratory skills in Rhodes with the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon, Cicero's mentor.
During Caesar's journey, he was captured by pirates who had long traded in the Eastern Mediterranean. He was held on the small island of Farmakussa (Farmakonisi) in the Dodecanese archipelago. The pirates demanded a large ransom of 50 talents (300 thousand Roman denarii). Plutarch’s version that Caesar, on his own initiative, increased the ransom amount from 20 talents to 50 is certainly implausible.
Ancient authors colorfully describe Guy's stay on the island: he allegedly joked with the kidnappers and recited to them poems of his own composition. After the ambassadors of the cities of Asia ransomed Caesar, he immediately equipped a squadron to capture the pirates themselves, which he managed to do. Having captured his captors, Guy asked the new governor of Asia, Mark Yunk, to judge and punish them, but he refused.
After this, Guy himself organized the execution of the pirates - they were crucified on crosses.
Suetonius adds some details of the execution as an illustration of Caesar's gentle character: “He swore to the pirates who had him captive that they would die on the cross, but when he captured them, he ordered them to be stabbed first and only then crucified.”.
During his repeated stay in the East, Caesar once again visited the Bithynian king Nicomedes. He also participated at the very beginning of the Third Mithridatic War at the head of a separate auxiliary detachment, but soon left the combat zone and returned to Rome around 74 BC. e. The following year he was co-opted to the priestly college of pontiffs in place of his deceased uncle Gaius Aurelius Cotta.
Soon Caesar wins election to military tribune. The exact date of his tribunate is unknown: 73 is often suggested, but 72 or 71 BC is more likely. e. What Caesar did during this period is not known for certain. It is suggested that Caesar may have been involved in suppressing the rebellion of Spartacus- if not in combat, then at least in training recruits. It is also suggested that it was during the suppression of the uprising that Caesar became close friends with Marcus Licinius Crassus, who in the future played a significant role in Guy’s career.
At the beginning of 69 BC. e. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, and his aunt Julia die almost simultaneously. At their funeral, Guy made two speeches that attracted the attention of his contemporaries.
Firstly, public speeches in memory of dead women were practiced only from the end of the 2nd century BC. e., but in them they usually remembered elderly matrons, but not young women. Secondly, in a speech in honor of his aunt, he recalled her marriage to Gaius Marius and showed the people his wax bust. Probably, Julia's funeral was the first public display of the general's image since the beginning of Sulla's dictatorship, when Maria was effectively forgotten.
Same year Caesar becomes quaestor, which guarantees him a seat in the Senate. Caesar performed the duties of a quaestor in the province of Further Spain. The details of his mission are unknown, although the quaestor in the province usually dealt with financial matters. Apparently, Guy accompanied the governor of Gaius Antistius Vetus on trips around the province, carrying out his instructions. It was probably during the quaestor that he met Lucius Cornelius Balbus, who later became Caesar's closest ally.
Soon after returning from the province, Guy married Pompey, the granddaughter of Sulla (she was not a close relative of the influential Gnaeus Pompey the Great in those years). At the same time, Caesar began to openly lean toward supporting Gnaeus Pompey; in particular, he was perhaps the only senator who supported Gabinius’ law on transferring emergency powers to Gnaeus in the fight against pirates.
Caesar also supported the law of Manilius granting a new command to Pompey, although here he was no longer alone.
In 66 BC. e. Caesar became the caretaker of the Appian Way and repaired it at his own expense (according to another version, he repaired the road in 65 BC, being an aedile). In those years, the main creditor of the young politician, who did not skimp on spending, was probably Crassus.
In 66 BC. e. Caesar was elected curule aedile for the next year, whose duties included organizing urban construction, transport, trade, daily life in Rome and ceremonial events (usually at his own expense). In April 65 BC. e. new aedile organized and held the Megalesian Games, and in September the Roman Games, which surprised even the most experienced Romans with their luxury. Caesar shared the costs of both events equally with his colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, but only Gaius received all the glory.
Initially, Caesar planned to show a record number of gladiators at the Roman Games (according to another version, gladiatorial fights were organized by him in memory of his father), but the Senate, fearing a rebellion by many armed slaves, issued a special decree prohibiting one person from bringing more than a certain number of gladiators to Rome . Julius obeyed the restrictions on the number of gladiators, but gave each of them silver armor, thanks to which his gladiatorial fights were still remembered by the Romans.
In addition, the aedile overcame the resistance of conservative senators and restored all the trophies of Gaius Marius, the display of which had been prohibited by Sulla.
In 64 BC. e. Caesar headed a permanent criminal court in cases of robbery accompanied by murder (quaestio de sicariis). In the courts under his chairmanship, many participants in Sulla's proscriptions were convicted, although this dictator passed a law that did not allow criminal prosecution against them. Despite Caesar's active efforts to convict the dictator's accomplices, the active perpetrator of the murders of the proscribed Lucius Sergius Catilina was completely acquitted and was able to nominate his candidacy for consul the next year. The initiator of a significant part of the trials, however, was Caesar's opponent, Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger.
Caesar - Pontifex Maximus:
At the beginning of 63 BC. e. Pontifex Maximus Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius died, and the highest position in the system of Roman religious magistrates became vacant. At the end of the 80s BC. e. Lucius Cornelius Sulla restored the ancient custom of co-opting high priests by the College of Pontiffs, but shortly before new elections, Titus Labienus restored the procedure for electing the Pontifex Maximus by voting in 17 tribes out of 35.
Caesar put forward his candidacy. Alternative candidates were Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus. Ancient historians report numerous bribes during elections, due to which Guy's debts grew greatly. Since the tribes that voted were determined by lot immediately before the elections, Caesar was forced to bribe representatives of all 35 tribes. Guy's creditors were sympathetic to spending on a prestigious but unprofitable position: his successful election testified to his popularity in the run-up to the elections of praetors and consuls.
According to legend, leaving home before the announcement of the results, he told his mother “Either I will return as pontiff, or I will not return at all.”; according to another version: “Today, mother, you will see your son either as a high priest or as an exile.”. The vote took place, according to various versions, either on March 6, or at the end of the year, and Caesar won. According to Suetonius, his advantage over his opponents turned out to be enormous.
Julius's election as Pontifex Maximus for life brought him into the spotlight and almost certainly guaranteed a successful political career. Unlike the flamen of Jupiter, the great pontiff could participate in both civil and military activities without serious sacred restrictions.
Although people who were former consuls (consuls) were usually elected great pontiffs, there were also cases in Roman history when relatively young people occupied this honorary position. Thus, Caesar could not be accused of becoming great pontiff only because of exorbitant ambitions. Immediately after his election, Caesar took advantage of the right to live in the state house of the great pontiff and moved from Subura to the very center of the city, on the Sacred Road.
Caesar and the Catiline conspiracy:
In 65 BC. e., according to some contradictory evidence from ancient historians, Caesar participated in the unsuccessful conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catilina to seize power. However, the question of the “first conspiracy of Catiline” remains problematic. Evidence from sources varies, which gives some researchers grounds to completely deny the existence of the “first conspiracy.”
Rumors about Caesar's participation in Catiline's first conspiracy, if it existed, were spread by opponents of Crassus and Caesar already in the 50s BC. e. and are probably not true. Richard Billows believes that the spread of rumors about the "first conspiracy" was beneficial to Cicero, and then to Caesar's political opponents.
In 63 BC. e., after his failure in the elections of consuls, Catiline made a new, more famous attempt to seize power. Caesar's possible involvement in the conspiracy was discussed back in ancient times, but reliable evidence was never provided. During the culmination of the crisis, Catulus and Piso demanded that Cicero arrest Caesar for complicity in the conspiracy, but to no avail. According to Adrian Goldsworthy, by 63 BC. e. Caesar could count on legal means of occupying new positions and was not interested in participating in the conspiracy.
December 3, 63 BC e. Cicero presented evidence of the dangers of the conspiracy, and the next day a number of the conspirators were declared state criminals. On December 5, the Senate, meeting in the Temple of Concord, discussed a preventive measure for the conspirators: in emergency circumstances, it was decided to act without court approval. Decimus Junius Silanus, elected consul the following year, advocated the death penalty, a punishment applied to Roman citizens in the rarest of cases. His proposal was met with approval.
Caesar spoke next.
His speech in the Senate, recorded by Sallust, is certainly based on the actual speech of Julius. Sallust's version of the speech contains both a common appeal to Roman customs and traditions and an unusual proposal to sentence the conspirators to life imprisonment - a punishment almost never used in Rome - with confiscation of property.
After Caesar, Cicero spoke, objecting to Guy's proposal (an edited recording of his fourth speech against Catiline has survived). However, after the speech of the current consul, many were still inclined to Julius’s proposal, but Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger took the floor and resolutely opposed Caesar’s initiative. Cato also hinted at Caesar's involvement in the conspiracy and reproached the wavering senators for their lack of determination, after which the Senate voted to put the conspirators to death. Since the meeting on December 5 was held with open doors, people listening attentively outside reacted violently to Cato's speech, including his hint of Caesar's connections with the conspirators, and after the end of the meeting they saw off Guy with threats.
