Georgia was part of Russian Empire from 1801 to 1917. From the 15th to the 17th centuries, Georgia was fragmented and was located between Muslim Iran and Turkey. In the 18th century, a new regional power emerged in the Caucasus - the Christian Russian Empire. An alliance with Russia against Turkey and Iran looked attractive to Georgia, and in 1783 Kartli and Kakheti, the larger of the two Georgian states, signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, according to which it received the status of a Russian protectorate. However, in 1801 Georgia was annexed by Russia and turned into a province. Subsequently, until the end of the empire in 1917 and the collapse of the state in 1918, Georgia remained part of Russia. Russian rule brought peace to Georgia and protected it from external threats, but at the same time, Russia ruled with an iron fist and did not understand the national characteristics of Georgia. At the end of the 19th century, dissatisfaction with Russian authorities led to the creation of a growing national movement. Russian rule led to unprecedented changes in the social structure and economy of Georgia, opening it up to European influence. The abolition of serfdom freed the peasants, but did not give them property. The rise of capitalism led to a dramatic increase in urban population and the creation of a working class, accompanied by uprisings and strikes. The culmination of this process was the revolution of 1905. The Mensheviks became the leading political force in the last years of Russian rule. In 1918, Georgia briefly became independent, not so much as a result of the efforts of the Mensheviks and nationalists, but because of the collapse of the Russian Empire.

Background

Georgian-Russian relations before 1801

By the 16th century, Georgia had broken up into several small feudal states that were in constant war with the two large Muslim empires in the region, Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Iran. In the second half of the 16th century, a third empire, the Russian, emerged north of the Caucasus. Diplomatic ties between Moscow and Kakheti began in 1558, and in 1589, Tsar Fedor I Ioannovich offered his protection to the kingdom. However, Russia at this time was too far away to compete on equal terms with Iran and Turkey in the Caucasus, and no help came from Moscow. Russia's real interest in Transcaucasia appeared only at the beginning of the 18th century. In 1722, during the Persian campaign, Peter I entered into an alliance with the king of Kartli, Vakhtang VI, but the two armies were never able to unite, and later Russian troops retreated to the north, leaving Kartli defenseless against Iran. Vakhtang was forced to flee and died in exile in Russia.

Vakhtang's successor, King Irakli II of Kartli and Kakheti (1762-1798), turned to Russia for protection from Turkey and Iran. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other hand, did not want to send significant military forces to Georgia. In 1769-1772, a small Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Heraclius signed the Treaty of Georgievsk with Russia, establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russian military protection. However, in 1787, when the next Russian-Turkish war began, Russian troops withdrew from Georgia, leaving it defenseless. In 1795, the Iranian Shah Agha Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and ravaged Tbilisi.

Accession of Georgia to Russia

Despite Russia's violation of its obligations, the Georgian rulers believed that they had no other choice. After the death of Irakli II, a war for succession to the throne began in Georgia, and one of the contenders turned to Russia for help. On January 8, 1801, Paul I signed a decree on the annexation of Kartli-Kakheti to the Russian Empire. After Paul's assassination, the decree was confirmed by his heir Alexander I on September 12 of the same year. In May 1801, General Karl Bogdanovich Knorring in Tbilisi overthrew the Georgian pretender to the throne of David and installed the government of Ivan Petrovich Lazarev. The Georgian nobility did not recognize the decree until April 1802, when Knorring gathered everyone in the Zion Cathedral in Tbilisi and forced them to take an oath to the Russian throne. Those who refused were arrested.

In 1805, Russian troops defeated the Iranian army at the Askerani River and at Zagam, thereby preventing an attack on Tbilisi.

In 1810, the resistance of the Imeretian king Solomon II was broken, and Imereti was included in Russia. Between 1803 and 1878, as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the remaining Georgian territories (Batumi, Artvin, Akhaltsikhe and Poti, as well as Abkhazia) were also annexed to Russia. Georgia was united for the first time in many years, but lost its independence.

Beginning of Russian rule

Integration of Georgia into the Russian Empire

For the first few decades of the Russian Empire, Georgia was under military rule. Russia was at war with Turkey and Iran, and the commander-in-chief of the Russian army in Transcaucasia was at the same time the Georgian governor. Russia gradually expanded its territory in the Transcaucasus at the expense of rivals, annexing large parts of neighboring Armenia and Azerbaijan. At the same time, Russian authorities sought to integrate Georgia into the empire. Russian and Georgian societies had much in common: Orthodoxy as the main religion, serfdom and a layer of landowners (landowners). However, at first the Russian authorities did not pay enough attention to the peculiarities of Georgia, local laws and traditions. In 1811, the autocephaly (independence) of the Georgian Orthodox Church was abolished, Catholicos Anthony II was exiled to Russia, and Georgia became an exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church.

The policy of the tsarist government alienated part of the Georgian nobility. A group of young nobles, inspired by the Decembrist uprising of 1825 and the Polish uprising of 1830, organized a conspiracy to overthrow the tsarist government in Georgia. Their plan was to invite all representatives of the royal power in Transcaucasia to a ball and kill them. The conspiracy was discovered on December 10, 1832, all its participants were exiled to remote regions of Russia. In 1841 there was a peasant uprising. After the appointment of Prince Vorontsov as the Caucasian governor in 1845, the policy changed. Vorontsov managed to attract the Georgian nobility to his side and Europeanize it.

Georgian society

At the beginning of the 19th century, Georgia was still a feudal society. It was headed by the families of the rulers of the Georgian principalities and kingdoms, but they were overthrown by the Russian authorities and sent into exile. At the next level were the nobility, who made up about five percent of the population and carefully guarded their power and privileges. They owned most of the land on which serfs worked. The latter made up the overwhelming majority of Georgia's population and lived in extreme poverty, on the verge of starvation, as the agricultural economy was undermined during the wars with Iran and Turkey. Famine often caused uprisings, such as the large peasant uprising in Kakheti in 1812. A small part of the population lived in cities, where a significant part of trade and craft was controlled by the Armenians, whose ancestors came to Georgia from Asia Minor in the Middle Ages. During the emergence of capitalism, Armenians were among the first to see its benefits, and quickly became a prosperous middle class. The active economic activity of the Armenian population partly explained the manifestations of dissatisfaction on the part of local residents with ethnic factors.

Abolition of serfdom

Serfdom in Russia was abolished in 1861. Alexander II also planned to abolish it in Georgia, but this was impossible without losing the newly acquired loyalty of the Georgian nobility, whose well-being depended on serf labor. The task of negotiating and finding a compromise solution was entrusted to the liberal Dimitri Kipiani. On October 13, 1865, the Tsar signed a decree freeing the first serfs in Georgia, although serfdom completely disappeared only in the 1870s. Serfs became free peasants and were able to move freely, marry as they chose, and take part in political activities. The landowners retained the right to all their land, but only part of it remained in their full ownership, and the other was given the right to rent by the former serfs who had lived on it for centuries. After paying a sufficient amount in rent to compensate the owners for the loss of land, they received ownership of the land.

The reform was met with distrust by both landowners and peasants, who had to buy back the land, which was supposed to take decades. Although the conditions created by the reform for landowners were better than for landowners in Russia, they were still dissatisfied with the reform, since they lost part of their income. In subsequent years, dissatisfaction with the reform influenced the creation of political movements in Georgia.

Immigration

During the reign of Nicholas I, the Tsarist government encouraged the resettlement of various religious minorities, such as the Molokans and Doukhobors, in the Transcaucasus (including Georgia) in order to strengthen the Russian presence in the region.

Incorporation into the Russian Empire changed Georgia's political and cultural orientation: while it had previously followed the Middle East, it now turned to Europe. Accordingly, Georgia became open to new European ideas. At the same time, many of Georgia's social problems were the same as those in Russia, and the political movements that arose in Russia in the 19th century found followers in Georgia.

Cultural and political movements

Romanticism

In the 1830s, Georgian literature was seriously influenced by romanticism. The largest Georgian poets - Alexander Chavchavadze, Grigol Orbeliani and especially Nikoloz Baratashvili - were representatives of this movement. A recurring theme in their work was looking back to the historical past in search of a golden age. Baratashvili's (only) poem, "The Fate of Georgia" ("Bedi Kartlisa") expresses his ambivalent feelings towards an alliance with Russia. It contains the line Naked freedom for a nightingale Still nicer than a golden cage(translation by Boris Pasternak).

Georgia was also a frequent theme in the works of Russian Romanticism. In 1829, Pushkin visited Georgia; Georgian motifs run through all of his work. Most of Lermontov's works contain Caucasian themes.

Nationalism

In the mid-19th century, romanticism gave way to a more politically oriented nationalist movement. It arose among the new generation of Georgian students who were educated at St. Petersburg University. Their circle was called “Tergdaleuli” (after the Terek River separating Russia and Georgia). The key figure of the movement was Ilya Chavchavadze, still considered one of the greatest Georgian writers. Chavchavadze's goal was to improve the position of Georgians in a Russian-centric system. He paid great attention to cultural issues, especially language reform and the study of folklore. Over time, Chavchavadze took an increasingly conservative position, considering it his task to preserve Georgian traditions and the traditional way of life, for which Georgia had to remain an agricultural country.

