Research on will in psychology is built around the following four phenomena: volitional action, problems of choosing motives and goals, volitional regulation of mental states, volitional qualities of the individual.
Let us consider the problem of volitional action. As a relatively independent area of research, volitional action is, first of all, studied from the point of view of its inherent properties. Not all actions can be characterized as volitional. V.A. Ivannikov examines in detail various signs that directly or indirectly relate to volitional action. For example, it highlights the property consciousness and purposefulness of action, which is a necessary but not sufficient sign of volitional action. There are purposeful actions that are not necessarily volitional, for example, moving from one point to another. Such an action is indeed not associated with volitional effort, but at the same time it is purposeful. Another property that may be inherent in volitional action is focus on creating ideal goals, in a situation in which there are no current needs, as well as actualization of efforts in the presence of obstacles to achieving a life goal.
It is argued that such hypothetical signs of volitional action are: the presence of a distant goal or motive, relative independence of action from current circumstances, subordination of actions to stable, permanent motives, which oppose situational motives, etc. True, it must be said that not all of the listed categories can really claim the status of a characteristic. It can be noted that many of them are related not to the properties of the action, but to the conditions of its occurrence (for example, the presence of obstacles to achieving the goal, etc.).
So, the general signs of volitional action are: 1) awareness, purposefulness, intentionality of action; 2) the need to commit it; 3) presence of drive/inhibition deficit. It should be clarified that a lack of motivation can arise in situations of different nature. A lack of motivation is observed in a situation of action without an actual need, or with a weak social motive, or in a situation of struggle (competition) of motives.
Volitional and voluntary action. The relationship between the concepts of will and voluntariness is understood in psychology in different ways. Some researchers believe that will is a more general phenomenon, and volition is only some aspect of it, for example, the first stage of development of volitional quality. Other researchers, on the contrary, choose arbitrariness as the basic category. In this case, will is understood as an arbitrary action performed in certain (difficult) conditions. There is also a point of view according to which volitional and voluntary regulation are two completely different and independent processes.
Voluntary action is defined as a non-reflexive and non-instinctive action, which is based on 1) intentions and action plan, 2) awareness of the causes of behavior, 3) regulation of the process of its implementation. One of the signs of a voluntary action is the absence start signal for the occurrence or change of the course of activity. This symptom is associated with the absence compulsion behavior, which indicates its intentionality. A voluntary action cannot be considered indeterministic; it is determined by an actual human need. Another sign of a voluntary action is the acquisition by an individual, a personality new life meaning. Conditioned reflexes in animals, a habitual action endowed with a new meaning in humans, indicate the importance of this sign of voluntary action. The third sign of a voluntary action is its awareness.
Compared to voluntary action, volitional action has all the features of a voluntary process: it acquires a new meaning, is rarely determined by the situation itself, and unfolds as a consequence of current social necessity. The difference between volitional and voluntary action is that the former is associated with the regulation of semantic values. Volitional regulation is the last stage in a person’s mastery of his own processes, the highest of which is motivational. Volitional regulation is an arbitrary form of motivational process aimed at creating a socially necessary action.
In other words, volitional regulation is one of the forms of voluntary regulation, which consists in creating an additional incentive based on voluntary (intrinsic) motivation, which is self-determination.
12.3. Volitional regulation of personality
The psychology of will, as already mentioned, studies volitional actions, the problem of choosing motives and goals, volitional regulation of mental states, volitional qualities of the individual (see Reader 12.2).
Under volitional regulation is understood as intentional control of the impulse to action, consciously accepted out of necessity and carried out by a person according to his own decision. If it is necessary to inhibit a desirable, but socially disapproved action, what is meant is not the regulation of the impulse to action, but the regulation of the action of abstinence.
The mechanisms of volitional regulation are: mechanisms for replenishing the deficit of motivation, making a volitional effort and deliberately changing the meaning of actions.
Mechanisms for replenishing motivation deficits consist in strengthening weak, but socially more significant motivation through the assessment of events and actions, as well as ideas about what benefits the achieved goal can bring. Increased motivation is associated with emotional revaluation of value based on the action of cognitive mechanisms. Cognitive psychologists paid special attention to the role of intellectual functions in replenishing motivational deficits. C Cognitive psychology is one of the leading areas of modern psychology. Cognitive psychology arose in the late 50s and early 60s. XX century as a reaction to the denial of the role of the internal organization of mental processes, characteristic of the dominant behaviorism in the United States. Initially, the main task of cognitive psychology was to study the transformations of sensory information from the moment a stimulus hits the receptor surfaces until the response is received (D. Broadbent, S. Sternberg). Later, cognitive psychology began to be understood as a direction whose task is to prove the decisive role of knowledge in the behavior of the subject (U. Neisser). With this broader approach, cognitive psychology includes all areas that criticize behaviorism and psychoanalysis from intellectualistic or mentalistic positions (J. Piaget, J. Bruner, J. Fodor). The central issue becomes the organization of knowledge in the subject’s memory, including the relationship between verbal and figurative components in the processes of memorization and thinking (G. Bauer, A. Paivio, R. Shepard).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">Cognitive mechanisms involve the mediation of behavior by an internal intellectual plan, which performs the function of conscious regulation of behavior. Strengthening motivational tendencies occurs due to the mental construction of a future situation. Anticipating the positive and negative consequences of an activity evokes emotions associated with achieving a consciously set goal. These impulses act as additional motivation for the deficit motive.