Barely taking office as praetor on January 1, 62 BC. e., Caesar took advantage of the magistrate’s right of legislative initiative and proposed that the people’s assembly transfer the authority to restore the Temple of Jupiter Capitoline from Quintus Lutatius Catulus to Gnaeus Pompey. Catulus took about 15 years to restore this temple and almost completed the work, but if this proposal had been accepted, the dedicatory inscription on the pediment of this most important sanctuary of Rome would have mentioned the name of Pompey, and not Catulus, an influential opponent of Caesar.
Guy also accused Catulus of embezzling public funds and demanded an account of his expenses. After protest from the senators, the praetor withdrew his bill.
When on January 3, the tribune Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos proposed recalling Pompey to Rome to defeat Catiline’s troops, Guy supported this proposal, although the conspirators’ troops were already surrounded and doomed to defeat. Apparently, Nepos, Gnaeus's brother-in-law, hoped with his proposal to give Pompey the opportunity to arrive in Italy without disbanding his troops. After a mass brawl provoked by Nepos in the forum, the determined Senate passed an emergency law removing Nepos and Caesar from office, but a few days later Guy was reinstated.
In the fall, at the trial of Lucius Vettius, a member of the Catiline conspiracy, the accused told the judge that he had evidence of Caesar’s involvement in the conspiracy - his letter to Catiline. In addition, during interrogation in the Senate, witness Quintus Curius stated that he had heard personally from Catiline about Caesar’s participation in preparing the rebellion. However, Cicero, at the request of Guy, testified that he told the consul everything he knew about the conspiracy, and thereby deprived Curius of the reward for information and refuted his testimony. Caesar acted very decisively against the first accuser, arresting both Vettius (he did not appear at the next meeting and did not present evidence of the praetor’s guilt) and the judge Novius Niger (he accepted a denunciation of the senior magistrate).
In December 62 BC. e. In Caesar's new house, a festival was held in honor of the Good Goddess with the participation of only women, but it was interrupted after a man, Publius Clodius Pulcher, secretly entered the house. Senators, having learned about the incident, decided to consider the incident sacrilege, and also demanded that the holiday be held anew and the perpetrators punished. The latter meant inevitable publicity of Caesar's personal life, since there were rumors that Clodius arrived at Caesar's house in a woman's dress precisely for his wife.
Without waiting for trial, The pontiff divorced Pompeia Sulla. The trial took place the following year, and Clodius was acquitted because Caesar refused to testify against him. Adrian Goldsworthy believes that Pompeii really had an affair with Clodius, but Caesar still did not dare to testify against the politician who was quickly gaining popularity.
In addition, the majority of judges on the panel voted with signs with illegible inscriptions, not wanting to incur the wrath of Clodius' supporters and opponents. During the trial, when Caesar was asked why he divorced his wife if he knew nothing about what happened, he allegedly replied that Caesar's wife should be above suspicion(different sources give different versions of this phrase. According to Michael Grant, Caesar meant that the wife of the great pontiff - the high priest of Rome - should be above suspicion. The British historian points to another possible reason that accelerated the divorce - the absence of children after several years of marriage .
At the beginning of 61 BC. e. Caesar was supposed to go to the province of Further Spain, the westernmost in the Roman Republic, to rule it as propraetor, but numerous creditors ensured that he did not leave Rome without paying off his huge debts. Nevertheless, Crassus vouched for Caesar with the sum of 830 talents, although this huge sum was unlikely to cover all the governor’s debts. Thanks to Crassus, Guy went to the provinces even before the end of the trial of Clodius. On his way to Spain, Caesar allegedly said, passing through a remote village, that “I would rather be first here than second in Rome”(according to another version, this phrase was uttered on the way from Spain to Rome).
By the time of Caesar's arrival, there was great dissatisfaction with Roman power and large debts in the underdeveloped northern and northeastern parts of the province. Caesar immediately recruited a local militia to subdue the dissatisfied regions, which was presented as an extermination of the bandits.
According to Dio Cassius, thanks to the military campaign, Caesar hoped to equal Pompey with his victories, although it was possible to establish a lasting peace without military action.
Having at his disposal 30 cohorts (about 12 thousand soldiers), he approached the Herminian Mountains (the modern Serra da Estrela ridge) and demanded that the local tribes settle on the flat territory in order to deprive them of the opportunity to use their fortifications in the mountains in the event of an uprising.
Dio Cassius believes that Caesar hoped for a refusal from the very beginning, since he hoped to use this answer as a motive for an attack. After the mountain tribes refused to submit, the governor's troops attacked them and forced them to retreat to the Atlantic Ocean, from where the mountain tribes sailed to the Berlenga Islands. Caesar ordered several detachments to cross to the islands on small rafts, but the Lusitanians killed the entire Roman landing force.
After this failure, Guy summoned a fleet from Hades and with its help transported large forces to the islands. While the commander was conquering the mountainous Lusitanians on the Atlantic coast, the neighbors of the expelled tribes began preparing to repel a possible attack by the governor. All summer, the propraetor subjugated the scattered Lusitanians, storming a number of settlements and winning one fairly large battle. Soon, Caesar left the province and headed to Brigancia (modern La Coruña), quickly capturing the city and its surroundings. In the end, the troops declared him emperor, which in the terminology of the mid-1st century BC. e. meant recognition as a victorious commander. Even then, Caesar showed himself to be a decisive commander, capable of quickly moving his troops.
Having completed his campaign, Caesar turned to solving the daily problems of the province. His energetic activity in the administrative field was manifested in the revision of taxation and in the analysis of court cases. In particular, the governor abolished the tax imposed as punishment for the Lusitanians' support of Quintus Sertorius in the recent war. In addition, it ruled that creditors could not recover from debtors more than two-thirds of their annual income.
In the difficult situation with the repayment of loans and interest by residents of the province, such a measure turned out to be beneficial for both borrowers and creditors, since Caesar still confirmed the need for mandatory repayment of all debts. Finally, Caesar may have banned human sacrifice, which was practiced in the province.
Some sources claim that the governor extorted money from wealthy residents of the province and robbed neutral tribes, but this evidence is probably based only on rumors. Richard Billows believes that if Caesar had actually openly plundered the province, he would have been immediately brought to justice by his political opponents upon his return to Rome. In fact, there was no prosecution or even hints of its beginning, which at least indicates Caesar’s caution.
Roman legislation of the 1st century BC. e. provided for the responsibility of the governor for extortion, but did not establish clear boundaries between a gift and a bribe, and therefore sufficiently careful actions could not be qualified as bribery.
Caesar could count on substantial gifts, since the inhabitants of the province (especially the rich south) saw in the young aristocrat a potentially influential patron - a defender of their interests in Rome.
Masinta's extremely vigorous defense showed them that Caesar would do anything to protect his clients. Apparently, Caesar received the greatest income precisely from civil activities in the southern part of the province, since the main military operations were carried out in the impoverished northern and northeastern regions of Further Spain, in which it was hardly possible to get rich. After becoming governor of the province, Caesar significantly improved his financial situation, and creditors no longer bothered him. Guy probably did not pay off all his debts, but he proved that he was able to repay his loans by taking on new positions. As a result, the creditors could temporarily stop disturbing Caesar, counting on a new, more profitable assignment, which Guy’s opponents subsequently tried to use.
At the beginning of 60 BC. e. Caesar decided to return to Rome, without waiting for his successor. The early termination of the governor's powers with the delegation of powers to a junior magistrate (probably a quaestor) was considered unusual, but was sometimes practiced.
Having received reports of Caesar's victories, the Senate considered him worthy of triumph. In addition to this honorable celebration, in the summer of 60 BC. e. Caesar hoped to take part in the election of consuls the following year, since he had reached the minimum age for holding a new position and had completed all previous magistrates in the cursus honorum system.
However, the candidate for triumph was not allowed to cross the sacred boundaries of the city (pomerium) before the event began, and personal presence in Rome was required to register a candidate for consul. Since the election date had already been set, Caesar asked the senators to grant him the right to register in absentia. There was already a precedent for such a decision in Roman history: in 71 BC. e. The Senate allowed Gnaeus Pompey, who was also preparing a triumph, to put forward his candidacy.
Caesar's opponents were not in the mood to meet him halfway. By presenting Guy with a choice between triumph and consulate, they may have hoped that Caesar would choose triumph, hoping that Guy's creditors would not wait another year, but would demand their money immediately. However, Caesar had another reason not to postpone participation in the elections until the next year: election to a new position in “his year” (Latin suo anno), that is, in the first year when this was permissible by law, was considered especially honorable.