The second generation of Georgian nationalists ("meoredasi", literally "second group") were less conservative than Chavchavadze. They concentrated on the growing urban population, trying to improve the capabilities of the Georgian population in competition with the dominant Armenians and Russians in the cities. The key figure of the movement was Niko Nikoladze, committed to Western liberal values. Nikoladze saw the future of Georgia as part of the Caucasian Federation, which was also supposed to include Armenia and Azerbaijan.

Socialism

By the 1870s, a third, more radical political force had emerged in Georgia. Its members paid attention to social problems and identified themselves with similar movements in the rest of Russia. Russian populism was the first, but it did not receive sufficient distribution in Georgia. Socialism, especially Marxism, has been much more successful.

At the end of the 19th century, Georgia, especially the cities of Tbilisi, Batumi and Kutaisi, experienced industrialization. Large factories arose, railroads were built, and with them a working class emerged. In the 1890s, members of the third generation of Georgian intellectuals, the Mesame Dasi, who considered themselves social democrats, turned their attention to him. The most famous of them are Noah Jordania and Philip Makharadze, who became acquainted with Marxism in Russia. After 1905 they were the leading force in Georgian politics. They believed that the tsarist regime should be replaced by a democratic one, which in the future would lead to the construction of a socialist society.

Last years of Russian rule

Rising tensions

In 1881, after the assassination of Alexander II, his successor Alexander III began to pursue a much tougher policy. In particular, he viewed any ideas of national independence as a threat to the existence of the empire. To strengthen centralization, he abolished the Caucasian governorship, reducing Georgia to the status of an ordinary Russian province. Studying the Georgian language was not encouraged, and even the name “Georgia” was forbidden to be used in print. In 1886, a Georgian seminarian killed the rector of the Tbilisi seminary as a sign of protest. When the already old Dmitry Kipiani decided to criticize the head of the Georgian church for attacks on seminarians, he was exiled to Stavropol, where he was killed under mysterious circumstances. Many Georgians believed that his death was the work of the secret police. Kipiani's funeral turned into a large anti-Russian demonstration.

At the same time, ethnic tensions between Georgians and Armenians grew. After the abolition of serfdom, the economic situation of the Georgian nobility worsened. Many, unable to adapt to the new economic order, sold their lands and entered government service or moved to cities. The winners were the Armenians, who bought a significant part of the land. In the cities, especially Tbilisi, they no longer constituted the majority of the population as in the early 19th century, but held most government positions and owned most businesses. Georgians considered themselves disadvantaged in their own capital.

Revolution of 1905

The 1890s and early 1900s were marked by frequent strikes throughout Georgia. The peasants were also dissatisfied, and the Social Democrats easily spread their influence among both workers and peasants. In 1903, the previously united RSDLP split into the Bolshevik and Menshevik parties. By 1905, the Social Democratic movement in Georgia had overwhelmingly reoriented itself towards the Mensheviks and their party (Stalin was the exception).

In January 1905, the revolution began. The unrest quickly spread to Georgia, where the Mensheviks had recently supported a major peasant uprising in Guria. There were a series of uprisings and strikes throughout the year, with the Mensheviks at the forefront of events. The tsarist government responded with a wave of repression and at the same time made a number of concessions. In December, the Mensheviks organized a general strike, the participants of which threw bombs at the Cossacks sent by the tsarist government. The Cossacks responded with violence, and the Menshevik policy of terror alienated many of their allies, especially the Armenians, and the strike ended in failure. Resistance to the tsarist authorities was finally suppressed by force in January 1906 after the arrival of troops under the command of General Alikhanov.

Between 1906 and 1914 the situation in Georgia was relatively peaceful, thanks in part to the rule of the relatively liberal Caucasian governor Count Vorontsov-Dashkov. The Mensheviks, realizing that at the end of 1905 they had gone too far, abandoned the idea of ​​an armed uprising. In 1906, elections to the first State Duma were held. The Mensheviks won a convincing victory in Georgia, winning all the seats in the Duma from Georgia. The Bolsheviks received only minor support, although they came into the spotlight in 1907 when they robbed a bank in Tbilisi in order to replenish the party's coffers. After this incident, Stalin and his fellow party members moved to Baku, the only Transcaucasian city that supported the Bolsheviks.

War, revolution and independence

In August 1914, Russia entered the war against Germany. 200,000 Georgians were mobilized and sent to the front, but the war had no support in Georgia. After Turkey entered the war on the side of Germany, Georgia found itself on the front line. The majority of Georgian politicians did not express their attitude towards this, although a feeling of Georgia's imminent independence began to spread among the population.

In 1917, the February Revolution took place. The Provisional Government transferred power in Transcaucasia to the Special Transcaucasian Committee (OZAKOM). In Tbilisi, Russian soldiers supported the Bolsheviks, but they began to desert and return to Russia, so Georgia remained virtually outside the control of the army and power passed to the Mensheviks. The Mensheviks did not recognize the October Revolution and, after the Turkish offensive in February 1918, the question of independence from Russia was raised. In April 1918, the Transcaucasian parliament voted for independence, forming the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. It lasted only a month and, due to contradictions between Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, countries with different histories and different foreign policy interests, broke up into three states. In May 1918, Georgia declared independence. The Georgian Democratic Republic was formed, which existed until 1921.

Georgia, Republic of Georgia (Georgian Sakartvelo), a state in Transcaucasia. Area 69.7 thousand square meters. km. It borders on Russia in the north, Azerbaijan in the east, and Armenia and Turkey in the south. In the west it is washed by the waters of the Black Sea.

Georgia, Republic of Georgia (Georgian Sakartvelo), a state in Transcaucasia. Area 69.7 thousand square meters. km. It borders on Russia in the north, Azerbaijan in the east, and Armenia and Turkey in the south. In the west it is washed by the waters of the Black Sea.

In 1801, Eastern Georgia was annexed to Russia, and Western Georgia was gradually annexed in 1803–1864. From 1918 to 1921 Georgia was an independent republic, from 1922 to 1936 as part of the Transcaucasian Federation (in December 1922 renamed the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic) it was part of the USSR, then until 1991 it was the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic within the USSR. On April 9, 1991, the independence of the Republic of Georgia was proclaimed.

POPULATION

According to the 1989 census, 5.4 million people lived in Georgia. Over the previous 10-year period, the population increased by 8.7%, urban - by 16.7%, rural - by 0.3%. Approximately 56% of the population lived in cities (23% in Tbilisi) and approx. 44% - in rural areas. In post-Soviet times, the population has been declining. According to preliminary census data, in January 2002, approximately 4.4 million people lived in Georgia (excluding Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which did not take part in the census).

The age group under 15 years old makes up 20% of the population, the group from 15 to 65 years old – 68%, over 65 years old – 12%. The birth rate in 2001 was estimated at 11.18 per 1000 people, mortality - 14.58 per 1000, emigration - 2.48 per 1000 and natural decline - 0.59%. Infant mortality is estimated at 52.37 per 1000 births. Life expectancy is 64.57 years (61.04 for men and 68.28 for women).

Ethnic composition.

Georgia is a multi-ethnic society. In 1989, Georgians made up 70.1% of the population (in 1979 - 68.8%). Among ethnic Georgians there are clearly distinct regional groups - Mingrelians and Svans. National minorities included Armenians (8.1%), Russians (6.3%), Azerbaijanis (5.7%), Ossetians (3.0%), Greeks (1.9%) and Abkhazians (1.8%). ). In the period 1979–1989, as a result of assimilation and departure from Georgia, the share of almost all of the listed groups decreased, with the exception of Abkhazians and Azerbaijanis. Abkhazians are a special ethnic group with their own autonomy. Ossetians (the Iranian-speaking people of the Greater Caucasus) are concentrated mainly within the former South Ossetian Autonomous Region, where in 1989 they accounted for 66.2% of the population. Outside its borders, most Ossetians lived dispersed throughout eastern Georgia. Adjarians (Georgians who converted to Islam) have their own autonomous republic, where in 1989 they made up 82.8% of the population. The smallest national minorities include Jews, Assyrians, Kurds and Tatars.

The official language is Georgian, and on the territory of Abkhazia it is also Abkhazian. The Georgian language belongs to the Kartvelian group of Caucasian (Iberian-Caucasian) languages, which includes Mingrelian, Svan and Laz (Chan) languages. The Georgian language is the only one among the Iberian-Caucasian languages ​​that has an ancient alphabetic script, although it underwent significant changes in the 11th and 17th centuries. The unique writing of letters is incomparable to any other alphabet in the world. More than 98% of ethnic Georgians consider Georgian their mother tongue. The Abkhaz language belongs to the Abkhaz-Adyghe group of Caucasian languages ​​and has used the Cyrillic alphabet since 1954 (in 1928 a writing system based on the Latin alphabet was developed, which was replaced in 1938 by the Georgian graphic system).

The majority of ethnic Georgian believers belong to the Georgian Orthodox Church (65% of believers), a branch of Orthodox Christianity. Eastern Georgia in 326 AD was converted to Christianity thanks to the preaching of St. Nina Equal to the Apostles from Jerusalem and became the second (after Armenia) state to adopt Christianity as an official religion. Georgian Orthodox Church in the 5th century. received autocephaly and remained independent for a long time. From the 11th century its primate has the title of Catholicos-Patriarch. In 1811, the Georgian Orthodox Church was included in the Russian Orthodox Church and lost its autocephalous status. The Georgian Exarchate was formed, which was ruled by an exarch in the rank of metropolitan, and later - in the rank of archbishop. The Georgian Orthodox Church returned the status of autocephaly in 1917, at which time there was a complete break in relations with the Russian Orthodox Church. Their connections were restored only in 1943. During Soviet times, the Georgian Church lost its former influence. The number of church parishes fell from about 2,000 (in 1917) to 80 (1960s). The influence of the church began to be restored only in the late 1980s.