Necessity making a volitional effort determined by the degree of difficulty of the situation. Volitional effort- this is the method by which difficulties are overcome in the process of performing a purposeful action; it provides the opportunity for the successful conduct of activities and the achievement of previously set goals. This mechanism of volitional regulation is correlated with various types of self-stimulation, in particular with its speech form, with Frustration - (from Latin frustratio - deception, failure) a psychological state that arises in a situation of disappointment, failure to achieve any goal or need that is significant for a person.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">frustration Tolerance - (from English, French tolerance - tolerance; lat. tolerantia - patience) tolerance, condescension towards other people's opinions, beliefs, behavior, customs, culture, feelings, ideas; the body's ability to tolerate the adverse effects of one or another environmental factor.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">tolerance, with the search for positive experiences associated with the presence of an obstacle. Usually there are four forms of self-stimulation: 1) direct form in the form of self-orders, self-encouragement and self-suggestion, 2) indirect form in the form of creating images, ideas associated with achievement, 3) abstract form in the form of constructing a system of reasoning, logical justification and conclusions, 4) combined form as a combination of elements of the three previous forms.
An intentional change in the meaning of actions is possible due to the fact that the need is not strictly connected with the motive, and the motive is not clearly related to the goals of the action. The meaning of activity, according to A.N. Leontiev, consist in the relation of motive to goal. The formation and development of an impulse to action is possible not only by replenishing the deficit of impulse (by connecting additional emotional experiences), but also by changing the meaning of the activity. One can recall the experiments of Anita Karsten (K. Lewin’s school) on satiation. The subjects continued to perform the task without instructions when it could be completed, simply because they changed the meaning of the activity and reformulated the task. Working with meanings was the subject of V. Frankl’s logotherapy. The search for such meaning or its reformulation made it possible, according to V. Frankl’s own observations, for prisoners of concentration camps to cope with inhuman difficulties and survive. “What was really needed in these circumstances was a change in our attitude towards life. We had to learn ourselves and teach our despairing comrades that what really matters is not what we expect from life, but rather what life expects from us. We must stop asking about the meaning of life, and instead begin to think of ourselves as those to whom life asks questions daily and hourly. Our answer should not be talking and thinking, but doing the right thing is what life means ultimately. accepting responsibility for finding the right answer to its problems and solving the tasks that it constantly poses to each individual" (Frankl V. Doctor and Soul. St. Petersburg: Yuventa, 1997. P. 226).
- A change in the meaning of an activity usually occurs:
- 1) by reassessing the significance of the motive;
- 2) through changing the role, position of a person (instead of a subordinate, become a leader, instead of a taker, a giver, instead of a desperate person, a desperate one);
- 3) with the help of reformulation and implementation of meaning in the field of fantasy and imagination.
Volitional regulation in its most developed forms means the connection of an insignificant or insignificant, but obligatory action, to the semantic sphere of the individual. Volitional action means the transformation of a pragmatic action into an act due to its attachment to moral motives and values (see Reader 12.3).
The problem of volitional regulation of personality is closely related to the question of volitional qualities of a person. Under strong-willed qualities understand such features of a person’s volitional activity that contribute to overcoming external and internal difficulties and, under certain circumstances and conditions, manifest themselves as stable personality traits.
The most important volitional properties are purposefulness, perseverance, determination, initiative, courage, etc.
Determination is understood as a person’s ability to subordinate his actions to his goals. It manifests itself in the ability to be tolerant, i.e. resistant to possible obstacles, stress, unexpected turns of events when focusing on a specific goal.
Perseverance- the ability to mobilize to overcome difficulties, the ability to be strong, as well as reasonable and creative in difficult life situations.
Determination- the ability to make and implement timely, informed and firm decisions.
Initiative- the ability to make independent decisions and implement them in activities, spontaneous expression of a person’s motives, desires and motives.
12.4. Violations of volitional control
The volitional regulation of the individual may be impaired, resulting in a reluctance to perform any activity, or, conversely, an inability to cope with uncontrollable impulsive activity.
The following types of violations of volitional regulation of activity are observed:
Apathy
(from the Greek apatheia - dispassion) - lack of feelings, and often desires and interests; with apathy, there is no disturbance in orientation in the situation, but there is no emotional assessment of events. Indifference is caused by both joyful and dangerous life episodes. Apathy resulting from a lack of motivation can lead to abulia.
Abulia
(from the Greek abulia - indecisiveness) - a psychopathological syndrome characterized by lethargy, lack of initiative and motivation to activity, weakening of the will. Depending on the causes that cause it, abulia can be short-term, situational or a periodically recurring, long-term condition. Severe abulia is a symptom that often accompanies the catatonic form of schizophrenia. Abulia often occurs when there is damage to the frontal part of the brain, which is responsible for regulating behavior.
Power of will
(according to K. Jaspers) is found in the feeling of one’s own strength, the ability to control events and oneself. As a defense mechanism, the power of the will can manifest itself in the form of omnipotent control, i.e. the feeling that other people, the forces of nature, inanimate objects - everything is subject to human power and is under his control. For example, precipitation, political events, and the achievements of a particular person are assessed as the result of one’s own activities and personal contribution, while the opposite is often observed, i.e. lack of will and inaction.