At the last meeting of the Senate before the elections, when it was still possible to pass a special resolution, Cato took the floor and spoke all day, until the very end of the meeting. Thus, Caesar did not receive special permission, and he entered the city, choosing to take up a new position and abandoning triumph.
By the summer of 60 BC. e. Caesar agreed to cooperate with the rich and educated, but little-known Roman Roman Lucius Lucceus, who also put forward his candidacy. According to Suetonius, "they agreed that Lucceus would promise his own money to the centuries on behalf of both." The Roman author mentions that his rival Bibulus also bribed voters with the approval of the senators: his father-in-law Cato called this “bribery in the interests of the state.” According to the results of the elections of consuls for 59 BC. e. became Caesar and Bibulus.
Around this time, Caesar entered into secret negotiations with Pompey and Crassus to create a political alliance: in exchange for the support of Gaius by two of the most powerful and wealthy Romans, the new consul undertook to pass several laws in their interests that had previously been blocked by the Senate.
The fact is that Pompey, who returned from the Third Mithridatic War back in 62 BC. e., has not yet achieved the ratification of all orders made in the eastern provinces. He also could not overcome the resistance of the Senate on the issue of granting land plots to veterans of his army. Crassus also had reasons for dissatisfaction with the Senate, who defended the interests of the publicans (tax farmers), who unsuccessfully asked to reduce the amount of taxation for the province of Asia.
By uniting around Caesar, both politicians hoped to overcome the resistance of the senators and pass laws beneficial to themselves. It is unclear what Caesar received from the alliance. Undoubtedly, he benefited from the very rapprochement with two influential politicians and their equally high-ranking friends, clients and relatives.
There is a version that when organizing the triumvirate, Caesar hatched plans to seize power with its help(a similar point of view was shared, in particular, by Theodor Mommsen and Jerome Carcopino).
Despite the fact that Pompey and Crassus had long been at odds and even interfered with the implementation of laws in each other's interests, Caesar managed to reconcile them. Suetonius claims that Caesar first entered into an alliance with Pompey, but Christian Meyer believes that he first agreed to cooperate with Crassus, who was closer to him. It is possible that it was planned to include a fourth member - Cicero - in the political union.
The union of three politicians is currently known as the first triumvirate (Latin triumviratus - “union of three husbands”), but this term arose by analogy with the later second triumvirate, whose members were officially called triumvirs.
The exact date of the creation of the triumvirate is unknown, which is a consequence of its secret nature. Following the contradictory versions of ancient writers, modern historians also offer different versions: July-August 60 BC. e., the period shortly before or shortly after the elections, after the elections or 59 BC. e. (in final form).
At the very beginning of the consulate, Guy ordered the daily publication of the minutes of the meetings of the Senate and the National Assembly: apparently, this was done so that citizens could monitor the actions of politicians.
Caesar, on behalf of the Roman Republic, recognized Ptolemy XII Auletes as pharaoh of Egypt, which was tantamount to renouncing claims to Egypt using the will (probably forged) of Ptolemy XI Alexander II, widely known in Rome. According to this document, Egypt was to come under the rule of Rome, just as, according to the will of Attalus III, the Kingdom of Pergamum was transferred to the Roman Republic. Ancient historians report that the issue was settled for a huge bribe, which was shared among the triumvirs.
Despite significant support for Caesar's initiatives at the beginning of the year, by the end of 59 BC. e. the popularity of the triumvirs fell sharply.
By the beginning of Caesar's proconsulate, the Romans controlled the southern part of the territory of modern France, where the province of Narbonese Gaul was formed. At the end of March 58 BC. e. Guy arrived in Genava (modern Geneva), where he entered into negotiations with the leaders of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii, who began to move due to the onslaught of the Germans. Caesar managed to prevent the Helvetii from entering the territory of the Roman Republic, and after they entered the lands of the Aedui tribe allied with the Romans, Guy pursued and defeated them. In the same year, he defeated the troops of the German leader Ariovistus, who was trying to gain a foothold in the Gallic lands of the left bank of the Rhine.
In 57 BC. e. Caesar, without a formal cause of war, attacked the Belgae tribes in northeastern Gaul and defeated them at the battles of Axon and Sabis. The commander's legate, Publius Licinius Crassus, bloodlessly subjugated the lands in the lower Loire. However, the next year the Gauls conquered by Crassus united against the Roman conquest. Caesar was forced to divide his forces between Titus Labienus, who was supposed to subjugate the Treveri tribe in Belgica, Publius Crassus (who was entrusted with the conquest of Aquitaine) and Quintus Titurius Sabinus, who suppressed the peripheral tribes of the rebels. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus began building a fleet on the Loire capable of fighting the coastal tribes, and Caesar himself went to Luca, where the triumvirs met and discussed current issues.
Returning to his troops, Caesar led an attack on the rebel Gauls. Gaius and Sabinus captured all the rebel settlements, and Decimus Brutus destroyed their fleet in a naval battle.
In 55 BC. e. the commander defeated the German tribes that crossed the Rhine. He then crossed to the right bank of the river using a 400-meter bridge built near the camp "castellum apud confluentes" (modern Koblenz) in just ten days.
The Roman army did not stay in Germany (during the retreat, the first bridge in history across the Rhine was destroyed), and already at the end of August Caesar undertook a reconnaissance expedition to Britain - the first trip to this island in Roman history. However, due to insufficient preparation, within a month he had to return to the continent.
Next summer Caesar led a new expedition to Britain, however, the Celtic tribes on the island continuously retreated, weakening the enemy in small clashes, and Caesar was forced to conclude a truce, which allowed him to report victory to Rome. After his return, Caesar divided his troops between eight camps concentrated in northern Gaul.
At the end of the year, the Belgian tribes rebelled against the Romans and almost simultaneously attacked several of their wintering grounds. The Belgas managed to lure the XIV Legion and five more cohorts (about 6-8 thousand soldiers) from the fortified camp and kill them in an ambush. Caesar managed to lift the siege from the camp of Quintus Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, after which the Belgae abandoned the attack on Labienus' camp. In 53 BC. e. Guy carried out punitive expeditions against the Belgian tribes, and in the summer he made a second trip to Germany, again building (and again destroying during the retreat) a bridge across the Rhine. Faced with a shortage of troops, Caesar asked Pompey for one of his legions, to which Gnaeus agreed.
At the beginning of 52 BC. e. Most of the Gallic tribes united to fight the Romans. The leader of the rebels was Vercingetorix. Since the Gauls cut off Caesar in Narbonese Gaul from the bulk of his troops in the north, the commander, with the help of a deceptive maneuver, lured Vercingetorix to the lands of his native Arverni tribe, and he himself united with the main troops. The Romans took several fortified Gallic cities, but were defeated when attempting to storm Gergovia. In the end, Caesar managed to block Vercingetorix in the well-fortified fortress of Alesia and begin a siege.
The Gallic commander called all the Gallic tribes for help and tried to lift the Roman siege after their arrival. A fierce battle broke out in the most poorly defended area of the fortifications of the siege camp, in which the Romans won victory with some difficulty. The next day Vercingetorix surrendered to Caesar, and the rebellion as a whole was over. In 51 and 50 BC. e. Caesar and his legates completed the conquest of distant tribes and individual groups of rebels. By the end of Caesar's proconsulate, all of Gaul was subordinate to Rome.
Throughout his stay in Gaul, the commander was aware of the events taking place in Rome and often intervened in them. This became possible due to the fact that two of Caesar’s confidants remained in the capital, with whom he constantly corresponded - Gaius Oppius and Lucius Cornelius Balbus. They distributed bribes to the magistrates and carried out his other orders from the commander.
In Gaul, several legates served under Caesar, who later played a significant role in Roman history - Mark Antony, Titus Labienus, Lucius Munatius Plancus, Gaius Trebonius and others.
Consuls 56 BC e. Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus and Lucius Marcius Philippus were unkind to the triumvirs. Marcellinus prevented the implementation of laws by Caesar's supporters and, more importantly, managed to achieve the appointment of a successor to Caesar from among the not yet elected consuls for the next year. Thus, no later than March 1, 54 BC. e. Guy had to cede the province to his successor.
The most likely candidate to replace Caesar in Cisalpine Gaul was considered Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, a staunch opponent of the triumvirate. In addition, Caesar's opponents hoped to take Narbonese Gaul from him. The first attempts to bring Caesar to court date back to this time, but failed due to the judicial immunity of the proconsul before the end of his powers.
In mid-April 56 BC. e. triumvirs gathered in Luka(modern Lucca; the city belonged to Cisalpine Gaul, which allowed Caesar to be present) to coordinate further actions.
They agreed that Pompey and Crassus would nominate their candidacies for consul the following year in order to prevent the election of opponents (in particular, Ahenobarbus). Since the outcome of the elections, held in full accordance with the law, was not obvious, the triumvirs decided to influence the elections by attracting legionnaires. Supporters of the triumvirs had to push for a postponement of the elections to the end of the year, and Caesar promised to send all his soldiers to participate in the vote. Once elected, Pompey and Crassus were to secure a five-year extension of Caesar's term in exchange for Caesarian support for the distribution of several other provinces in their favor.