There are a small number of Catholics in Georgia, and many Muslims in Adjara and the southern border regions. Abkhazians are mainly Sunni Muslims, but there are also Orthodox Christians among them. Azerbaijanis, Assyrians and Kurds are Muslims. In total, among believers there are approx. 11% Muslim. The majority of Ossetians profess Orthodoxy. Armenians, Greeks and Russians have their own Orthodox churches, with approximately 8% of believers belonging to the Armenian Apostolic Church.

Tbilisi, founded in the 5th century. AD King Vakhtang I Gorgasali, is located in the very center of the Georgian lands, at the junction of several historical regions - Inner and Lower Kartli (Kartli), Kakheti and Javakheti. From 1801 to 1917 Tiflis (as Tbilisi was called until 1936) was the main administrative and commercial center of the Caucasus region. In 1845 it became the residence of the governor of the Russian Empire, who ruled the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

Modern Tbilisi is home to 1,345 thousand people (1999). The city is constantly growing, mainly due to the influx of population from rural areas. As a result of the Georgian-Abkhaz ethnic conflict of 1993–1994, approx. 80 thousand refugees from Abkhazia.

According to the 1989 census, ethnic Georgians made up 66% of its population, Armenians - 12%, Russians - 10%, Ossetians - 3%, Kurds - 2% and Greeks - 2%. The city's architecture reflects a rich mixture of Eastern and Western cultures. The old part of the city is characterized by winding streets, bazaars and low houses with flat roofs and carved balconies. Modern neighborhoods have a European appearance: beautiful multi-story buildings face wide boulevards and avenues lined with shady trees. Around Tbilisi, significant areas are occupied by forest parks, gardens and vineyards.

Other large cities include Kutaisi (267.3 thousand inhabitants in 2002), the oldest city in the country and the regional center of Western Georgia; Rustavi (180.5 thousand), the main center of metallurgy; Batumi (144.6 thousand), the capital of Adjara, the main port and oil terminal of Georgia; Gori (70 thousand), ancient city (7th century), railway junction; Chiatura (68.4 thousand) and Tkibuli (36.9 thousand) are centers of manganese and coal mining; Sukhumi (60.9 thousand, in 1989 – 121.4 thousand), the capital of Abkhazia and in the recent past the main resort; Poti (51.7 thousand) – port city; Zugdidi (50.6 thousand), industrial center; Tskhinvali (42 thousand) is the center of South Ossetia.

STORY

The first traces of the presence of primitive man on the territory of Georgia date back to the Middle Paleolithic. In the Early Chalcolithic, a large center of agriculture arose in eastern Georgia. The oldest Bronze Age monuments in the Akhaltsikhe region appeared ca. 5000 years ago. In the middle of the Bronze Age, the largest cultural center existed in the Trialeti region. At the end of the Bronze Age (about 3000 years ago), the Kurgan cultures spread, which were associated with the migration from the south of the proto-Georgian tribes (Diaukhs, Tabali, Muskhis and Colkhians). They knew how to smelt iron and process metal, and their exploits were reflected in the Greek myths of the Golden Fleece and Prometheus. According to the stories of the Greeks, these symbols of wealth and knowledge were located in the Caucasus. The Assyrians, who invaded the Caucasus and pushed the ancient Georgian tribes to the north, reigned in the 8th–7th centuries. BC. Herodotus noted that the Assyrian king Sargon II moved to Colchis with part of the Israelite population that he had removed from Palestine in 722 BC. The Western Georgian Kingdom of Colchis was formed approximately in the 6th century. BC, and the eastern Kartli (Iberian) kingdom - in the 4th century. BC. Both of them had political and economic ties with the Greeks, the Achaemenid and Parthian states. According to the instructions of Strabo and Pliny the Elder, both states prospered. From the 4th century BC. Georgians call themselves Kartvelians, and their country Sakartvelo (“land of the Kartvelians”).

In the 1st century BC. Roman legions under the command of Pompey the Great established Roman rule in Colchis and forced Kartli to sign treaties with Rome. Around 330 AD. Christianity was introduced in Kartli, in Western Georgia and Abkhazia - in the 6th century. In 523 the Kingdom of Kartli was conquered by the Sassanids, in 562 AD. The Colchis kingdom was annexed to the Byzantine Empire. At the beginning of the 7th century. Byzantium established its power over Kartli. From the middle of the 7th to the 9th century. a significant part of Georgian lands was captured by the Arabs. Several feudal states were formed on the territory of Georgia: the Abkhazian kingdom in the west (including Abkhazia and Western Georgia), Tao-Klarjeti in the south, Kakheti and Hereti in the east, Kartli in the central part.

Middle Ages.

At the end of the 10th century. King Bagrat III united the eastern and western parts of Georgia into a single state (his descendants, the Bagratids, ruled in Georgia until 1801). The monarchy and united Georgia were finally strengthened under David IV the Builder (reigned 1089–1125) and his granddaughter Queen Tamara (reigned 1184–1213). The 12th century became the “golden age” of the country’s cultural and political development. This was the era of prosperity of large Georgian academies in Gelati and Ikalto, at this time the bright talent of the poet Shota Rustaveli (who dedicated the epic poem The Knight in the Tiger's Skin to Queen Tamara) manifested itself, and goldsmiths Beka and Beshken Opizari worked. Many temples were built. Georgian warriors took part in the Crusades, and Georgian scientists were known in the monasteries of Palestine and Greece. By the beginning of the 13th century. The Georgian kingdom, stretching from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea, became one of the most powerful states in the region and had trade relations with Europe and the East. The period of his greatness ended in the 13th century, when the Mongol-Tatars invaded the country. It especially suffered from the invasion of Timur's troops at the very beginning of the 15th century. The Georgian kings and aristocracy were unable to maintain the integrity of the country, with the exception of the short reign of George V the Illustrious (1314–1346). After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Georgia was cut off from the Christian world and was subsequently subjected to Turkish and Persian conquests. Even under such great kings as Vakhtang VI (1703–1712 and 1719–1724) and Heraclius II (1744–1798), the country was unable to defend itself against raids by mountain tribes from the north and Muslims from the south.

Russian rule.

In 1783, Heraclius II concluded an agreement with the Russian Empress Catherine II (Treaty of St. George), according to which Russia established a protectorate over the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom. In 1801, Russia annulled the treaty and included Eastern Georgia in Russia. Not long before this, in 1800, the last king of the Bagration dynasty, George XII of Kartli-Kakheti, died. During 1803–1864, Western Georgia was piecemealized into the Russian Empire. This process was especially facilitated by Russia's victories in the Russian-Persian (1804–1813 and 1826–1828) and Russian-Turkish (1806–1812 and 1828–1829) wars. Anti-Russian uprisings that flared up from time to time were quickly and brutally suppressed.

In the 19th century There have been great changes in the social and political life of Georgia. The formation of the Georgian nation was greatly influenced by the abolition of serfdom, the growth of cities, the improvement of the education system and the development of industry. Tbilisi (Tiflis) became the administrative and commercial center of the entire Caucasus. In 1872, a railway connection was opened between the port city of Poti and Tiflis. Communication with the Black Sea ports has been established. Peasants came to cities by rail to find work.

By 1905, the Georgian section of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) turned out to be the most powerful socialist organization in the Russian Empire. After the RSDLP split into Bolshevik and Menshevik factions in 1903, the majority of Georgian Marxists joined the Menshevik faction. After the overthrow of the tsarist autocracy in 1917, power passed into the hands of the Russian Provisional Government and the Georgian councils, which were dominated by the Mensheviks. Soon after the resignation of the Provisional Government, the Mensheviks seized power in Georgia. After a short period of federalism with neighboring Armenia and Azerbaijan, the Georgian government led by the Mensheviks declared the country's independence on May 26, 1918. With the consent of the Mensheviks, German and Turkish troops occupied Georgia in June 1918; in December they were replaced by British troops, who remained here until July 1920. In February 1921, the Bolsheviks raised an armed uprising and, with the help of the Red Army, overthrew the Menshevik government.

Soviet period.

In 1921, Georgia became a Soviet republic, and in December 1922 it was included in the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR) as part of the USSR (formed on December 30, 1922). In 1936, the TSFSR was abolished, and Georgia became one of the union republics of the USSR.

Hopes for political autonomy in Georgia were destroyed by the policies of I.V. Stalin. In order to eliminate the opposition, Stalin in 1931 appointed L.P. Beria as the first secretary of the Communist Party of Georgia, who held this post until 1938. Under Beria, collectivization in rural areas was carried out especially brutally; tens of thousands of people died in the process of mass purges (party activists, intellectuals, specialists and everyone who was suspected of dissatisfaction with the Stalinist regime).

In 1944, approximately 100 thousand Meskhetians (a mixed group of Muslim Georgians and Turks) were deported from southern Georgia to Central Asia.

Under N.S. Khrushchev, Georgia gained greater independence in managing the economy and cultural life.