Impulse control disorder
is revealed in the inability to resist impulses, urges, and temptations. This type of disorder can manifest itself in various pathologically habitual, motivating actions. Examples of such disorders are kleptomania, pyromania, and trichotillomania.
Kleptomania- the subject periodically has irresistible impulses to steal items that he does not need for personal use and that have no material value for him. Such actions are accompanied by an increasing sense of tension, relief and pleasure during the theft. In the psychoanalytic literature, the following alleged reasons for such actions are named: a way to restore a lost relationship with the mother, an act of aggression, protection from fear of damage, a way to receive punishment, a way to restore and strengthen self-esteem, a reaction to a family secret, achieving a certain level of arousal, including sexual .
Pyromania- deliberate and targeted arson, committed repeatedly. As in the case of kleptomania, with pyromania there is an increase in internal tension before committing arson, fascination with fire, interest, curiosity or attraction to it, expressed joy, satisfaction, relief at the sight of a fire or participation in it. Freud attached unconscious significance to fire, seeing it as a symbol of sexuality. The heat that is spread by fire arouses the same feelings that accompany the feeling of sexual arousal. Other authors view pyromania as a pathological desire for power and social prestige. Perhaps the act of setting fire is a way to release accumulated rage, frustration caused by feelings of social, physical and sexual humiliation. A number of works have noted that pyromaniacs often do not have their father at home, and their actions are associated with the desire for his return as a savior.
Trichotillomania- periodic inability to resist impulses to pull out one's own hair, resulting in a significant decrease in the number of hairs. Actions are anticipated by an increase in tension and are accompanied by a feeling of relief and pleasure. This disease has no somatic causes (for example, skin inflammation). Trichotillomania is classified as pathologically habitual actions that have acquired an independent motivating force. The causes of trichotillomania can be stressful situations, disruption of the mother-child bond, fear of being alone, or recent loss. Actions that we call replacement (scratching, rocking, rubbing the forehead, etc.) perform the function of short-term stress relief. Having become pathologically habitual, they acquire their own significance and magical meaning for a person, which, according to the “workaround” principle, reduce the accumulated energy.
All cases of pathologically habitual actions require timely identification and careful psychotherapeutic treatment.
Glossary of terms
- Heteronomous theories of will
- Autonomous theories of the will
- Volitional behavior
- Volitional action
- Volitional regulation
- Voluntary action
- Pyromania
- Kleptomania
- Trichotillomania
Self-test questions
- How is the phenomenon of will interpreted in heteronomous theories?
- List the characteristics by which motive and will differ
- What are the main signs of volitional action?
- How does the mechanism for replenishing the deficit of motivation to action differ from the mechanism for changing the meaning of activity?
- What are the mechanisms of volitional effort?
- What do you see as the reasons for pathologically habitual actions?
Bibliography
- Vygotsky L.S. The problem of will and its development in childhood // Collection. op. in 6 volumes. T. 2. M.: Pedagogika, 1982. P. 454-465.
- Ivannikov V. Psychological mechanisms of volitional regulation: Textbook. M.: Publishing house URAO, 1998. 142 p.
- Kaplan G.I., Sadok B. Clinical psychiatry. In 2 volumes. T. 1. M.: Medicine, 1994. 672 p.
- Nikitin E.P., Kharlamenkova N.E. The phenomenon of human self-affirmation. St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2000.
- Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. M., 1946.
- Self-awareness and personal protective mechanisms: Reader. Samara, 2000. 656 p.
- Selivanov V.I. Psychology of volitional activity. Ryazan, 1974.
- Sokolova E.E. Thirteen dialogues about psychology. M.: Smysl, 1995. 653 p.
- Frankl V. The Doctor and the Soul. St. Petersburg: Yuventa, 1997.
- Shestov L.I. Op. in 2 volumes. T.1. M., 1990.
- Experimental psychology. / Ed. P. Fresse, J. Piaget. Vol. 5. M.: Progress, 1975.
Topics of term papers and essays
- Basic approaches to the problem of will in psychology
- The history of changing views on the will
- Will and self-regulation
- Mechanisms for changing the meaning of activity
- Character and volitional qualities of the individual
- Impaired behavioral control in various diseases
Psychological characteristics of will. Voluntary and volitional regulation. Criteria and functions of the will. The structure of the volitional process.
Response plan
Signs of will.
Voluntary regulation.
Volitional regulation.
Criteria of will.
Functions of the will.
Criteria and functions of the will.
The structure of the volitional process.
Will and decision making.
Types of determination according to James.
Answer:
Signs of will.
Psychological characteristics of will.
Will- a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior and activities associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles. Will is a person’s ability for conscious intentional activity or for self-determination through work on the internal plane, providing additional incentive (inhibition) to action based on an arbitrary form of motivation.
According to Wundt, the volitional process is related to the affective process, but stands one step higher. The area of affective process control is associated with the volitional process. The basis of volitional processes are volitional motives, which are composed of ideas - which are the basis - and an element of feeling - the motivating cause of the will. (wolf hunting - type of prey - basis, hunger - feeling).
According to James, the concept of will is the basic concept. Volitional activity is a condition of personal choice, the essence of the spiritual self. Full development of personality is the education of will. James defines volitional regulation by linking it with attention, defining it as a combination of attention - focusing consciousness, and effort - overcoming distractions.