In the spring of 55 BC. e. the new consuls fulfilled their obligations adopted at the meeting in Luca: Caesar extended his powers in all three provinces for five years. In addition, Pompey received control of Far and Near Spain for the same period, and Crassus received Syria. In May or June 55 BC. e. Cicero, who became close to the triumvirate, actively supported, and possibly initiated, a bill to compensate for the costs of maintaining Caesar's four new legions at public expense. This proposal was accepted. In exchange for Cicero's services to Caesar, the proconsul responded by including Quintus Tullius Cicero, the orator's brother, among his legates.
In August or September 54 BC. e. Julia, daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died during childbirth. However, the death of Julia and the failure of attempts to conclude a new dynastic marriage did not have a decisive impact on the relationship between Pompey and Caesar, and for several more years the relationship between the two politicians remained quite good.
A much greater blow to the triumvirate and to all Roman politics was dealt by Death of Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae. Although Crassus was considered more of a “junior” triumvir, especially after Caesar’s successful conquests in Gaul, his wealth and influence smoothed over the contradictions between Pompey and Caesar.
At the beginning of 53 BC. e. Caesar asked Pompey for one of his legions to use in the Gallic War, and Gnaeus agreed. Caesar soon recruited two more legions to make up for the losses of his troops due to the Belgian uprising.
In 53-52 BC. e. the situation in Rome was extremely tense due to the struggle (often armed) between supporters of two demagogues - Clodius and Milo. The situation worsened significantly due to the murder of Clodius by the slave Milo in January 52 BC. e. By this time, elections of consuls had not been held, and in Rome there were calls to elect Pompey as consuls along with Caesar to restore order.
Caesar invited Pompey to organize a new dynastic marriage. According to his plan, Pompey was to marry Octavia the Younger, a relative of Caesar, and he himself intended to marry Pompeia, the daughter of Gnaeus. Pompey refused the offer, marrying after some time Cornelia Metella, the daughter of Caesar's longtime enemy Metellus Scipio. When it became clear that Caesar would not be able to return from Gaul to restore order in Rome, Cato (according to another version - Bibulus) proposed an emergency measure - the appointment of Gnaeus as consul without a colleague, which allowed him to make the most important decisions alone. However, the Senate probably viewed Pompey as a temporary coordinator to quell unrest, and not as a long-term ruler.
Soon after his appointment, the new consul initiated adoption of laws on violent acts (lex Pompeia de vi) and on electoral bribery (lex Pompeia de ambitu). In both cases, the wording of the laws was clarified to meet new requirements, stricter preventive measures were established, and court hearings in these cases had to be held under armed guard. Both decisions had retroactive effect. The law on bribery extended until 70 BC. e., and Caesar's supporters considered this decision a challenge to their patron.
At the same time, the tribunes of the people, with the approval of Pompey, passed a decree allowing Caesar to nominate his candidacy for consul while absent from Rome, which he failed to achieve in 60 BC. e. However, soon, at the proposal of the consul, laws on magistracy and provinces were adopted. Among the provisions of the first decree was a ban on seeking office in the absence of the candidate in Rome.
The new legislation was not only directed against Caesar, but also came into conflict with the recent decree of the tribunes. However, soon Pompey, who allegedly forgot to make an exception for Caesar, ordered the addition of a clause to the law on magistracy on the possibility of special permission to apply without being present in the capital, but did this after the law was approved.
Pompey's decrees brought uncertainty into Caesar's future after the end of his proconsulship. It is unclear when he could nominate his candidacy for consul for the next year in accordance with special permission - in 50 or 49 BC. e.
Due to the fact that Gnaeus amended the law on magistrates after its approval, Caesar's opponents had the opportunity to protest the effect of this clarification and demand the mandatory presence of Caesar as a private citizen at the elections. Guy was seriously afraid that immediately after his arrival in Rome and the termination of his immunity, Caesar’s opponents, led by Cato, would bring him to trial.
Because Pompey's laws were retroactive, Gaius could be held accountable for his actions in 59 BC. e. and before. In addition, it was unclear whether Caesar's successor should be appointed under the old law or under the new one. If the priority of Pompey's decree was recognized, the successor could replace Caesar in the province as early as March 1, 49 BC. e., and it was supposed to be one of the consuls five years ago. However, since the second consul Appius Claudius Pulcher managed to receive an appointment to Cilicia, Gaius's successor was to be his irreconcilable opponent Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus.
Although Cato failed in this election of consuls, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, an enemy of Caesar, was elected. At the very beginning of the year Marcellus demanded that Caesar leave the province and disband all ten legions, citing the completion of active military operations after the capture of Alesia. However, the rebels continued to operate on the periphery of Gaul, and Marcellus’ colleague Servius Sulpicius Rufus refused to support this proposal. Pompey tried to maintain the appearance of neutrality, but his statements indicated a rapid cooling of relations with Caesar.
Consuls 50 BC e. after Cato refused to participate in the elections, Gaius Claudius Marcellus, Marcus’s cousin and comrade-in-arms, and Lucius Aemilius Paulus began to take part in the elections. The latter was not a staunch opponent of Caesar, and therefore Guy took advantage of his difficult financial situation and persuaded him to cooperate for a huge bribe of 1,500 talents (approximately 36 million sesterces, or slightly less than the annual tax revenues from conquered Gaul).
In addition, one of his longtime opponents, Gaius Scribonius Curio, unexpectedly went over to Caesar’s side. Later sources attribute this change of political position to another bribe comparable to the one received by Aemilius Paulus. It was Curio who used the tribunician veto to repeal the laws with which the senators tried to legalize the removal of Caesar. However, the tribune carefully concealed his defection. In his public speeches, he positioned himself as an independent politician and defender of the interests of the people, and not Pompey or Caesar. In May 50 BC. e. The Senate, under the pretext of the Parthian threat, immediately recalled two legions from Caesar, including the one lent to him by Pompey.
As the end of the proconsul's powers drew near, Caesar and his Roman opponents began vigorous efforts to defend their position in accordance with their vision of legislation.
By 50 BC. e., when Caesar's break with Pompey became obvious, Caesar had significant support from the inhabitants of Rome and the population of Cisalpine Gaul, but among the nobles his influence was small and often relied on bribes.
Although the Senate as a whole was not inclined to trust Caesar, the idea of a peaceful resolution of the dispute was supported by the majority of senators. Thus, 370 senators voted in support of Curio’s proposal on the need for the simultaneous disarmament of both commanders, and 22 or 25 voted against. However, Marcellus closed the meeting before the voting results were entered into the protocol. According to another version, the decision of the Senate was vetoed by the tribune Guy Furnius.
Other proposals were also made, although neither Caesar nor Pompey and his supporters were willing to give in. In particular, even before the elections of magistrates, Gnaeus suggested that Caesar return to Rome on November 13, 50 BC. e., surrendering proconsular powers and troops, so that on January 1, 49 BC. e. take up the post of consul. However, contemporaries noticed that Pompey clearly did not want reconciliation. Soon false rumors spread in Rome that Caesar had already crossed the borders of Italy and occupied Arimin, which meant the beginning of a civil war.
In 50 BC. e. Caesar managed to get Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius Longinus into the tribunes of the plebeians the following year, but his candidate for consul, Servius Sulpicius Galba, failed. Based on the voting results, staunch opponents of the proconsul were elected - Gaius Claudius Marcellus, the full namesake and cousin of the previous year's consul, as well as Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Cruz.
From the second half of the year Caesar begins to make persistent attempts to negotiate with the Senate, offering mutual concessions.
In particular, he agreed to renounce Narbonese Gaul and retain only two legions and two provinces - Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum - subject to immunity and absentee participation in elections.
The senators refused to accept Caesar's proposal. In response, January 1, 49 BC. e. In Rome, Caesar’s letter was read, in which the proconsul’s determination to defend his right to absentee participation in the elections was already heard by all available means.
In response, the Senate decided that Caesar should be considered an enemy of the state if he did not resign and disband the troops by a certain date, but Antony and Longinus, who took office, vetoed it, and the resolution was not adopted. Several people, including Cicero, tried to mediate a reconciliation between the two generals, but their attempts were unsuccessful.
On January 7, at the initiative of a group of senators led by Cato, an emergency law (lat. senatusconsultum ultimum) was issued calling citizens to arms, which actually meant a complete refusal of negotiations. Troops began to gather in the city, and Antony and Longinus were made to understand that their safety could not be guaranteed.
Both tribunes and Curio, who had already surrendered his powers, immediately fled from Rome to Caesar’s camp - according to Appian, they left the city “at night, in a hired cart, disguised as slaves.”