In the 1970s, a dissident movement emerged in Georgia led by Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Merab Kostava. The course of perestroika, proclaimed in the late 1980s by M.S. Gorbachev, led to a rapid change of leaders of the Communist Party of Georgia.

In September 1990, an unofficial parliament was elected, competing with the current one, called the National Congress (more than half of the electorate participated in the elections). It was dominated by members of the National Independence Party, led by Irakli Tsereteli, and the National Democratic Party, led by Georgy Chanturia (until January 1992, the National Congress played the role of extra-parliamentary opposition to the Supreme Council and President Gamsakhaurdia).

Zviad Gamsakhurdia’s “Round Table – Free Georgia” coalition won the multi-party elections to the Supreme Council of Georgia on October 28, 1990. 54% of voters voted for this bloc, and it received 155 of the 250 seats in parliament. The Communist Party of Georgia won 30% of the votes (64 seats). The All-Georgian Union of National Accord and Revival received 3.4% of the votes and did not receive a single seat in parliament. Gamsakhurdia was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council in November 1990.

Gamsakhurdia proclaimed a course towards a unitary state without autonomies. The Abkhazians and residents of South Ossetia did not agree with this policy. On September 20, 1990, the South Ossetian Regional Council proclaimed the South Ossetian Soviet Democratic Republic, and on October 26 approved its constitution. At its first meeting on December 11, the Supreme Council of Georgia decided to eliminate the autonomy of South Ossetia, declared the conscription of Georgians into the Soviet armed forces illegal and established an independent National Guard.

In March 1991, the Georgian government refused to hold a referendum on the future of the USSR in the country and instead held a referendum on the independence of Georgia. 95% of the electorate took part in the referendum, 93% of voters were in favor of granting independence. On April 9, 1991, the Supreme Council adopted the Act on the Restoration of State Independence of Georgia and recognized the Act of Independence of 1918 and the Constitution of 1921 as valid.

Independent Georgia.

At the end of April 1991, the Supreme Council of Georgia adopted a new constitution and elected Zviad Gamsakhurdia as president. In the direct presidential elections on May 26, Gamsakhurdia received almost 87% of the vote. However, already in December 1991, a struggle broke out between supporters of the president and the opposition, which was joined by the National Guard. After several weeks of fighting in central Tbilisi in January 1992, Gamsakhurdia was removed from his post and fled the country. The Military Council headed by Tengiz Kitovani came to power. In March 1992, the Military Council announced its dissolution and the creation of a State Council, consisting of approximately 70 representatives of 36 opposition parties. E.A. Shevardnadze became the Chairman of the State Council.

In July 1992, Shevardnadze ended the 18-month war with South Ossetia, into whose territory the Mixed Peacekeeping Forces, consisting of Russian, Georgian and Ossetian battalions, were introduced. However, the war with the Abkhazians that suddenly broke out in August 1992 could not be stopped.

In October 1992, elections to the new parliament took place. Shevardnadze was elected its chairman, receiving 96% of the votes. The cabinet appointed by Shevardnadze at the end of 1992 reflected the balance of political forces in the new parliament. The parliamentary factions soon united into a majority group, i.e. supporters of Shevardnadze, and an opposition group of opponents of Shevardnadze. The majority united into a broad coalition, the Union of Citizens of Georgia, led by Zurab Zhvania. The opposition was led by the Popular Front, the National Democratic Party, Charter-91 and the Ilya Chavchavadze Society. The All-Georgian Revival Union represented the political forces of Adjara in Tbilisi. New political parties were formed: the Christian Democratic Union led by Irakli Shengelaya, the Democratic Georgian Union (Avtandil Margiani), the National Independence Party (Irakli Tsereteli), the Party of Georgian Monarchists (Timur Zhorzholiani) and the United Communist Party of Georgia (Panteleimon Georgadze).

Gamsakhurdia's supporters immediately after his removal launched a partisan struggle. During 1992–1993, they launched attacks on state leaders and economic targets of strategic importance. In the fall of 1993, Gamsakhurdia tried to return to power, starting a short but brutal civil war. In January 1994, Gamsakhurdia was killed under unclear circumstances.

Parliamentary elections in November 1995 were held on the basis of a mixed system of party lists and single-mandate constituencies. There were 10 parties represented in parliament that overcame the 5 percent threshold, but the most influential were three: the Union of Citizens of Georgia, the National Democratic Party and the All-Georgian Revival Union.

After 1995, Georgia entered a period of stabilization. Significant progress was achieved in the negotiations on the Ossetian-Georgian conflict. The Georgian parliament is carrying out economic reforms in cooperation with the IMF and the World Bank and is betting on the restoration of the Ancient Silk Road - the Eurasian Corridor, using Georgia's geographical location as a bridge for the transit of goods between Europe and Asia.

Currently, Russian peacekeepers and UN observers are stationed in Abkhazia. Recently, 20 thousand refugees have returned to the Gali region. Since 1996, there have been no large-scale armed clashes in South Ossetia and Abkhazia.

In the 1999 parliamentary elections, held in two rounds, October 31 and November 14, three parties overcame the 7 percent barrier: the Union of Citizens of Georgia, the Revival of Georgia bloc and the Industry Will Save Georgia bloc. In addition, the parliament included 12 deputies from Abkhazia and 17 independent deputies.

In 2000, Shevardnadze was elected to another five-year term as president of the country. The opposition to the ruling party of the USG is gaining strength in the country, as evidenced by the convincing victory in the 2002 local elections of the Georgian Labor Party, the National Movement - Democratic Front bloc and the New Right party.

History of Georgia
Georgia ancient and modern

Archaeological evidence suggests that Georgia is one of the territories inhabited by ancient Stone Age man. Found in many places in the republic Paleolithic parking lots. As elsewhere, the duration of the Paleolithic on Georgian soil is calculated not in centuries, but in many, many millennia.

Unlike the Paleolithic Neolithic in Georgia lasted relatively short. During the New Stone Age, centers of cattle breeding and primitive agriculture developed here.

A further rise in economic life was associated with the emergence and development of copper-bronze metallurgy. As archaeological and toponymic data indicate, already in the 9th-7th centuries. BC e. Georgian tribes knew how to smelt iron, make iron products and were known in the ancient world as skilled blacksmiths and metallurgists.

During the transition from bronze century to iron century, in the XII-VII centuries. BC e., the unification of individual tribes inhabiting the territory of modern Georgia begins. In the VI century. BC e. the first Georgian state was formed on the Black Sea coast - an early slave state Colchis(Egris) kingdom. Silver coins were minted here - "Colchian women", which now adorn many numismatic collections.

The Colchis kingdom established close economic ties with ancient Greece.

In the 3rd century. BC e. formed in Eastern Georgia Kartlian(Iberian) kingdom with the capital Mtskheta, which united almost all Georgian lands, including Egrisi. In the 1st century n. e. The Kartli kingdom could not withstand the rapid onslaught of the iron legions led by Pompey and submitted to Rome. All the Black Sea provinces of Georgia were included by the Romans within the boundaries of their world power. However, they managed to settle for a long time only in the coastal zone, while the Kartli kingdom, having ousted the Romans, was able to quickly restore its former power.

In the III-IV centuries. The situation also changed in Western Georgia adjacent to the Black Sea, where a strong Lazskoe(Novoegris) kingdom.

In the 3rd century. on site Parthian a formidable kingdom arose Sasanian Iran. And in the 4th century. Roman ruling circles moved the capital of the empire to a colony Byzantion, called Constantinople. Georgia finds itself in a difficult situation. On the one hand, Sasanian Iran and Mazdaanism (fire worship), on the other, the Eastern Roman Empire and Christianity. Georgia accepted Christianity. This step naturally followed from the entire previous course of the country’s history, its socio-economic and political development; it was predetermined by the European type of feudal relations emerging on the ruins of the early slaveholding Georgian society.

Declaration of Christianity as the official religion in the first half of the 4th century. in Kartli and at the beginning of the 6th century. in Lazika contributed to the rapprochement of individual parts of Georgia and the widespread dissemination of Georgian writing, which was formed, according to the assumption of some scientists, even before our chronology.

In the second half of the 5th century. during the reign Vakhtanga Gorgosali and his successor Dachas the capital of the Kingdom of Kartli was moved from Mtskheta to Tbilisi. The creation of a fortified capital city in the Kura gorge, which was like a gateway to the central regions of Georgia, erected a serious obstacle to the path of Sasanian Iran, which was trying to conquer Kartli at any cost.

In 523 Sasanians managed to capture Eastern Georgia. As for Western Georgia, it remained under Byzantine rule. However, by the end of the 6th century. The population of Kartli managed to expel the Sasanians from their land. The feudal lords placed at the head of the independent Kartli state erismtavari, that is, “the head (prince) of the people.” The political and economic revival of the country began.

In the second half of the 7th century. Georgia was subjected to a new invasion, this time Arab hordes, and was forced to submit to the caliphate. Despite the enormous human losses and material destruction caused to Georgia by Arab rule, the conquerors failed to undermine the vital forces of the country and suppress the national liberation movement of the Georgian people. From the middle of the 8th century. begins reconquest lands occupied by the Arabs, which led at the beginning of the 9th century. to the creation of three large feudal associations independent of the Arabs: Kakheti, Egris-Abkhazeti And Tao-Klarjeti. By the beginning of the 10th century. almost the entire country, excluding Tbilisi and the surrounding areas (Tbilisi Emirate), were liberated from the invaders. By this time, feudalism had already completely won in Georgia. On the lower rungs of the feudal hierarchical ladder stood warrior villagers and peasants, on the upper - rulers of principalities and leaders of the Orthodox Church of Georgia.