The main features of a volitional act:
a) making efforts to perform an act of will;
b) the presence of a well-thought-out plan for the implementation of a behavioral act;
c) increased attention to the behavioral act and the absence of direct pleasure received in the process and as a result of its execution;
d) often the efforts of the will are aimed not only at defeating circumstances, but at overcoming oneself.
Will is determined by three main criteria:
Phenomenological criterion. The person himself experiences a volitional process. For a person, the state of the volitional process is experienced as purposeful actions. Like events of your own choice.
Productive criteria of will (executive)
The presence of will can be assessed by the results of an action
External criterion of will (behavioral criteria of will, muscle effort, visual concentration)
Characteristics of a volitional act.
A volitional action is conscious, purposeful, intentional, accepted for implementation according to one’s own conscious decision;
Volitional action is an action necessary for external (social) or personal reasons, i.e. there are always reasons why an action is taken for execution;
A volitional action has an initial deficit of motivation (or inhibition) that manifests itself during its implementation;
Volitional action is ultimately provided by additional motivation (inhibition) due to the functioning of certain mechanisms and ends with the achievement of the intended goal.
Voluntary regulation.
Voluntary and volitional regulation.
Characteristic features of voluntary processes: 1. A voluntary reaction has acquired vital significance (new meaning); 2. A voluntary reaction is always felt or conscious (voluntarily, when presented: vasodilation and sound, movements of children and a signal about the end; 3. A voluntary reaction is formed and manifests itself only in a situation of actual need or vital necessity, the means of resolution of which it is; 4. A voluntary reaction is either not forced and can be replaced at the subject’s own choice by another with the same vital significance, or (in a person), even being forced, cannot be intentionally regulated in the course of its implementation. A voluntary process is a felt or conscious process. acquired new life meaning (meaning) and aimed at achieving the result chosen by the subject: a process, the beginning, end, delay or change of which is determined by vital necessity, but is not forced by it.
Volitional regulation.
Volitional regulation behavior consists in optimal mobilization of the individual, concentration of activity in the required direction. The ability to arbitrarily regulate action and mental processes, subordinating them to one’s creative decisions, is also explained by the presence of will.
Volitional regulation behavior and actions are voluntary regulation human activity. It is formed and developed under the influence of control over his behavior by society, and then - self-control of the individual.
Volitional regulation manifests itself as a personal level of voluntary regulation, characterized in that the decision about it comes from the individual and personal means are used in regulation.
Compared to voluntary action, volitional action has all the features of a voluntary process: it acquires a new meaning, is rarely determined by the situation itself, and unfolds as a consequence of current social necessity. The difference between volitional and voluntary action is that the former is associated with the regulation of semantic values. Volitional regulation is the last stage in a person’s mastery of his own processes, the highest of which is motivational. Volitional regulation is an arbitrary form of motivational process aimed at creating a socially necessary action. In other words, volitional regulation is one of the forms of voluntary regulation, which consists in creating an additional incentive based on voluntary motivation, which is self-determination.
It becomes volitional when, with a lack of motivation (or its excess), it receives additional motivation (or inhibition) from an arbitrarily constructed motivation process. Those. the action is rethought: losing its initially utilitarian motive, it acquires a new (additional meaning). We rise to a personal level. Motives for creating additional motivation: motives of competence, self-esteem, self-esteem, ethical, aesthetic, ideological. The need for an arbitrary change in the incentive to take one of the actions is set by society. This social necessity is reflected only at the level of the individual, because only the individual realizes himself through social relationships.
Three stages of development of volitional regulation: 1. Arbitrary processes. Developing on the basis of need motivation (arbitrary moments in animal behavior); 2. Voluntary processes formed on the basis of conscious reflection of the need and possibility of such regulation with the help of speech mediation (voluntary human processes; 3. Volitional processes as a personal level of voluntary regulation.
Criteria of will.
Criteria and functions of the will.
In the main theories, will is understood not as an ability initially given to a person, but as a developing ability, then the question arises about the criteria for identifying will or the degree of its development and about the conditions requiring the manifestation of will . Four types criteria for manifestation of will: 1. In volitional actions; 2. In the choice of motives and goals; 3. In the regulation of a person’s internal states, his actions and various mental processes; 4. In the volitional qualities of the individual.
Functions of the will.
Basic functions of the will:
· Selection of motives and goals;
· Regulation of incentives to act in case of insufficient or excessive motivation;
· Organization of mental processes into an adequate system for human activity;
· Mobilization of physical and mental capabilities when overcoming obstacles in achieving goals.
The main psychological function of the will amounts to increased motivation And improvement on this basis regulation of actions. This is how volitional actions differ from impulsive actions, i.e. actions performed involuntarily and not sufficiently controlled by consciousness.
The structure of the volitional process.
Volitional processes are:
· simple- not associated with the struggle of motives, hesitations when choosing a goal, methods of its implementation;
· complex- if a person cannot decide for a long time on the goals, methods, results and
consists of two stages:
· preparatory - intention, awareness of the goal, decision making, choice of means and methods;
· executive - implementation of the set goal.