On January 8 and 9, the senators decided to declare Caesar an enemy of the state if he did not resign. They also approved his successors - Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Marcus Considius Nonianus - transferring to them Cisalpine and Narbonese Gaul. They also announced the recruitment of troops.
Caesar, back in December 50 BC. e. summoned the VIII and XII legions from Narbonese Gaul, but by the beginning of January they had not yet arrived. Although the proconsul had only about 5 thousand soldiers of the XIII Legion and about 300 cavalry at his disposal, he decided to act.
After the arrival of the tribunes who had fled from Rome at Caesar's camp, the commander gathered the troops at his disposal and addressed them with a speech. In it, he informed the soldiers about the violation of the sacred rights of the tribunes and the reluctance of the senators to recognize his legal demands. The soldiers expressed full support for their commander, and he led them across the border river Rubicon(according to legend, before crossing the river, Caesar said the words “the die is cast” - a quote from Menander’s comedy).
However, Caesar did not move towards Rome. On January 17, after receiving news of the outbreak of war, Pompey tried to start negotiations, but they failed, and the commander sent his troops along the Adriatic coast. Most of the cities along the way did not even try to resist. Many supporters of the Senate retreated to Corfinium (modern Corfinio), where Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was stationed.
Soon he had 30 cohorts, or 10-15 thousand soldiers, under his control. Due to the lack of a unified command (since Ahenobarbus had previously been appointed governor, Gnaeus had no authority to order him) Domitius found himself locked in Corfinia and cut off from Pompey's troops. After Caesar received reinforcements and the siege could not be lifted, Ahenobarbus decided to flee the city with only his friends. His soldiers became aware of the commander’s plans, after which the dissatisfied troops opened the gates of the city to Caesar and handed over Ahenobarbus and their other commanders to him.
Caesar annexed the troops stationed in Corfinia and the surrounding area to his army, and released Ahenobarbus and his comrades.
Upon learning of the surrender of Corfinius, Pompey began preparations for the evacuation of his supporters to Greece. Pompey counted on the support of the eastern provinces, where his influence had been great since the Third Mithridatic War. Due to a shortage of ships, Gnaeus had to transport his forces to Dyrrachium (or Epidamnus; modern Durres) in parts.
As a result, by the time Caesar arrived (March 9), not all of his soldiers had crossed over. After Gnaeus refused to negotiate, Gaius began a siege of the city and tried to block the narrow exit from the harbor of Brundisium, but on March 17, Pompey managed to leave the harbor and leave Italy with the remaining troops.
The rapid development of events in the first stage of the war took the population of Rome and Italy by surprise. Many residents of Italy supported Caesar, since they saw in him the successor of the work of Gaius Marius and hoped for his patronage. The Italians' support for Caesar greatly contributed to Caesar's success in the first stage of the civil war.
The attitude of the nobility towards Julius was mixed. The gentle treatment of commanders and soldiers in Corfinia was aimed at persuading both opponents and hesitant members of the nobility not to oppose Caesar.
Caesar's supporters Oppius and Balbus made every effort to present Caesar's actions to the entire republic as an act of outstanding mercy (lat. clementia). The principle of encouraging the neutrality of all those who waver also contributed to the pacification of Italy: “While Pompey declared his enemies all those who did not defend the republic, Caesar declared that he would consider those who abstained and did not join anyone as friends.”.
The widespread belief that the bulk of the senators fled Italy along with Pompey is not entirely true. It became famous thanks to Cicero, who subsequently substantiated the legitimacy of the “Senate in Exile” by the presence of ten consulars (former consuls) in its composition, but kept silent about the fact that there were at least fourteen of them left in Italy. More than half of the senators chose to remain neutral, holed up in their estates in Italy.
Caesar was supported by many young people from noble but poor aristocratic families, many representatives of the equestrian class, as well as various outcasts and adventurers.
Caesar was unable to immediately pursue Pompey into Greece because Gnaeus had requisitioned all available warships and transport ships. As a result, Guy decided to secure his rear by heading through Gaul, loyal to him, to Spain, where from 54 BC. e. There were Pompey's legates with seven legions.
Before leaving, Guy entrusted the leadership of Italy to Mark Antony, who received from him the powers of propraetor, and left the capital in the care of praetor Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and the senators. In dire need of money, Guy took possession of the remnants of the treasury. The tribune Lucius Caecilius Metellus tried to prevent him, but Caesar, according to legend, threatened to kill him, adding that it was “much more difficult for him to say than to do.”
In Narbonne Gaul, where all of Caesar's Gallic troops had gathered, Caesar encountered unexpected resistance from the richest city of Massilia (modern Marseille). Not wanting to linger halfway, Caesar left part of his troops to wage the siege.
By the beginning of the campaign in Spain, according to the Notes on the Civil War, the Pompeians Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius had approximately 40 thousand soldiers and 5 thousand cavalry against Caesar's approximately 30 thousand soldiers and 6 thousand horsemen.
Caesar's troops, with skillful maneuvers, drove the enemy out of Ilerda (modern Lleida/Lleida) into the hills, where it was impossible to find either food or water. On August 27, the entire Pompeian army surrendered to Caesar. Caesar sent all the soldiers of the enemy army home, and allowed those who wished to join his army. After the news of the capitulation of the Pompeians, most of the communities of Near Spain went over to Caesar's side.
Soon Guy went to Italy by land. At the walls of Massilia, Caesar received news of his appointment as dictator on the initiative of the praetor Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. In Rome, Caesar exercised his rights as a dictator and organized elections of magistrates for the following year.
Caesar himself and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus were elected consuls; other positions went mainly to supporters of the dictator. In addition, Guy took advantage of his right of legislative initiative and passed a number of laws designed not only to mitigate the consequences of the war (for example, the law on loans), but also for the long term (providing full Roman citizenship to residents of individual cities and territories).
While Caesar was in Spain, Caesar's generals suffered defeat after defeat in Illyricum, Africa and the Adriatic Sea. However, Caesar was able to derive some benefit from Curio's defeat in Africa: it allowed him to claim that Pompey's situation had become so desperate that he was forced to call on the barbarians to help him. The unsuccessful actions of the legates on the Adriatic coast left Caesar with only one option for crossing to Greece - by sea.
Apparently, Caesar feared that Pompey would cross over to Italy in the spring, and therefore began preparations for the landing in the winter of 49-48 BC. e. However, this idea was considered risky due to the unfavorable season for navigation, the dominance of the Pompeians at sea and the lack of food for a large army in Epirus. In addition, Guy was unable to assemble a sufficient number of ships to cross the entire army.
Nevertheless, January 4 or 5, 48 BC. e. Caesar's fleet with about 20 thousand soldiers and 600 cavalry landed in Epirus, avoiding a meeting with the Pompeian fleet, led by Bibulus. Another part of Caesar's army, led by Mark Antony, managed to break into Greece only in April.
Immediately after the landing, Caesar sent envoys to Pompey with a proposal to conclude a truce, but at the same time began to capture cities on the coast, which discredited any attempts to negotiate an end to the war.
Skillfully maneuvering, Caesar, after uniting with Antony, managed to encircle the superior forces of Gnaeus on a coastal hill near Dyrrhachium and erect strong fortifications that were supposed to protect the camp and troops of Gaius from attacks both from the besieged and from outside. This siege is notable not only for the superiority of the besieged over the besiegers, but also for the hunger in the latter’s camp, in contrast to the normal supply situation for the besieged Pompey: according to Plutarch, by the summer Caesar’s soldiers were eating bread from roots. Gnaeus soon took advantage of his access to the coast and his advantage at sea, landing part of his troops at the weakest point of the enemy fortifications.
Caesar threw all his forces into repelling the attack, but in a battle known as the Battle of Dyrrhachium (around July 10), Pompey put his enemy to flight. For some reason, Pompey did not dare to strike a decisive blow against Caesar - either because of the advice of Labienus, or out of caution against the possible tricks of Gaius. After the battle, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Appian, said “Today victory would remain with the opponents if they had someone to defeat”.
Gathering his defeated troops, Caesar marched southeast to fertile Thessaly, where he was able to replenish food supplies. In Thessaly, Caesar was joined by two legions of troops that he had previously sent to Macedonia for auxiliary operations. However, Pompey's soldiers outnumbered Caesar's by approximately two to one (approximately 22 thousand versus approximately 47 thousand).
The opponents met at Farsal. Pompey for some time did not want to start a general battle in open terrain and decided to give battle to Caesar only under pressure from the senators. According to legend, on the day before the battle, senators confident of victory began to distribute magistracy among themselves. It is likely that Titus Labienus prepared the battle plan for Pompey, but Caesar was able to unravel the plans of the Pompeians and prepare countermeasures (after the battle, Gnaeus suspected that someone from his entourage had conveyed the plans to Caesar). On August 9, a decisive battle took place, the outcome of which was decided by Caesar’s counterattack on the right flank. In total, 15 thousand soldiers died in the battle, including 6 thousand Roman citizens. More than 20 thousand more Pompeians surrendered the day after the battle, and among them were many nobles, including Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.