The bulk of the Georgian population in the 9th-10th centuries. was studying arable farming, viticulture and cattle breeding. Fast development crafts and trade contributed to the emergence of new and growth of old cities. Medieval Georgian cities, like those in Western Europe, turned into fortified centers, into places where forces were concentrated; advocated the unification of the country. City dwellers-artisans and traders, together with the advanced layers of the Orthodox clergy, with servicemen and minor nobles, with warrior-villagers and peasants, waged a fierce struggle against the separatist tendencies of the feudal lords, for the formation of a strong centralized power. The unification of Georgia was prepared not only by its economic and social progress, but also by the creation of a national culture.

From the 5th century independent, original Georgian hagiographic (church historical) literature is developing. It reached its peak in the 10th century. At this time, its outstanding representative was Georgy Merchuli, author of “The Life of Gregory Khandzteli” - educator, founder of cultural and monastic centers, ardent supporter of the unification of Georgia, outstanding composer.

In the 10th century A galaxy of talented Georgian hymnographers appeared. A monk stood out among them Mikael Modrekili- author of spiritual hymns and compiler of a set of church chants.

Along with the original literature, translated literature also developed (from both Eastern and Western languages). An outstanding work of this kind is "The Wisdom of Balavar"- philosophical and literary treatment of the eastern legend about Buddha. This work was translated from Georgian into Greek, and from Greek into Latin, and in this way the book became widespread in medieval Europe.

From the 4th century near the city Phasisa(Poti) there was a philosophical school, and in the second half of the same century a Georgian prince became famous in the Eastern Roman Empire Bakuri, one of the last and largest representatives of ancient philosophy in Georgia.

Georgian church architecture went through a complex and unique path. First Christian churches, for example Bolnisi (V century) and Urbnisi (V century), are magnificent domeless buildings - basilicas.

From the 6th century Another type of church architecture became dominant - domed structures. This type of monument is Mtskheta Jvari- the creation of an unknown architect (the turn of the 6th-7th centuries). The Jvari Temple is distinguished by its strict forms and harmonious proportions. Located on the top of a mountain at the confluence of the Aragvi and Kura rivers, it is organically connected with the surrounding landscape.

The buildings erected in the 9th-10th centuries are beautiful and monumental. temples in Opiza, Oshki, Khakhuli, Kumurdo and Mokvi.

From the 8th century in Georgia the art of making is of great importance enamel on gold. In terms of artistic merit, Georgian cloisonne enamels occupy one of the first places in the world; they are distinguished by the originality of the design, the brightness of the colors, and the transparency of the smalt.

Georgian culture flourished to its greatest extent by the 10th century. reached in southern Georgia. Principality located here Tao-Klarjeti was the most developed region. On the initiative of its ruler David III in the last quarter of the 10th century. The Georgian principalities were united into a single feudal monarchy. This was an event of enormous political importance. By creating a single state, the Georgian people laid a solid foundation for the further rise and strengthening of their homeland.

A new great misfortune befell Georgia in the 11th century. The invasion has begun Seljuk Turks. The invasion was accompanied by the extermination of many people, the destruction of cities and villages. In the fight against the Turks, an outstanding role was played by the Georgian king David IV (1089-1125), nicknamed by the people David the Builder. A wise politician and commander, David the Builder raised the Georgian people to the war of liberation. He inflicted a series of well-thought-out and unexpected attacks on the Seljuk Turks and cleared almost all of Georgia of them. In the fight against the Seljuk Turks, the Georgians received active support from the peoples of Armenia and Azerbaijan.

After the Battle of Didgori, where the Seljuk Turks were completely defeated, David the Builder occupied Tbilisi and thereby completed the unification of Georgia. The activities of David the Builder were not limited only to the military field; he was a reformer of the state, economic, church and social life of Georgia. He held major cultural events, including the founding of the famous Gelati Academy near Kutaisi.

Georgia reached its greatest power in 1184-1213. (the reign of the great-granddaughter of David the Builder, Queen Tamara). By the end of Tamara's reign, as a result of victorious campaigns, Georgia expanded, becoming one of the largest and most powerful states in all of Western Asia. During this period, a great rise in agriculture and crafts began. Cities grew, trade expanded and Georgian culture developed.

In the XI-XIII centuries. The development of science and philosophy in Georgia was facilitated by cultural centers in Greece, Bulgaria, Syria, Palestine, as well as academies founded in Georgia itself in Gelati and Ikalto. The activities of the Georgian philosopher took place at the Gedat Academy Ioane Petritsi, who translated the works of Aristotle and other Greek scientists into Georgian. Famous thinkers of that time were Efrem Mtsire And Arsen Ikaltoeli.

Most of the literary creations of this period are lost to posterity. However, some of them have reached us. Of these monuments of fiction, the heroic fantasy story deserves special mention "Amiran-Darejaniani", romantic story "Visramiani" and poems of praise - "Abdul-Messiah" Shavteli and "Tamariani" Chakhrukhadze.

The most perfect example of classical Georgian culture of this era is the brilliant poem of Shota Rustaveli "The Knight in Tiger Skin". Rustaveli conveys his deep thoughts and feelings in elegant and flexible sixteen complex verses. Being one and a half to two centuries ahead of the great poets and thinkers of the European Renaissance, Rustaveli became the first standard-bearer of humanism, an inspired singer of sublime human feelings - love, friendship, courage and courage. He glorified the triumph of freedom and truth, beauty and goodness. He sang the friendship of peoples, heroic daring, and patriotism. Shota Rustaveli's poem “The Knight in the Skin of a Tiger” is a masterpiece of world fiction. It has been translated into many languages ​​of the peoples of the West and East. Georgian art of the 11th-13th centuries. occupies a worthy place in the rich Culture of the Rustaveli era. Books of that time were written in calligraphy and decorated with colorful miniatures. The Georgian collection of jewelry craftsmanship - embossing, enamels, filigree - is one of the richest in the world.

For church architecture since the 11th century. characterized by an increase in the scale of buildings, greater dynamics of forms, elongated proportions, and a wealth of decorative decoration of facades; Stone carving is distinguished by an inexhaustible variety of motifs. Remarkable temples of that time have been preserved: Svetitskhoveli And Samtavro to Mtskheta, Bagrati Temple in Kutaisi, Samtavisi in Kartli, Allaverdi in Kakheti, Nikortsminda in Racha, Gelati in Imereti and many others. The inside of the temples was completely covered with fresco paintings.

During the same era, the construction of rock-cut structures continues. The rock architecture of Georgia is represented, for example, by the grandiose ensemble monasteries of David Gareja in Kakheti, the huge cave monastery city of Vardzia in Meskheti, the cave city of Uplistsikhe in Kartli.

In church architecture of the late XII and first half of the XIII centuries. (Ikorta, Betania, Kvatakhevi) there is a desire for greater picturesqueness and decorativeness. At the same time, the size of the buildings decreased, and features of intimacy and intimacy appeared in the architectural image.

In the second quarter of the 13th century. Georgia found itself in a dangerous neighborhood with the world power created by Genghis Khan. In the 30s of the 13th century. The invasion of the Mongol hordes began. The Mongols conquered the eastern and southern parts of the country. However, thanks to the heroic resistance of the Georgian people, the Mongols failed to conquer Western Georgia.

The invaders devastated Eastern Georgia. The once vibrant trade has come to a standstill. Large cities fell into decay, and some of them disappeared from the face of the earth. The villages were depopulated. The Mongols caused enormous damage to agriculture.

The dominance of the conquerors was accompanied by a weakening of the power of the Georgian kings and, accordingly, a strengthening of the power of large feudal lords.

However, the forces of supporters of restoring the unity and independence of the country were powerful, and by the 30s of the 14th century. Georgians managed to throw off the century-old Mongol yoke and revive the feudal state.

Georgia began to restore its international ties, establish trade with its near and distant neighbors. To streamline the internal life of the country King George V, nicknamed “Brilliant” by his contemporaries, carried out a number of successful administrative, legal, economic and financial measures. But before the country had time to fully recover from the consequences of the domination of foreign invaders, all the destroying hordes of Timur, the ruler of the Central Asian horde of the Genghisids, fell upon it. The war with Timur's hordes lasted from 1386 to 1403. As a result of superhuman efforts, the Georgian people managed to defend the state integrity and independence of their homeland. However, the eightfold invasion of a cruel and merciless conqueror turned Georgia into ruins and ashes. The country's population has dropped by half.

To make up for their income, which had decreased due to a sharp decrease in population, Georgian feudal lords intensified the exploitation of peasants and artisans. With the exception of high mountain regions, the social layer of personally free farmers disappears. Significant legal differences between individual groups of warrior-villagers and peasants are being erased.

The feudal serfs introduced new taxes and increased old ones, and so that this would not be too conspicuous, they gradually changed the measures of weight and volume. The feudal burden lying on the Georgian peasantry became increasingly heavy.

The continuously growing feudal exploitation provoked resistance from the peasants. The class struggle of the peasants against the feudal lords took various forms: it found its expression in complaints to the king and in spontaneous flight from the feudal lords. Some of the fleeing peasants attacked the estates of the landowners, took away and set fire to the master's property, and the other part found themselves in the position of vagabonds who, in search of more “merciful” owners, passed from one feudal lord to another.