Mechanism of volitional regulation: intentional change in the meaning of an action (work activity: many actions are not directly related to the motive of the activity, but on the basis of the meaning, as the relationship of the purpose of the action to the motive of the activity, they receive life in human manifestations). Changing the meaning: 1. Through reassessment of the significance of the motive or object of need; 2. Through changing the role, position of a person; 3. Through anticipating and experiencing the consequences of an action or refusal to implement it. Volitional regulation is not needed where there is an actual experienced need that provides an incentive to action, where the action has a certain positive meaning for a person. The need for volitional regulation appears in cases where: 1. An action taken out of social necessity or according to one’s own value systems is not connected with an actually experienced need and thus does not have sufficient motivation; 2. The implementation of an action encounters factors that reduce or make it impossible to create and maintain the necessary incentive for it; 3. It is necessary to refrain from action related to a need that is actually experienced, but socially not approved in a given situation.
Types of determination according to James.
Considering the decision-making process, W. James identified several types of decisiveness.
Intelligent determination manifests itself when opposing motives begin to gradually fade away.
If hesitation and indecision have gone on for too long, there may come a time when a person is more likely to make a wrong decision than not to make one at all.
Wanting to avoid the unpleasant feeling of indecision, a person begins to act as if automatically; what happens next does not concern him at the moment.
Cases of moral rebirth, awakening of conscience, etc. In this case, the cessation of internal fluctuation occurs due to a change in the scale of values.
A person, without any reason, considers a certain course of action more preferable. He strengthens the motive with the help of will. The functions of the mind here are performed by the will.
|Will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior (activities and communication), associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles. This is a human ability, which manifests itself in self-determination and self-regulation of his behavior and mental phenomena.
The main features of a volitional act:
a) making efforts to perform an act of will;
b) the presence of a well-thought-out plan for the implementation of a behavioral act;
c) increased attention to such a behavioral act and the absence of direct pleasure received in the process and as a result of its execution;
d) often the efforts of the will are aimed not only at defeating circumstances, but at overcoming oneself.
Currently, there is no unified theory of will in psychological science, although many scientists are making attempts to develop a holistic doctrine of will with its terminological certainty and unambiguity. Apparently, this situation with the study of will is associated with the struggle between reactive and active concepts of human behavior that has been going on since the beginning of the 20th century. For the first concept, the concept of will is practically not needed, because its supporters represent all human behavior as a person’s reaction to external and internal stimuli. Supporters of the active concept of human behavior, which has recently become leading, understand human behavior as initially active, and the person himself as endowed with the ability to consciously choose forms of behavior.
Volitional, regulation of behavior Volitional regulation of behavior is characterized by a state of optimal mobilization of the individual, the required mode of activity, and the concentration of this activity in the required direction.
The main psychological function of the will is to strengthen motivation and improve the regulation of actions on this basis. This distinguishes volitional actions from impulsive actions, that is, actions performed involuntarily and not sufficiently controlled by consciousness.
At the level of the individual, the manifestation of will is expressed in such properties as willpower (the degree of willpower required to achieve a goal), perseverance (a person’s ability to mobilize one’s capabilities to overcome difficulties for a long time), endurance (the ability to inhibit actions, feelings, thoughts that interfere with the implementation of the adopted decisions), energy, etc. These are the primary (basic) volitional personal qualities that determine most behavioral acts.
There are also secondary, developing in ontogenesis later than the primary, volitional qualities: determination (the ability to make and implement quick, well-founded and firm decisions), courage (the ability to overcome fear and take justifiable risks in order to achieve a goal, despite the dangers to personal well-being), self-control (the ability to control the sensory side of one’s psyche and subordinate one’s behavior to solving consciously set tasks), self-confidence. These qualities should be considered not only as volitional, but also as characterological.
Tertiary qualities include volitional qualities that are closely related to moral ones: responsibility (a quality that characterizes a person in terms of fulfilling moral requirements), discipline (conscious subordination of one’s behavior to generally accepted norms, established order), integrity (loyalty to a certain idea in one’s beliefs and consistent carrying out this idea in behavior), commitment (the ability to voluntarily assume responsibilities and fulfill them). This group also includes the qualities of will associated with a person’s attitude to work: businesslikeness, initiative (the ability to work creatively, taking actions on one’s own initiative), organization (reasonable planning and ordering of one’s work), diligence (diligence, completing assignments and one’s own on time). responsibilities), etc. Tertiary qualities of will are usually formed only by adolescence, i.e., the moment when there is already experience of volitional actions.
Volitional actions can be divided into simple and complex. In a simple act of will, the impulse to action (motive) turns into the action itself almost automatically. In a complex volitional act, an action is preceded by taking into account its consequences, awareness of motives, decision-making, the emergence of an intention to carry it out, drawing up a plan for its implementation, etc. 1. The development of will in a person is associated with:
a) with the transformation of involuntary mental processes into voluntary ones;
b) with a person acquiring control over his behavior;
c) with the development of volitional qualities of the individual;
d) with the fact that a person consciously sets himself more and more difficult tasks and pursues more and more distant goals that require significant volitional efforts over a long time.
The formation of volitional qualities of a person can be considered as a movement from primary to secondary and then to tertiary qualities.
Free will and personal responsibility Consideration of the psychological interpretation of personality presupposes the interpretation of the phenomenon of its spiritual freedom. Personal freedom in psychological terms is, first of all, freedom of will. It is determined in relation to two quantities: vital drives and social conditions of human life. Drives (biological impulses) are transformed in him under the influence of his self-awareness, the spiritual and moral coordinates of his personality. Moreover, man is the only living being who can say “no” to his desires at any moment, and who does not have to always say “yes” to them (M. Scheler).