Soon after the battle Caesar set out in pursuit of Pompey, but Gnaeus disoriented his pursuer and went through Cyprus to Egypt. Only when Caesar was in the province of Asia did news of his enemy's new preparations reach him, and he went to Alexandria with one legion (probably the VI Iron).
Caesar arrived in Egypt a few days after the assassination of Pompey by the Egyptians. Initially, his stay in Egypt was prolonged due to unfavorable winds, and the dictator tried to take advantage of the opportunity to solve his urgent need for money. Guy hoped to recover from King Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator 10 million denarii of debts left by his father Ptolemy XII Auletes (a significant part of the debt was an incompletely paid bribe for non-recognition of the will of Ptolemy XI Alexander II).
For this purpose the commander intervened in the struggle of supporters of Ptolemy XIII and his sister Cleopatra. Initially, Caesar probably hoped to mediate the dispute between brother and sister in order to obtain the greatest benefit for himself and for the Roman state.
After Cleopatra secretly entered Caesar's camp (according to legend, the queen was taken to the palace wrapped in a carpet), Guy went over to her side. Those surrounded by Ptolemy decided to take advantage of the small number of Guy's troops to expel him from the country and overthrow Cleopatra. The majority of the inhabitants of Alexandria supported the king, and the general uprising against the Romans forced Caesar to lock himself in the royal quarter, putting his life in great danger.
During the battle with the Egyptians, a fire started that spread to the Library of Alexandria- the largest book collection of the ancient world. However, a large branch of the library in the Serapeum with copies of the scrolls was preserved, and most of the collection was soon restored.
In the winter, Caesar withdrew his troops from the besieged palace and, after uniting with arriving reinforcements, defeated the troops of Ptolemy’s supporters. After Gai's victory placed Cleopatra and the young Ptolemy XIV Theos Philopator II on the royal throne(Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator drowned in the Nile after a battle with the Romans), who, according to tradition, ruled jointly.
Then the Roman commander spent several months with Cleopatra in Egypt, going up the Nile. Ancient authors considered this delay in the war to be caused by an affair with Cleopatra. It is known that the commander and queen were accompanied by Roman soldiers, so Caesar may have been simultaneously engaged in reconnaissance and a show of force to the Egyptians. Before leaving in July 47 BC. e. Caesar left three Roman legions to maintain order in Egypt. In the summer of the same year, Cleopatra's son Caesarion was born, and the dictator is often considered the father of the child.
While Caesar was in Egypt, supporters of the defeated Pompey gathered in Africa. After leaving Alexandria, Caesar headed not to the west, where his opponents concentrated their forces, but to the northeast. The fact is that after the death of Pompey, the population of the eastern provinces and the rulers of neighboring kingdoms tried to take advantage of the situation in their own interests: in particular, Pharnaces II, the son of Mithridates VI, relying on the remnants of the Pontic kingdom, which Pompey assigned to him, tried to restore the empire of his father, invading Roman lands.
Having settled urgent matters in Syria, Caesar arrived in Cilicia with a small force. There he united with the remnants of the troops of the defeated Gnaeus Domitius Calvin and with the ruler of Galatia, Deiotarus, who hoped to receive forgiveness for supporting Pompey. Guy met with Pharnaces at Zela, and on the third day defeated him. Caesar himself described this victory in three catchphrases: veni, vidi, vici (came, saw, conquered). After the victory over Pharnaces, Guy crossed to Greece, and from there to Italy. After his return, Caesar managed to restore the favor of several legions that had rebelled in Italy, making generous promises to them.
Having brought the legionaries into order, Caesar set out from Lilybaeum for Africa in December, again defying the unfavorable shipping conditions and sailing with only one legion of experienced troops. After transporting all the troops and organizing supplies, Caesar lured Metellus Scipio and the Numidian king Juba (the latter was once publicly humiliated by Gaius by pulling his beard during his trial) to battle in the vicinity of Thapsus.
April 6, 46 BC e. A decisive battle took place at Thapsus. Although in Notes on the African War the development of the battle is characterized as rapid and the nature of the victory as unconditional, Appian describes the battle as extremely difficult. In addition, Plutarch cites the version that Caesar did not participate in the battle due to an epileptic seizure.
Many commanders of Scipio's army fled from the battlefield, but contrary to the declared policy of mercy, they were caught up and executed on Caesar's orders. Marcus Petreius and Juba committed suicide, but Titus Labienus, Gnaeus and Sextus Pompey fled to Spain, where they soon organized a new center of resistance to Caesar.
After the victory at Thapsus, Caesar moved north to the well-fortified Utica. The commandant of the city, Cato, was determined to hold the city, but the inhabitants of Utica were inclined to surrender to Caesar, and Cato disbanded the troops and helped everyone to leave the city. When Guy approached the walls of Utica, Mark committed suicide. After returning to the capital Caesar led four triumphal processions in a row - for victories over the Gauls, Egyptians, Pharnaces and Juba. However, the Romans understood that Caesar was partly celebrating victories over his compatriots.
Caesar's four triumphs did not end the civil war, since the situation in Spain remained tense: the abuses of the Caesarian governor of Further Spain, Quintus Cassius Longinus, provoked a rebellion.
After the arrival of the defeated Pompeians from Africa and their organization of a new center of resistance, the temporarily calmed Spaniards again opposed Caesar.
In November 46 BC. e. Guy decided to go to Spain personally to suppress the last center of open resistance. By this time, however, most of his troops had already been disbanded: there were only two legions of experienced soldiers in the ranks (V and X legions), all other available troops consisted of newcomers.
March 17, 45 BC e., soon after arriving in Spain, the opponents clashed in Battle of Munda. In the most difficult battle, Guy won. According to legend, after the battle Caesar declared that he “I have often fought for victory, but now for the first time I fought for life”.
At least 30 thousand Pompeian soldiers died, and Labienus was among those killed on the battlefield; Caesar's losses were significantly smaller. The dictator retreated from his traditional practice of mercy (clementia): Gnaeus Pompey the Younger, who fled from the battlefield, was overtaken and killed, and his head was delivered to Caesar. Sextus Pompey barely managed to escape and even survived the dictator. After the victory at Munda, Caesar celebrated his fifth triumph, and it was the first in Roman history to celebrate the victory of the Romans over the Romans.
In the autumn of 48 BC. e., after receiving news of the death of Pompey, Caesar's colleague in the consulate Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus organized the second appointment of Guy as dictator in absentia. This time the justification for the appointment of an extraordinary magistrate was probably the conduct of the war (the formulation used was rei gerundae causa). The chief of the cavalry was Mark Antony, whom Caesar sent to govern Italy during his stay in Egypt. According to sources, Guy received unlimited power for one year instead of the usual six months for a dictator.
In the autumn of 47 BC. e. The dictatorship expired, but Caesar retained his proconsular powers, and on January 1, 46 BC. e. took up the post of consul. According to the testimony of Dio Cassius, Caesar also received the powers of a plebeian tribune (tribunicia potestas), but some researchers (in particular, H. Scullard) doubt the veracity of this message.
After the Battle of Thapsus, Caesar became dictator for the third time.
The new appointment had a number of unusual features: firstly, there was no formal justification for holding the position, and secondly, the position was for ten years, although it was apparently to be renewed annually. In addition to unlimited power, Guy's supporters organized his election to the special position of "prefect of morals" (praefectus morum or praefectus moribus) for three years, which effectively gave him the powers of a censor.
Since Caesar was already 54 years old at the time of his appointment, the ten-year magistracy of the dictator, taking into account the low average life expectancy in the ancient era, was actually considered as lifelong.
In 45 BC. e. Guy, in addition to the powers of the dictator, became a consul without a colleague, which did not allow the collegiality inherent in this magistracy to be realized, and only in October did he refuse the consulate, appointing two successors in his place - consul-suffects.
In the same year, Guy expanded his name to include the title "emperor", used to designate a victorious commander (from now on, his full name became Imperator Gaius Iulius Caesar).
Finally, at the beginning of 44 BC. e. (no later than February 15) Caesar received another appointment to the post of dictator. This time he received an extraordinary magistracy for life (lat. dictator perpetuus).
Caesar began to make new use of the dictator's magistracy, which had previously been used in exceptional cases. Traditionally, the dictator was appointed for six months, and in the event of a more rapid resolution of the crisis situation, he was expected to resign early. Less than forty years ago, Sulla first awarded the magistracy for an indefinite period, but after the reforms were carried out, he resigned the position and died as a private citizen.
Caesar was the first to directly declare his intention to rule indefinitely. However, in reality, Caesar led the republic by the right of the strong, relying on troops and numerous supporters, and his positions only gave the appearance of legitimacy.
The cult of personality and the sacralization of Caesar:
Caesar strengthened his power not only by occupying new positions, reforming the political system and suppressing the opposition, but also by sacralizing his personality.