One of the common forms of class struggle was the refusal to pay quitrents and perform corvee labor. Sometimes such disobedience took on a mass character and developed into an uprising. However, even in the XVI-XVIII centuries. The anti-serfdom movement of Georgian peasants still had the character of scattered, poorly organized, spontaneous actions. The cruel and ugly forms that serfdom took weakened Georgia in another way. Robbed, half-starved peasants not only lost interest in conducting traditional intensive branches of agriculture, but no longer showed their former zeal and perseverance in defending the country.

The critical situation was aggravated by extremely unfavorable foreign policy events. The capture of the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, by Ottoman Turkey in 1453 deprived Georgia of its direct ties with the countries of Western Europe. In addition, the great geographical discoveries of the late 15th century. caused the movement of international trade routes, which was another reason for Georgia’s separation from international economic life.

Thus, from the 13th century, starting with the Mongol invasions, Georgia began to lag behind the advanced countries of Europe in its historical development. The 16th-18th centuries became for Georgia a period of stagnation of social and cultural life, population decline and economic decline. By the beginning of the 16th century, two extremely aggressive and powerful Mohammedan powers came close to the borders of weakened and fragmented Christian Georgia: Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Iran. A difficult, continuous struggle of the Georgian people against the cruel and merciless foreign invaders began. Despite the long heroic struggle of the Georgian people, in the 17th century. The Turks managed to seize part of the southwestern lands of Georgia and in 1628 founded the Akhaltsikhe Pashalyk there. Having created this powerful bridgehead, the Turks began to extend their dominance to Western Georgia.

First third of the 17th century. was no less difficult for Eastern Georgia. The ruler of Iran, Shah Abas I, attacks her. The Persians exterminated and took hundreds of thousands of Georgians into captivity. Some of the descendants of these settlers, to this day, have preserved the Georgian language, customs and love for their country in a foreign land. Many regions of Georgia were devastated and depopulated. However, this was not cheap for the invaders either - the Georgian soldiers killed the best forces of the enemy. The weakening of Iran and Turkey in the middle of the 17th century. made it possible for the Georgian people to resume their struggle against centuries-old oppressors. The independence of the Georgian states was restored.

Reasonable and firm measures taken by the rulers of Georgia, aimed at establishing peace and order within the country, contributed to the revival and development of the economy. The Georgian kings also sought to increase the sharply reduced population by attracting refugees - Armenians, Greeks, Aisors, who were suffering persecution in Iran and Turkey.

The centuries-long unequal struggle cost the Georgian people very dearly. In addition to countless destructions, a sharp decline in population, and the loss of many ancestral lands, great damage was caused to Georgian culture.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. Georgian literature was mainly represented by the poetry of King Teimuraz I, King Archil, Peshanga and Joseph Saakadze. Most Georgian poets of this era, relying on the immortal creative heritage of Rustaveli, tried to revive the best traditions of ancient national culture.

In the first quarter of the 18th century, King Vakhtang VI created an editorial commission of “learned men” to develop the history of Georgia. Under his leadership, legal monuments were collected and codified. With the creation of the Vakhtang Code, the public and private law of Georgia was streamlined.

In 1712, Shota Rustaveli’s poem “The Knight in the Tiger’s Skin” was first published in the Tbilisi printing house.

Vakhtang VI's tutor Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani was one of the greatest scientists and writers in Georgia. His work “Georgian Lexicon” is rightfully considered a treasury of Georgian scientific linguistics. Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani also penned an excellent creation of Georgian prose “The Wisdom of Fiction” - a unique collection of fables and short stories.

The activities of the outstanding representative of Georgian historiography and geographical science Vakhushti Bagrationi date back to this time. His presentation of the history of the Georgian people, the geographical description of Georgia and the maps he compiled were highly appreciated in the scientific circles of Western Europe and Russia.

In the second half of the 18th century. The greatest poets of feudal Georgia, David Guramishvili and Besiki (Vissarion Gabashvili), created their works.

In the 18th century, conditions were created for a closer rapprochement between Georgia and Russia. The first steps in this direction were taken back in the 16th century: the ruling circles of Georgia tirelessly sought to break through the ring of hostile Mohammedan encirclement. In 1783, a “Friendly Treaty” was signed between Russia and Georgia - Russia established a protectorate over the eastern part of the country.

Wanting to take revenge on the Georgian people for their rapprochement with Russia, the Iranian Shah Agha-Mohammed attacked Eastern Georgia in 1795. His hordes burned and destroyed Tbilisi, killed many people and ravaged the southern regions of the country.

In 1801, the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom (Eastern Georgia) joined Russia. During the 19th century. and the remaining Georgian lands gradually became part of the Russian Empire. As a result of joining Russia, the threat of physical extermination of the Georgian people was eliminated. Despite the heavy national-colonial oppression to which the country was subjected under the conditions of the tsarist autocracy, its economic life gradually improved - agricultural production grew, crafts developed, and trade expanded.

The annexation of Georgia to Russia, contrary to the great-power goals of tsarism, had a positive meaning. It united the forces of the Georgian people with the forces of the Russian and other fraternal peoples of Russia in the struggle against national and social oppression. The joint struggle prepared the common front of the all-Russian national revolutionary movement.

Under the influence of developing capitalism in pre-reform Georgia, the disintegration of serfdom intensified, and this was also facilitated by the almost continuous protests of peasants against landlord oppression and tsarist autocracy.

The abolition of serfdom (1864-1871) caused significant socio-political changes and became a major milestone in the history of the formation of the Georgian economy. In the last third of the 19th century. The capitalist structure began to take shape, which soon took a dominant position in the economic life of the country.

Railway construction also contributed to the economic recovery. In 1872, the construction of the railway line between Tbilisi and Poti was completed, and in 1883 the through railway connection Baku - Tbilisi - Batumi was opened. Local railway lines originated from the Trans-Caucasian Railway.

Railways brought together and economically connected different regions of Georgia, revived economic and cultural life, accelerated the development of trade and created conditions for the exploitation of mineral wealth. At the end of the 19th century. The coal and manganese industries developed especially rapidly.

Of particular importance for the development of the mining industry in Georgia was the emergence of manganese mining in Chiatura in 1879. In contrast to the development of the Kibul coal mines, the development of the manganese industry was caused not by the needs of the Georgian economy, but by the growth of the ferrous metallurgy of advanced capitalist countries.

In pre-Soviet times, the record annual production of Chiatura manganese - 966 thousand tons - was achieved in the pre-war year 1913. Chiatura manganese was mainly exported through the port of Poti, which contributed to the growth of this ancient seaside city.

Just as the Poti port specialized in the export of Chiatura manganese, the Batumi port adapted to the export of Baku oil. The completion of the through line of the Transcaucasian Railway in 1883 turned Batumi into a sea gate through which Baku oil flowed in a wide stream to foreign markets.

From that time on, the export of Baku oil became the main factor determining the development of the city and its economy. By the end of the 19th century, a number of enterprises related to the export of Baku oil were created in Batumi. The mass production of cans for oil export contributed to the emergence of auxiliary industries - zinc, iron foundry, chemical and mechanical.

In the last quarter of the last century, there was a slight increase in industrial construction in Tbilisi. However, here in pre-Soviet times, as well as in other cities of Georgia, handicraft production continued to play a significant role: a large number of enterprises were created that produced handicrafts for local consumption - leather, shoes, soap, tobacco products, wine, beer, lumber. At the same time, relatively large enterprises began to open, among which the Main Railway Workshops deserve special mention.

Despite great changes in economic life, Georgia remained a purely agricultural region. While before the First World War the share of industry in the total economic output of the Russian Empire was 41%, in Georgia it was approximately 13%. These data clearly confirm that Georgia was an even more peasant country than Russia.

After the abolition of serfdom, the process of development of capitalism in agriculture accelerated. This caused the expansion of cultivated lands and the specialization of areas for individual crops. However, technical equipment and farming techniques remained at a low level.

The vast majority of peasants suffered from land shortages and were constantly in poverty. The leading place in Georgian agriculture was occupied by grain crops: wheat in Eastern Georgia and corn in Western Georgia. After grain farming, the most significant branch of agricultural production in Georgia was viticulture and winemaking. Tobacco predominated among industrial crops in pre-reform Georgia. Commercial tobacco growing was concentrated mainly in Abkhazia, Guria and Kakheti.

Although subtropical crops (tea, citrus) appeared in the Georgian Black Sea region, they did not become widespread and had no industrial significance.

Thus, the development of capitalism, breaking the centuries-old economic isolation, sharply expanded both domestic and foreign markets, increased commodity exchange and economically united different regions, and contributed to the growth of cities and urban populations. The once advanced feudal country, which had been separated from civilized peoples for many centuries by backward despotic states, was now, thanks to an alliance with Russia, once again included in international economic and cultural life.

In the 19th century, the long-standing cultural ties between the Georgian people and Russian and other European peoples strengthened and developed. Advanced Russian culture had a particularly great influence on the development of Georgian culture.

Since the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism has established itself in Georgian literature. Its founder was the poet Alexander Chavchavadze (1786-1846). Many of his poems are imbued with the pathos of freedom, reflections on the fate of his homeland. Alexander Chavchavadze has translated some works of Western European and Russian classics (F. Voltaire, P. Corneille, J. Racine, V. Hugo, A. S. Pushkin).