Man is not free from social conditions. But he is free to take a position in relation to them, since these conditions do not completely condition him. It depends on him, within the limits of his limitations, whether he will surrender, whether he will yield to the conditions (V. Frankl). In this regard, freedom is when a person himself must decide whether to choose good or give in to evil (F. M. Dostoevsky).
However, freedom is only one side of a holistic phenomenon, the positive aspect of which is being responsible. Personal freedom can turn into simple arbitrariness if it is not experienced from the point of view of responsibility (V. Frankl). A person is doomed to freedom and, at the same time, cannot escape responsibility. Another thing is that for many people, peace of mind turns out to be more valuable than a free choice between good and evil, and therefore they readily “attribute” their sins (ignoble deeds, meanness, betrayal) to “objective conditions” - the imperfection of society, bad educators, disadvantage families in which they grew up, etc. The Marxist thesis about the fundamental dependence of good and evil in a person on external (social) conditions has always been a pretext for avoiding personal responsibility.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE
What are the concepts and main signs of will?
Show the importance of will in organizing activities and communication.
What is the volitional regulation of behavior?
What are the primary, secondary and tertiary volitional qualities of a personality?
Do you consider yourself a strong-willed person?
Personality psychology General and individual in the human psyche 97
4 Psychology and pedagogy
6. Using a questionnaire, try to determine your level of willpower development.
When answering questions, mark in the table with a “+” sign the one of the three answers you have chosen: “yes”, “I don’t know (sometimes)”, “no”:
Are you able to complete the work you have started that is not interesting to you, regardless of the fact that time and circumstances allow you to turn away and then return to it again?
Do you overcome internal resistance without much effort when you need to do something unpleasant (for example, go on duty on a day off)?
When you find yourself in a conflict situation - at work (study) or at home - are you able to pull yourself together enough to look at the situation soberly with maximum objectivity?
If you are prescribed a diet, can you overcome culinary temptations?
Will you find the strength in the morning to get up earlier than usual, as planned in the evening?
Will you remain at the scene to testify?
Do you respond quickly to emails?
If you are afraid of an upcoming airplane flight or a visit to the dentist's office, will you be able to overcome this feeling without much difficulty and not change your intention at the last moment?
Will you take a very unpleasant medicine that your doctor insists on recommending?
Will you keep your word in the heat of the moment, even if fulfilling it will bring you a lot of trouble, in other words, are you a man of your word?
Do you hesitate to go on a business trip to an unfamiliar city?
Do you strictly adhere to the daily routine: time to wake up, eat, study, clean and other things?
Do you disapprove of library debtors?
The most interesting TV show will not make you put off urgent work. Is it so?
Will you be able to interrupt a quarrel and remain silent, no matter how offensive the words of the “opposite side” may seem to you? Options Answer number Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Yes No I don’t know, sometimes
answer
Key to the questionnaire
Sum up the answers received using a point system: “yes” - 2 points; “no” - 0 points; “I don’t know” - 1 point.
0-12 points. Things are not going well for you with willpower. You just do what is easier and more interesting, even if it may harm you in some way. You often take your responsibilities carelessly, which sometimes comes in handy.
cause various troubles for you. Your position is expressed by the famous saying “what do I need more than anyone?” You perceive any request, any obligation almost as physical pain. The point here is not only a matter of weak will, but also of selfishness. Try to look at yourself taking into account such an assessment, maybe this will help you change your attitude towards others and “remake” something in your character. If you succeed, it will only make you worse.
13-21 points. Your willpower is average. If you encounter an obstacle, you take action to overcome it. But if you see a workaround, you will immediately use it. Don't overdo it, but also keep your word. You will try to do unpleasant work, although you will grumble. You will take on extra responsibilities of your own free will. This sometimes negatively affects the attitude of managers towards you and does not characterize you from the best side in the eyes of the people around you. If you want to achieve more in life, train your will.
22-30 points. Your willpower is fine. I can rely on you - you won't let me down. You are not afraid of new assignments, long trips, or those things that frighten others. But sometimes your firm and irreconcilable position on unprincipled issues annoys those around you. Willpower is very good, but you also need to have such qualities as flexibility, forbearance, and kindness.
LITERATURE
Vygotsky L. S. Collection. op. In 6 vols. T. 3. - M., 1983. - P. 454-465.
Vysotsky A.I. Voluntary activity of schoolchildren and methods of studying it. - Chelyabinsk, 1979. - P. 67.
GomezoM. V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas on psychology.-S. 194.204-213.
Kotyplo V. K. Differences in volitional behavior in preschool children.
Kyiv, 1971 -S. 11-51.
Nemov R. S. Psychologist. Sq. 1. - pp. 357-366.
General psychology - M., 1986.-P. 385-400.
Psychological Dictionary. - P. 53.54.
Psychology. Dictionary. - pp. 62.63
Rubinstein S..L Fundamentals of general psychology. T. 2. - pp. 182-211.
Collection of tests for the selection of candidates for hiring (US Methodology) - pp. 20-22
Experimental studies of volitional activity.
Ryazan, 1986. - P. 3-23
Page 1
Will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles.