First of all, the legend about the relationship of the Julius Caesar family with the goddess Venus was actively used: in accordance with ancient ideas, the descendants of the gods stood out from the general mass of people, and Caesar’s claims as a direct descendant were even more serious.
Wanting to publicly show his connection with the gods, which went beyond simple kinship, the dictator erected a luxuriously decorated temple of Venus in the Forum. It was dedicated not to Venus the Victorious (lat. Venus Victrix), as Caesar originally intended (this was his vow given before the battle of Pharsalus), but to Venus the Progenitor (lat. Venus Genetrix) - the legendary ancestor and Julia (in a straight line) , and at the same time all the Romans. He founded a magnificent cult in the temple and gave it one of the most important places in the hierarchy of Roman organized rituals.
The dictator also organized magnificent games at the temple and ordered them to be held in the future, appointing for this purpose young men from noble families, one of whom was Gaius Octavius. Even earlier, on some coins minted by monetaries from among the representatives of the Julian family, an image of the god Mars was placed, to whom the family also tried to trace their family, although less actively.
Caesar planned to build a temple of Mars in Rome, intended to popularize the lesser-known legend of descent from this god. However, the dictator did not have time to implement this idea, and Octavian put it into practice. Caesar received some of the attributes of sacred power through his position as great pontiff.
From 63 BC e. Caesar not only enjoyed numerous priestly powers, but also enjoyed enormous prestige.
Even before Caesar's first triumph, the Senate decided to grant him a number of honors, which began preparations for the sacralization of the dictator's personality and the establishment of a new state cult. The successful implementation of this decision by the Senate was due to the flight of the majority of adherents of Roman traditions with Pompey and the dominance of “new people” in the Senate. In particular, in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus the dictator's chariot and his statue in the image of the conqueror of the world were installed, and thus the most important temple of Rome became dedicated to both Jupiter and Caesar.
The most important source reporting this honor, Cassius Dio, used the Greek word for "demigod" (ancient Greek ἡμίθεος - hemitheos), which was usually applied to mythological heroes born from the connection of gods and people. However, the dictator did not accept this honor: soon, but not immediately, he canceled this decree.
The news of the dictator's victory at the Battle of Munda reached Rome on the evening of April 20, 45 BC. e., on the eve of the Parilium holiday - according to legend, it was on this day (April 21) that Romulus founded Rome. The organizers decided to hold games the next day in honor of the winner, as if he were the founder of the city. In addition, in Rome it was decided to build a sanctuary of Liberty in honor of Caesar the Liberator (lat. Liberator). The Senate also decided to install on the rostral tribune in the forum, from where the magistrates usually made speeches, a statue of Caesar, facing the people listening to the speakers.
Soon new steps were taken towards the deification of Caesar. First, after the dictator's return to Rome in May, his statue was placed in the temple of Quirinus, a deity identified with Romulus, the mythical founder of Rome. The dedicatory inscription on the statue read: “To the undefeated god.”
At state expense, construction began on a new house for Caesar, and its shape had a significant resemblance to temples - the houses of the gods. At circus performances, an image of Caesar made of gold and ivory was among the images of the gods. Finally, in 45 BC. e. coins were minted with the image of Caesar in profile, although before this, images of living people had never been placed on coins.
At the beginning of 44 BC. e. The Senate, and then the People's Assembly, inspired by Mark Antony, issued a series of decrees granting Caesar new privileges and giving him new honors. Among them - title of father of the fatherland (lat. parens patriae) with the right to place it on coins, the introduction of an oath by the genius of Caesar for the Romans, turning his birthday into a holiday with sacrifices, renaming the month of Quintile to July, introducing a mandatory oath to preserve all his laws for magistrates taking office.
In addition, annual sacrifices were introduced for the safety of Caesar, one tribe was renamed in his honor, and all temples in Rome and Italy were required to install his statues. A college of Julian Luperci (younger priests; lat. Luperci Iuliani) was created, and in Rome the construction of the Temple of Concord was to begin in honor of the pacification of the state. Eventually, the Senate authorized the start of construction of the Temple of Caesar and his Mercy (Latin: Clementia) and created a new priestly position specifically for organizing the worship of the new deity, appointing Mark Antony to it.
The creation of a special position of a priest of the highest level for the veneration of Gaius put him on a par with Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. The other gods of the Roman pantheon were served by priests and colleges of a lower level. The deification of Caesar completed the creation of a new state cult. Lily Ross Taylor believes that in early 44 BC. e. The Senate decided to consider Caesar a god. His deification was finally confirmed posthumously by a special decree of the Second Triumvirate in 42 BC. e.
By 44 BC. e. Caesar also received a number of honors that brought him closer to the Roman kings. So, he constantly wore the clothes of a triumphant and a laurel wreath, which also created the impression of constant triumph.
Suetonius, however, notes that Caesar enjoyed the right to constantly wear a laurel wreath due to baldness.
In addition, he refused to rise from his throne when senators approached him. The latter circumstance caused particular indignation in Rome, since only absolute monarchs enjoyed such privileges. Nevertheless, he stubbornly refused the old Roman title of king (lat. rex), although this could be a consequence of calculation.
February 15, 44 BC e. At the Lupercalia festival, he rejected the diadem proposed by Mark Antony - a symbol of monarchical power. After his assassination, rumors spread that at the meeting on March 15 it was planned to declare him king, but only for the provinces - territories outside Rome and Italy.
Perhaps Caesar did not want the restoration of royal power in its Roman form, since this presupposed the election of a new ruler after the death of the previous one. Lily Ross Taylor has suggested that Guy wanted to create a system in which the transfer of power would be carried out by inheritance, as was customary in Hellenistic monarchies.
In the process of sacralizing his power, the dictator clearly focused on having adopted the traditions of governance from the conquered Persians. In addition, the first steps towards the deification of the Macedonian ruler appeared after a visit to Egypt, as in the case of Caesar, where both rulers could personally become acquainted with monumental evidence of the sacralization of the power of the pharaohs, although Guy was much more cautious in announcing the final deification.
It is possible that for Caesarion, born of Cleopatra - the last living heiress of Alexander's empire - Caesar had further plans that he did not have time to implement. However, the paternity of the dictator was questioned back in ancient times, and Caesarion was never declared the official heir of Gaius.
Reforms of Julius Caesar:
Using a combination of various powers and without encountering open opposition in the Senate and the People's Assembly, Caesar carried out a series of reforms in 49-44 BC. e.
The details of the dictator's activities are known mainly from the works of authors of the Empire era, and there is very little evidence from contemporaries on this issue.
In the sphere of government, Caesar increased the number of most colleges of curule (senior) magistrates. The number of praetors elected annually increased from 8 first to 14 and then to 16. The number of quaestors was increased by 20 people annually, and aediles by 2 due to the aediles ceriales, who controlled the supply of grain.
The number of augurs, pontiffs and members of the college of quindecemvirs also increased.
The dictator arrogated to himself the right to nominate candidates for major positions: at first this was done unofficially, and then he officially received such a right. He removed undesirable candidates from elections. Guy often nominated people of humble origin to high positions: it is known that more than half of the consuls elected under the patronage of Caesar were “new people” (homines novi), among whose ancestors there were no consuls.
The dictator also replenished the Senate, which was empty as a result of civil strife in the 50s BC. e. and civil war. In total, Caesar revised the lists of senators three times and, according to Dio Cassius, eventually brought their number to 900 people, but this number was hardly accurate and constant. Many of the people included in the Senate did not belong to the old Roman families, but to the provincial aristocracy and the equestrian class. Contemporaries, however, spread rumors that the children of freedmen and barbarians were included among the senators.
The dictator revised the system of staffing judges for permanent criminal courts (quaestiones perpetuae), giving half the seats to senators and equestrians instead of the previous third of the seats, which became possible after the exclusion of the Erary tribunes from the collegiums.
Caesar also legislatively replenished the ranks of the patrician class, whose representatives traditionally occupied some important positions in the religious sphere. Most of the patrician families had already died out, and by the middle of the 1st century BC. e. there are only a little more than ten of them left.
Dissolved many public colleges (collegiae), a considerable part of which in the 50s BC. e. used to recruit armed supporters of demagogues and to bribe voters at the polls.
Assessments of Caesar's political reforms vary. A number of researchers see in his political activities the actual establishment of a “democratic monarchy” (Theodor Mommsen), a Hellenistic or Eastern type monarchy (Robert Yurievich Wipper, Eduard Meyer) or the Roman version of an absolute monarchy (Matthias Geltzer, John Balsdon).
In an effort to gain the support of the inhabitants of the provinces, Caesar actively granted them various benefits and privileges. Residents of several cities (in particular, Gades and Olisipo) received full Roman citizenship, and some others (Vienna, Tolosa, Avennio and others) received Latin law.