Patriotic motifs permeate the romantic poetry of Grigory Orbeliani (1800-1883) and Nikoloz Baratashvili (1817-1845), the largest representative of Georgian romanticism. Baratashvili’s immortal creation “Merani” is a poetic hymn to a free person.

Georgian romanticism was close to the rebellious spirit of the great European romantic poets of the 19th century.

Since the middle of the 19th century, romanticism has given way to realism in Georgian literature. The decomposition of the feudal-serf economy and the development of new, capitalist relations are reflected in the works of the founders of Georgian realistic prose, Daniel Chonkadze and Lavrentiy Ardaziani. The activities of the outstanding Georgian educator and playwright George Eristavi played a major role in the development of the Georgian printed word and theater, starting in the 50s of the last century.

The progressive Georgian intelligentsia was greatly influenced by the progressive ideas it adopted in Russia, especially the ideas of Russian revolutionary democrats - Belinsky, Herzen, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov. For the development of the cultural life of Georgia, direct communication and friendship of Georgian writers and public figures with the best representatives of Russian literature and art was of great importance.

Many great Russian writers and poets visited and lived in Georgia: A. S. Griboyedov (1818-1828), A. S. Pushkin (1829), M. Yu. Lermontov (1837). L. N. Tolstoy wrote “Childhood and Adolescence” in Tiflis in 1851. A. N. Ostrovsky and M. Gorky visited here.

Ilya Chavchavadze was one of the organizers and leaders of the Society for the Propagation of Literacy among Georgians, which played a large role in the cultural life of the Georgian people. The outstanding Georgian democratic teacher Jacob Gogebashvili (1840-1912) did a lot for public education. Famous Georgian scientists David Chubinashvili, Alexander Tsagareli, Nikolai Marr, Alexander Khakhanashvili, Dimitri Bakradze, Mose Janashvili, Ivane Javakhishvili made an invaluable contribution to the development of problems of their native language, literature and history.

Since the 60s of the last century, the largest Georgian thinker of the 19th century, poet and writer Ilya Chavchavadze (1837-1907) acted as the standard bearer of the national liberation movement of the Georgian people. The founder of critical realism in Georgian literature, Ilya Chavchavadze, even in his early works, truthfully reflected the contemporary noble-serf reality. The poet sympathetically depicted the struggle of the oppressed peasantry against the tyranny of the landowners. He created samples of civil lyrics, in which he acted as a freedom fighter.

Together with Ilya Chavchavadze, the ardent patriot and champion of the progressive ideas of his time, Akaki Tsereteli (1840-1915), led the Georgian liberation movement. Akaki Tsereteli is a multifaceted writer. In addition to a rich lyrical heritage, he left poems, dramas, and prose works.

In the 80s of the last century, such original poets as Alexander Kazbegi and Vazha Pshavela appeared in Georgian literature. A. Kazbegi (1848-1893) is known for his epic paintings, in which he showed the selfless struggle of the mountain people against the oppressors. Vazha Pshavela (1861-1915) went down in the history of Georgian literature as an unsurpassed singer of nature, life and everyday life of the Georgian highlanders. Georgian literature of the second half of the 19th century. decorated with the names of Rafael Eristavi, Egnate Ninoshvili, David Kldiashvili.

Significant successes of Georgian literature inevitably influenced the development of the national theater. Talented stage masters Lado Meskhishvili, Vaso Abashidze, Nato Gabunia, Mako Saparva-Abashidze, Kote Kipiani, Kote Meskhi, Valerian Gunia worked in the Georgian theater. From the Western European repertoire in the Georgian theater of the second half of the 19th century. they staged plays by Moliere and Shakespeare. Ivan Machabeli's translations of Shakespeare's plays are considered among the best in the world. Since the 50-60s of the last century, Georgian musical life has also revived. An opera was founded in Tbilisi. The study and popularization of rich folk musical folklore began.

The emergence of the working class and the property differentiation of the rural population, heavy economic, social and national oppression created the ground for the spread of Marxism in Georgian conditions. A major role in the dissemination of the ideas of scientific communism in Georgia was played by Russian Social Democrats exiled in Transcaucasia and Georgian Marxists who visited Western Europe.

In the mid-90s, the first Georgian social democratic organization “Mesame-Dasi” (“Third Group”) was created, which then formed a revolutionary Marxist-Leninist core, led by I. Stalin (Dzhugashvili), A. Tsulukidze, L. Ketskhoveli , M. Tskhakaya.

In 1901, in the illegal Baku printing house organized under the leadership of L. Ketskhoveli, the Georgian newspaper of the Leninist-Iskra trend “Brdzola” (“Struggle”) began to be published, and in 1903 all Georgian social democratic organizations of the Leninist-Iskra trend entered the Caucasian Union RSDLP.

The Committee of the Caucasian Union published illegal Bolshevik literature in Russian, Georgian and Armenian in the underground Avlabari printing houses in Tbilisi. This printing house existed in conditions of deep secrecy from 1903 to 1906.

Revolutions of 1905-1907 left its mark on the pages of Georgian history. The armed uprising in Georgia, as in Moscow, was suppressed by tsarism. Punitive expeditions raged everywhere. During the years of reaction that followed the defeat of the revolution, tsarism pursued a policy of unbridled terror in Georgia.

The First World War led the national economy of Georgia, as well as the whole of Russia, to ruin. The already low standard of living of workers and peasants sharply decreased. The October Revolution in Russia and the further development of the state are special pages in the history of Georgia. After the October coup in the country, power was seized by the Mensheviks, the leaders of the local national movement. This independence of Georgia did not last long.

And in February 1921, the independent government of Georgia was overthrown with the active actions of units of the Red Army. On February 25, 1921, Sergo Ordzhonikidze telegraphed V.I. Lenin: “The Red Banner of the Soviets is flying over Tiflis. Long live Soviet Georgia!” This day is considered the date of the establishment of Soviet power in the republic. The Georgian people faced a new stage in the development of the country.

In December 1922, the Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was created as part of Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia. On December 30, 1922, the Trans-SFSR became part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

In accordance with the principles of the national policy of the Communist Party, the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, the Adjarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and the South Ossetian Autonomous Region were formed within Georgia in the very first years of Soviet power.

From the very first days of the establishment of Soviet power, the Communist Party and the government of the young Soviet Republic carried out the most important socialist transformations: agrarian reform and nationalization of leading sectors of the national economy, which laid the foundation for the construction of a new, socialist way of life. These first steps of Soviet power in Georgia were accompanied by a struggle with enormous difficulties; the republic had to restore the economy destroyed during the First World War.

The reconstruction of old enterprises and the construction of new factories and factories began. In 1922, one of the first hydroelectric power stations was founded near Tbilisi - ZAGES, which was put into operation in 1927, which played a big role in the development of the republic's economy. Thanks to the labor activity of workers and peasants in 1925-1926. In Georgia, the pre-war level of production was exceeded.

The XIV Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), which met in December 1925 in Moscow, charted a course for socialist industrialization, including the Republic of Georgia, which became part of the USSR. Georgia has begun to solve the complex task of building a diversified industry. For this purpose, Georgia's own energy and mineral resources, as well as agricultural raw materials, which determined the nature of Georgia's special types of industry, were to be used.

New industries are being created in the republic, such as engineering and machine tool manufacturing, chemical, ferroalloy and a number of others. The manganese and coal industries are being reconstructed. The network of new hydroelectric power stations is expanding - Rionges, Alazanges and many others are coming into operation.

Along with the development of industry, the republic’s agriculture also grew. It was based on a cooperative plan. By October 1, 1921, 35 collective farms were created in the Georgian SSR, and in 1927 their number reached 108. In 1929, mass collectivization began, and by 1941, 94.1% of peasant farms were united in collective farms.

Georgia was becoming a republic of diversified mechanized agriculture. Particular attention was paid to the creation of tea and citrus plantations.

The Cultural Revolution made Georgia a republic of complete literacy; A large number of primary, secondary and higher schools, research institutes, and cultural and educational institutions appeared. Education has ceased to be the privilege of a select few; the people have brought forward from their midst numerous creative intelligentsia working in all fields of science, culture and art. The centuries-old dream of the best representatives of the people who fought for progress has come true.

Radical changes in the socio-political and economic life of Soviet society were enshrined in the Constitution of the USSR, adopted on December 5, 1936 by the VIII All-Union Extraordinary Congress of Soviets. On the basis of this Constitution, the Transcaucasian Federation is abolished; Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan are part of the USSR as independent union republics.

At the VIII Congress of Soviets of Georgia (February 1937), the new Constitution of the Georgian SSR was approved. At this time, work began on the construction of large industrial and agricultural enterprises and structures, such as the Transcaucasian Metallurgical Plant, the Khram and Sukhumi hydroelectric power stations, the Samgori irrigation system, and the drainage of the swamps of the Colchis Lowland. A number of important measures were taken to expand tea and citrus plantations in Western Georgia.

In 1999, due to the collapse of the USSR, Georgia gained independence.

Currently, Georgia is an independent democratic state with a market economy. The area of ​​the state is 69,700 square meters. km., population - 5,471,000 people, capital - Tbilisi (1,283,000) people, language Georgian, currency - lari.

Exports: food products, chemicals, engineering products. Develops tourism in various directions: historical sightseeing tours, sports travel, mountaineering, ecotourism and others.