Will is a human ability, manifested in self-determination and self-regulation of its activities and various mental processes. Thanks to the will, a person can, on his own initiative, based on a perceived need, perform actions in a pre-planned direction and with a predetermined force. Moreover, he can organize and direct his mental activity accordingly. With an effort of will, you can restrain the external manifestation of emotions or even show the completely opposite.
S. D Reznik identifies the following main functions of the will:
1) choice of motives and goals;
2) regulation of the incentive to act when there is insufficient or excessive motivation;
3) organization of mental processes into a system adequate to the activity performed by a person;
4) mobilization of physical and mental capabilities when overcoming obstacles in achieving the goal.
For the emergence of volitional regulation, certain conditions are necessary - the presence of obstacles and obstacles. Will manifests itself when difficulties appear on the way to the goal: external obstacles - time, space, people's opposition, physical properties of objects, etc.; internal obstacles - relationships and attitudes, painful conditions, fatigue, etc. All these obstacles, reflected in consciousness, cause volitional effort, which creates the necessary tone to overcome difficulties.
Volitional efforts are required:
1) when replenishing the lack of motivation to act in the absence of sufficient motivation;
2) when choosing motives, goals, types of actions in case of their conflict;
3) with voluntary regulation of external and internal actions and mental processes.
Will is inextricably linked with cognitive motives and emotional processes. In this regard, all human actions can be divided into two categories: involuntary and voluntary.
Involuntary actions are committed as a result of the emergence of unconscious or insufficiently clearly conscious impulses (drives, attitudes, etc.). They are impulsive and lack a clear plan. In other words, in involuntary actions there is no clear goal and efforts of the subject to achieve it. An example of non-productive actions can be the actions of people in a state of passion (amazement, fear, delight, anger).
Voluntary actions presuppose awareness of the goal, a preliminary representation of those operations that can ensure its achievement, and their order. In this regard, will manifests itself as a person’s confidence in his own abilities, as the determination to perform the act that the person himself considers appropriate and necessary in a particular situation.
Volitional regulation of human behavior is formed and developed under the influence of control over his behavior by society, and then - self-control of the individual.
Depending on the difficulties of the external world and the complexity of a person’s inner world, there are 4 options for the manifestation of will:
1) in an easy world, where any desire is feasible, the will is practically not required (human desires are simple, unambiguous, any desire is feasible in an easy world);
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Hardy-Weinberg Law
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Will is a person’s conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, associated with overcoming internal and external obstacles.
Will is a human ability, manifested in the self-determination and self-regulation of its activities and various mental processes. Thanks to the will, a person can, on his own initiative, based on a perceived need, perform actions in a pre-planned direction and with a predetermined force. Moreover, he can organize and direct his mental activity accordingly. With an effort of will, you can restrain the external manifestation of emotions or even show the completely opposite.
S. D Reznik identifies the following main functions of the will:
1. choice of motives and goals;
2. regulation of the impulse to action in case of insufficient or excessive motivation;
3. organization of mental processes into a system adequate to the activity performed by a person;
4. mobilization of physical and mental capabilities when overcoming obstacles in achieving the goal.
For the emergence of volitional regulation, certain conditions are necessary - the presence of obstacles and obstacles. Will manifests itself when difficulties appear on the way to the goal: external obstacles - time, space, people's opposition, physical properties of objects, etc.; internal obstacles - relationships and attitudes, painful conditions, fatigue, etc. All these obstacles, reflected in consciousness, cause volitional effort, which creates the necessary tone to overcome difficulties.
Volitional efforts are required:
1. when replenishing the lack of motivation to act in the absence of sufficient motivation;
2. when choosing motives, goals, types of actions in case of their conflict;
3. with voluntary regulation of external and internal actions and mental processes.
Will is inextricably linked with cognitive motives and emotional processes. In this regard, all human actions can be divided into two categories: involuntary and voluntary.
Involuntary actions are committed as a result of the emergence of unconscious or insufficiently clearly conscious impulses (drives, attitudes, etc.). They are impulsive and lack a clear plan. In other words, in involuntary actions there is no clear goal and efforts of the subject to achieve it. An example of non-productive actions can be the actions of people in a state of passion (amazement, fear, delight, anger).
Voluntary actions presuppose awareness of the goal, a preliminary representation of those operations that can ensure its achievement, and their order. In this regard, will manifests itself as a person’s confidence in his own abilities, as the determination to perform the act that the person himself considers appropriate and necessary in a particular situation.
The volitional regulation of human behavior is formed and developed under the influence of control over his behavior by society, and then by the self-control of the individual.
Depending on the difficulties of the external world and the complexity of a person’s inner world, there are 4 options for the manifestation of will:
1. in an easy world, where any desire is feasible, the will is practically not required (human desires are simple, unambiguous, any desire is feasible in an easy world);
2. in a difficult world, where there are various obstacles, strong-willed efforts are required to overcome the obstacles of reality, patience is needed, but the person himself is internally calm, confident in his rightness due to the unambiguousness of his desires and goals (the simple inner world of a person);
3. in an easy external world and in a complex internal world of a person, strong-willed efforts are required to overcome internal contradictions and doubts, a person is internally complex, there is a struggle of motives and goals, a person suffers when making a decision;
4. in a difficult external world and in a complex internal world of a person, intense volitional efforts are required to overcome internal doubts in order to choose a solution and carry out actions in conditions of objective obstacles and difficulties. Volitional action here acts as a conscious, intentional, purposeful action taken for implementation by one’s own decision on the basis of external and internal necessity.