At the same time, only the cities of the western provinces received Roman citizenship, while the Hellenized policies of Greece and Asia Minor did not receive such privileges, and the Greek cities of Sicily received only Latin law.
Doctors and teachers of the liberal arts living in Rome received full Roman citizenship.
The dictator reduced taxes from Narbonese Gaul, and also transferred the provinces of Asia and Sicily to direct payment of taxes, bypassing tax farmers. The dictator made adjustments to the process of distributing free bread, which took up a significant portion of state budget expenditures. Firstly, the lists of recipients of free bread were halved - from more than 300 to 150 thousand (this reduction is sometimes associated with a drop in the total population due to civil wars). Secondly, some of the previous recipients were able to move to new colonies in various provinces of the Roman state. Caesar's demobilized soldiers also received land plots and did not create additional burden on the grain distribution system.
Among other colonization measures, Caesar repopulated Carthage and Corinth, which had been destroyed simultaneously by the Romans in 146 BC. e. To solve the important task of increasing the number of people suitable for military service, Caesar took various measures to support fathers with many children.
In an effort to limit uncontrolled emigration in the provinces, Caesar forbade full residents of Rome and Italy between the ages of 20 and 40 from leaving the Apennines for more than three years in a row, and the children of senators could go to the provinces only as soldiers or members of the governor's retinue.
To replenish the budgets of urban communities, Caesar decided to return trade duties on imported goods to Italy.
Finally, to partially solve the problem of unemployment, the dictator decreed that at least a third of the shepherds in Italy should be recruited from free people, not slaves.
The task of reducing unemployment was also pursued by Caesar's extensive construction projects both in Rome and outside the capital. By 46 BC. e. The construction of the new Forum of Caesar, which began during the Gallic War, was completed (only the ruins of the temple of Venus the Progenitor, which was founded according to a vow made before the Battle of Pharsalus, have survived to this day). The dictator took it upon himself to rebuild the Senate building, which burned down in 52 BC. BC: Faustus Sulla, to whom the Senate had previously entrusted this mission, was killed during the civil war.
As punishment for a number of crimes, Caesar established exile, and also ordered the confiscation of half of the wealth of the rich.
He also issued new laws against luxury: the use of personal biers, pearl jewelry, and purple-dyed clothing was prohibited, in addition to which the trade in fine products was regulated and the luxury of tombstones was limited.
Guy also planned to create a large library in Rome on the model of Alexandria and Pergamon, entrusting the organization to the encyclopedist Marcus Terence Varro, but the death of the dictator upset these plans.
Finally, in 46 BC e. Caesar announced reform of the Roman calendar. Instead of the previous lunar calendar, a solar calendar was introduced, developed by the Alexandrian scientist Sosigenes and consisting of 365 days with one additional day every four years. However, to carry out the reform it was necessary to first bring the current calendar into line with astronomical time. The new calendar was used everywhere in Europe for sixteen centuries, until the development, on behalf of Pope Gregory XIII, of a slightly refined version of the calendar, called the Gregorian calendar.
Assassination of Julius Caesar:
At the beginning of 44 BC. e. In Rome, a conspiracy arose among the Roman nobles, dissatisfied with the autocracy of Caesar and fearing rumors about his impending naming him king. The masterminds of the conspiracy are considered to be Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. In addition to them, many other prominent persons were involved in the conspiracy - both Pompeians and supporters of Caesar.
The conspiracy that developed around Brutus, apparently, was not the first attempt to kill the dictator: the conspiracy of 46 BC is known, although without details. e. and preparations for the assassination attempt by Gaius Trebonius. At this time, Caesar was preparing for war with Parthia, and rumors spread in Rome about his impending appointment as king and about the transfer of the capital to Troy or Alexandria.
The implementation of the plans of the conspirators was scheduled for a meeting of the Senate in Pompey's curia near his theater on March 15 - the Ides of March according to Roman time. Ancient authors accompany the description of the events preceding the Ides of March with a list of various signs and indications that well-wishers tried to warn the dictator, but by coincidence he did not listen to them or did not believe their words.
After the meeting began, a group of conspirators gathered around Lucius Tillius Cimber, who asked Caesar for forgiveness for his brother, and another group stood behind Caesar. When Cimbri began to pull the toga from Caesar’s neck, signaling to the conspirators, Publius Servilius Casca, who was standing behind, struck the first blow to the dictator’s neck. Caesar fought back, but when he saw Marcus Brutus, he, according to legend, said, “And you, my child!” in Greek (ancient Greek καὶ σὺ τέκνον).
According to Plutarch, Guy fell silent at the sight of Brutus and stopped resisting. The same author notes that Caesar’s body accidentally ended up near the statue of Pompey standing in the room or was deliberately moved there by the conspirators themselves. A total of 23 wounds were found on Caesar's body.
After funeral games and several speeches, the crowd burned Caesar's corpse in the forum, using the benches and tables of market traders for the funeral pyre: “Some proposed to burn it in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, others in the Curia of Pompey, when suddenly two unknown men appeared, belted with swords, waving darts, and set the building on fire with wax torches. Immediately the surrounding crowd began to drag dry brushwood, benches, judge's chairs, and everything that was brought as a gift into the fire. Then the flutists and actors began to tear off their triumphal clothes, worn for such a day, and, tearing them apart, threw them into the flames; the old legionnaires burned the weapons with which they decorated themselves for the funeral, and many women burned the headdresses that they were wearing, bullas and children’s dresses.”.
According to Caesar's will, each Roman received three hundred sesterces from the dictator, and the gardens over the Tiber were transferred to public use. The childless dictator unexpectedly adopted his great-nephew Gaius Octavius and gave him three-quarters of his fortune. Octavius changed his name to Gaius Julius Caesar, although he is better known in historiography as Octavian. Some Caesarians (notably Mark Antony) tried unsuccessfully to have Caesarion recognized as heir instead of Octavian. Subsequently, Antony and Octavian formed a second triumvirate together with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, but after a new civil war, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome.
Shortly after the assassination of Caesar, a bright comet appeared in the sky. Since it was very bright (its absolute magnitude is estimated at - 4.0) and appeared in the sky during Octavian’s ceremonial games in honor of Caesar, a belief spread in Rome that it was the soul of the murdered dictator.
Family and personal life of Julius Caesar:
Caesar was married at least three times.
The status of his relationship with Cossucia, a girl from a wealthy equestrian family, is not entirely clear, which is explained by the poor preservation of sources about Caesar’s childhood and youth. It is traditionally assumed that Caesar and Cossutia were engaged, although Gaius's biographer, Plutarch, considers Cossutia to be his wife.
The dissolution of relations with Cossutia apparently occurred in 84 BC. e.
Very soon Caesar married Cornelia, daughter of the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna.
Caesar's second wife was Pompeia, the granddaughter of the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla (she was not a relative of Gnaeus Pompey). The marriage took place around 68 or 67 BC. e. In December 62 BC. e. Caesar divorces her after a scandal at the festival of the Good Goddess.
For the third time, Caesar married Calpurnia from a rich and influential plebeian family. This wedding apparently took place in May 59 BC. e.
Around 78 BC e. Cornelia gave birth to Julia. Caesar arranged his daughter's engagement to Quintus Servilius Caepio, but then changed his mind and married her to Gnaeus Pompey.
While in Egypt during the civil war, Caesar cohabited with Cleopatra, and presumably in the summer of 46 BC. e. she gave birth to a son known as Caesarion (Plutarch clarifies that this name was given to him by the Alexandrians, not the dictator). Despite the similarity of names and time of birth, Caesar did not officially recognize the child as his own, and contemporaries knew almost nothing about him before the assassination of the dictator.
After the Ides of March, when Cleopatra's son was left out of the dictator's will, some Caesarians (in particular, Mark Antony) tried to get him recognized as heir instead of Octavian. Due to the propaganda campaign that unfolded around the issue of Caesarion's paternity, it is difficult to establish his relationship with the dictator.
According to the unanimous testimony of ancient authors, Caesar was distinguished by sexual promiscuity. Suetonius gives a list of his most famous mistresses and gives him the following description: “He, by all accounts, was greedy and wasteful for love pleasures.”
A number of documents, in particular, the biography of Suetonius, and one of the epigram poems of Catullus, sometimes make it possible to classify Caesar as one of the famous homosexuals.
Robert Etienne, however, draws attention to the extreme paucity of such evidence - as a rule, the story of Nicomedes is mentioned. Suetonius calls this rumor "the only blemish" on Gaius's sexual reputation. Such hints were also made by ill-wishers. However, modern researchers draw attention to the fact that the Romans reproached Caesar not for homosexual contacts themselves, but only for his passive role in them. The fact is that in Roman opinion, any actions in a “penetrative” role were considered normal for a man, regardless of the gender of the partner. On the contrary, the passive role of a man was considered reprehensible. According to Dio Cassius, Guy vehemently denied all hints about his connection with Nicomedes, although he usually rarely lost his temper.