“The West, speaking on the side of Georgia, boldly and treacherously violates the norms of international law. And they testify to the justice and legality of the position of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, to the criminality of the policies of the Georgian authorities and all those who supports and prepares them for another war in the region.

Let us turn to the legal grounds confirming the legitimacy of the demands of the two Caucasian republics. As follows from the legal examination of the situation, the ethnic groups that found themselves within the borders of Georgia after the collapse of the USSR historically existed as sovereign states independently of each other and were united only with the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1918.

Georgia voluntarily became part of the Russian Empire on January 18, 1801.

At that time, it did not include either Abkhazia or South Ossetia. And it couldn’t be, becauseOssetia became part of the Russian Empire earlier than Georgia - in 1774.Abkhazia, from 1864 to 1918, was directly controlled by the Russian administration and was also not part of Georgia.

In accordance with international law, Georgia could create an independent state only with the territory from which it was once part of Tsarist Russia.

The Russian Empire, by its great mercy, accepted Georgia into its composition. It is known that when the Georgian Tsar Alexander in 1586 asked the Russian Tsar Feodor to accept Georgia under Russian citizenship, there were no more than 40 thousand Georgians left. Orthodox churches and shrines of Georgia were destroyed and desecrated, the country was completely devastated.

After Georgia swore an oath of allegiance to the Russian Empire, Russia took upon itself the obligation to defend Georgia and immediately confirmed this by threatening war with Persia.

In addition, assistance was also provided in the restoration of Georgian churches and Orthodox shrines. That is, by accepting Georgia into its membership in 1801, Russia took on a huge burden and additional responsibility. Therefore, the Russian emperors, including Paul I, despite numerous requests and literally pleas from Georgia, did not dare to meet them halfway. In 1798, George XII, who ascended the Georgian throne and begged Paul I to annex Georgia, received his final refusal. Paul's son, Emperor Alexander I, nevertheless made a positive decision.

17November 1800 - Tsar George XII turned to the Emperor of Russia with a “petition on his knees,” in which he asked to accept his people into “eternal citizenship.”

Here is what the pre-revolutionary Great Russian Encyclopedia writes about the painful period for Russia when making this decision: “Realizing the full burden of sacrifices and worries that the complete annexation of a country devastated by external enemies and torn apart by internal unrest would have imposed on Russia, the emperor hesitated. During the second discussion of the issue of annexation of Georgia, the State Council was informed of “the sovereign’s extreme aversion to accept the Georgian kingdom as Russian citizenship.” But the council remained unchanged in its opinion.”

At the same time, as they write, the main reason that prompted the Russian Tsar to grant Georgia’s request was not imperial ambitions, but duty towards his Orthodox brothers in faith, who found themselves on the verge of complete destruction in demographic, religious and political terms.

Accepting Georgia under the wing of the Russian Empire meant not only a readiness to include it in the state, but also a readiness to defend it. In those conditions, this meant a willingness to make sacrifices for her, that is, to shed blood.

As General M. Skobelev said: “Only Russians allow themselves such luxury - to fight out of a sense of compassion.”

Chronologically, the events unfolded as follows. In 1801, Emperor Alexander I annexed Eastern Georgia to Russia. The Tiflis province of Russia was formed from Kartli and Kakheti. By this time, united Ossetia had been part of Russia for 27 years.

In 1804, Imereti became part of Russia and the small Kutaisi province was formed.

In December 1811, Russian troops took Akhalkalak by storm.

On May 16, 1812, Russia inflicts another defeat on Turkey in the war with Turkey, as a result of which the Bucharest Peace Treaty is signed. In accordance with it, Russia (and not Georgia) receives a section of the Black Sea coast with the city of Sukhum and Megrelia (without the city of Pot).

In 1828, the Russian (not Georgian) army captured the cities of Akhaltsikhe, Kars, Anapa, and Pot with battles.

On September 2, 1829, the Treaty of Adrianople was signed, according to which the entire strip from Anapa to Poti, as well as the Akhaltsikhe region, went to Russia.

On March 3, 1878, after another defeat of Turkey, a peace treaty was signed in San Stefano, according to which Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet, Batum, and Guria were ceded to Russia (and not Georgia).

So, the above-mentioned lands, which Georgia now occupies, They did not initially belong to it, but were conquered by the Russian army during battles and battles.

These victories were won by Russia, not by Georgia, which was just a small part of the vast empire that protected it. These lands, watered with Russian blood, were ceded to Russia on the basis of international treaties, and it is she who has the legal right to them.

In our time, just like Crimea, these lands were donated by traitors to the Fatherland to the same traitors who sold themselves to the invisible Khazaria, became its insignificant lackeys and, under the false slogan of ethno-sovereignty, attached themselves to the Russian lands.

The Georgian people and their Orthodox pastors must understand that they owe their lives and the preservation of the Orthodox faith to Russia and the Russian people, who gave the lives of their best sons for the salvation of their brothers in faith. This was an example of a real battle for faith, for the salvation of one’s fellow believers.

As Chavchavadze wrote about this: “The country, which had not seen peace for a long time, tired of robbery and destruction, of endless battles and wars, calmed down... A new era has begun, an era of calm and safe life.”

Georgia prospered as part of the Russian and then Soviet empires.

And now... Since 1991, it became independent from Russia, but fell into another dependence on the worst enemy of Orthodoxy - Khazaria, became its fiefdom, a place of sabbath and revelry of forces obsessed with hatred of Russia. Georgia slipped into poverty, economic and cultural decline.

It turned into a criminal entity, headed by the ruiners.

The Khazar occupation brought Georgia exactly the same robbery and destruction, endless battles and wars from which Russia once saved it. "

History of relations between Georgia and Russia

Russia and Georgia have had friendly relations for a very long time, almost since the Middle Ages. The countries were united primarily by religion, but it was too early to talk about joining, because... Russia was developing Siberia and was concerned about difficulties with the West.

However, Georgia suffered greatly from pressure from Persia and the Ottoman Empire. These states behaved aggressively, seized Georgian territories, and the country was in danger of losing sovereignty and forcibly converting to Islam. Therefore, Georgia requested help from Russia, which resulted in the sending of troops in $1594. This campaign failed, partly due to the indecision of the Georgian side, but mostly due to the small number of the detachment and the difficulty of crossing the territory, it was necessary to pass through the Dagestan lands.

After the failure, Georgia was left alone, surrounded by hostile neighbors. As a result, the unified state actually broke up into separate kingdoms (principalities), although the dynasty Bagrationov still retained some influence over them. These small feudal kingdoms waged a permanent war with the Muslim Porte and Persia.

Attempts to join in the 18th century.

Peter I made another attempt to help Georgia, during Persian campaign having entered into an alliance with the king Vakhtang VI, but this time the attempt failed. Vakhtang VI had to flee Georgia, and his kingdom found itself alone with Persia.

Only Catherine II was able to bring Russian troops into the territory of Georgia in $1769 after concluding an agreement with kings Heraclius II and Solomon on an alliance in the fight against the Ottoman Empire.

In $1774, after the end of the Russian-Turkish war, it was signed Kuchuk-Kaynajir Treaty, according to which the Turks left Imereti. Russia has gained a foothold at sea and in Crimea. However, Catherine II did not plan to completely take over Georgia, so she offered a vassalage agreement to Heraclius II, the Kartli-Kakheti king, in $1783. It was Treaty of Georgievsk, according to it, Russia pledged to defend Eastern Georgia from attacks and sent a permanent army there, and Tsar Irakli II swore an oath of service to Catherine II.

Let us note that after $2$ of a year, Heraclius II signed a separate peace with the Ottomans, violating the Treaty of Georgievsk, and Russian troops left Georgia. As a result, in $1795, Tbilisi was ruined by the Shah of Iran.

Accession of Georgia to Russia

After the death of Irakli II, the struggle for the throne began, and in general, it was clear that Georgia could not resist without the help of Russia. In $1800, a delegation from one of the contenders for the throne arrived in St. Petersburg, George XII, asking to accept the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom into Russia. Paul I granted his request, and in December it was published Manifesto on the accession of Georgia to Russia. George XII retained the title for life. But this decision was on paper, but in reality the process dragged on. Alexander I, who replaced Paul I, did not appreciate the Manifesto, because. he violated the Treaty of Georgievsk, which provided only for the protectorate of Russia. But, taking into account the expectations of the government and Georgians, the emperor signed a decree.

Note 1

It is generally accepted that Georgia became part of Russia in 1802, after the reading of the Emperor's Manifesto in Tbilisi. The country began to develop quite quickly, because... the external threat has passed. The majority of the people supported joining Russia.

Tsar George XII died in the same year, 1800, and General Lazarev I.P. headed the government, removing the sons of the late king from the throne. The princes left for Russia, but their mother, the king’s widow, Mariam Tsitsishvili, refused to leave. She stabbed General I.P. Lazarev. with a dagger. The people were afraid of Russia's revenge, but Alexander I acted relatively mildly; Queen Mariam and her daughter Tamara were exiled to one of the Belgorod monasteries.

A secret committee tried to dissuade Alexander I from signing the annexation of Georgia, believing that this was not a matter of paramount importance, and the emperor should deal primarily with internal problems. Nevertheless, Emperor Alexander I insisted on his own, believing that the annexation of Georgia would strengthen Russia.