The need for a strong will increases when you have:
1. difficult situations of the “difficult world”;
2. complex, contradictory inner world in the person himself.
By performing various types of activities, while overcoming external and internal obstacles, a person develops volitional qualities: purposefulness, determination, independence, initiative, perseverance, endurance, discipline, courage.
In management activities, the following rules must be observed:
1. provide conditions for the success of the employee’s activities, but do not significantly facilitate his tasks;
2. to intensify the employee’s independent activity, to arouse in him a feeling of joy from what has been achieved, to increase his faith in his ability to overcome difficulties;
3. explain the expediency of those requirements, orders, decisions that the manager presents to the employee, and provide the employee with the opportunity to make decisions independently within reasonable limits.
The results of any volitional action have two consequences for a person: the first is the achievement of a specific goal; the second is due to the fact that a person evaluates his actions and learns appropriate lessons for the future regarding the ways to achieve the goal and the effort expended.
Emotional and volitional processes are thus closely interrelated. Will acts as a means of regulation and correction of the negative impact of emotions on activity. Emotions, in turn, give a subjective tone to volitional effort and can help increase its potential. Such a close relationship leads to the fact that in real behavior they are practically inseparable and are experienced by the subject in the form of mental states. The concept of state denotes the most integrative form of organization of all components of the psyche in a given period of time. This is the entire psyche, all its content, but at one or another interval of its functioning. The content, intensity, tone, and direction of such functioning can, of course, change greatly; at the same time, the very nature of mental states will change. A special branch of psychology deals with the study of mental states—the psychology of functional states.
In the study of managerial activity, the most significant thing is that all the main types of states and the patterns discovered during their study are not only preserved in the activities of the manager, but often appear in the most distinct form. In the psychology of functional states, there are different methods of classification. For example, by degree of intensity (high, medium, low activity); by content (in particular, states of fatigue, monotony, mental satiety, frustration, inspiration, anxiety, discomfort, etc.); by type of activity in which they arise (game, educational, work); on theft (positive, negative, ambivalent); by the nature of the impact on activities (positive and negative).
In the structure of any state, two components are distinguished, its two sides - content and dynamic (“energy”). It has been proven that the effectiveness of performing an activity is significantly influenced by both the content of states (for example, a state of depression can not only worsen, but also block activity, and a state of inspiration - on the contrary), and its intensity, “energy saturation”
The activation level can vary over a wide range of values. To designate this range in psychology, the concept of “activation continuum”, or “scale of wakefulness levels” is used. The following states are considered as such levels (in increasing order of their energy background): coma, deep sleep, REM sleep, shallow sleep, quiet wakefulness, active wakefulness, intense wakefulness, stress, emotional abortion of behavior.
Secondly, it has been proven that there is a direct connection between the degree of negative (destructive) influence of mental states and the complexity of those mental processes and formations in relation to which this influence takes place. Negative states have a stronger influence on more complex processes, formations, and types of activities than on simple ones. For example, under the influence of stress or fatigue, intellectual functions (as more complex) decrease first and to a greater extent, and then, to a relatively lesser extent, motor and executive functions (as simpler ones). These two patterns are most important for understanding the specifics of emotional-volitional regulation of states in general, and for its features in management activities.
The main and most general feature of the emotional-volitional regulation of states in management activities is the combination of the following two features. Firstly, it is managerial activity that is characterized by extremely high emotionality and stress, and contains a huge number of reasons for the occurrence of negative emotions and difficult conditions. Secondly, it is she who makes the highest demands on the effectiveness and rigidity of the emotional-volitional regulation of states, which is associated with her responsibility. Apparently, no other activity contains such a wide range of causes and factors that give rise to emotional reactions as management.
In addition to factors associated with the process of activity itself, with its organization, there is an additional and very powerful group of emotiogenic factors associated with interpersonal relationships. The complexity of the content of this activity, the presence of difficult and often extreme conditions for its implementation, combined with high responsibility for its results, form a constant symptom complex of characteristics of management activity. It acts as a source of development of unfavorable mental states, chronic “managerial stress”. At the same time, it is the leader who must “be able to restrain emotions,” “not give in to mood,” and control himself. Moreover, this is necessary not only to reduce the negative impact of emotions and states on his own activities. The point is also that the leader is “constantly in sight,” and any of his undesirable emotional manifestations and states (uncertainty, depression, nervousness, and even panic) are perceived by his subordinates and affect their activities.
Finally, it is management activity that requires the maximum inclusion of volitional processes, and the very concepts of “good leader” and “strong-willed leader” are often used synonymously. All of the above means that both the “world of emotions” and the “world of states”, and the entire spectrum of volitional processes and qualities are manifested in this activity in their maximum expression, most fully and brightly. At the same time, in the psychology of managerial activity, a circle of the most typical aspects, emotional-volitional regulation, which are of greatest importance for its organization, is usually highlighted. These include: the problem of stress in management activities, the problem of the state of frustration, the phenomenon of “readiness for emergency action”, the concept of emotional resistance of a manager, features of the cognitive regulation of dysfunctional states, patterns of expressive processes in management activities.