Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine 2 briefly table. Features of the reform carried out

Introduction

1. Domestic policy of Catherine II

1.1 Power reform

1.2 Economic, social and religious policies

2. Foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The reign of Catherine II left a noticeable mark on the history of Russia. The policy of the Russian Empress was quite versatile and sometimes even contradictory. For example, her policy of enlightened absolutism, characteristic of many European states of that era and involving patronage of art, did not, however, prevent Catherine II from strengthening serfdom.

Catherine II, born Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from a poor German princely family. Catherine was a rather complex, extraordinary person. From early childhood, she learned an everyday lesson - in order to have power, you need to be able to be cunning and pretend.

In 1745, Catherine II converted to the Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian throne, the future Peter III. Having arrived in Russia as a fifteen-year-old girl, Catherine perfectly mastered the Russian language, studied many Russian customs, and, of course, thereby achieved the ability to please the Russian people. The future Russian empress read a lot. She read a lot of books by French educators, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, and works by Russian writers. From them, Catherine II adopted the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate his subjects, about the primacy of laws in society.

Soon after the accession of Peter III, unpopular among the nobility, Catherine overthrew her husband from the throne, relying on the guards regiments. In the first years of her reign, Catherine II intensely searched for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. When deciding the fate of the favorites and mistresses of the previous reign, Catherine II showed generosity and condescension. As a result, many talented and useful people remained in their previous positions.

At the beginning of her reign, Catherine II continued to implement the policies outlined in the previous time. Some of the empress's innovations were of a private nature and did not give grounds to classify the reign of Catherine II as an outstanding phenomenon in Russian history.

It must be admitted that the circumstances under which Catherine began to reign were very difficult: finances were depleted, the army did not receive salaries, trade was in decline, because many of its industries were given over to a monopoly, the military department was plunged into debt, the clergy was dissatisfied with the taking away he has land.

1. Catherine's domestic policy II

1.1 Power reform

Catherine II declared herself the successor of Peter I. The main features of Catherine II's domestic policy were the strengthening of the autocracy, the strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus, the centralization of the country and the unification of the management system.

On December 15, 1763, according to Panin’s project, the Senate was transformed. The Senate was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and headed by the prosecutor general. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

During the reign of the Empress, an attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission. The main goal of the commission's work was to clarify the people's needs in order to carry out comprehensive reforms.

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod. The first meeting of the Statutory Commission was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow, but due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

On November 7, 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, district, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population).

The governor-general (viceroy) kept order in local centers; 2-3 provinces were subordinate to him. Each province was headed by a governor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. Finances in the province were handled by the Treasury Chamber, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was in charge of land management. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters, as well as class judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Justice for the trial of state peasants. The highest judicial bodies in the provinces were the criminal chamber and the civil chamber. The chambers judged all classes. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

At the head of the district was a captain-mentor - the leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government.

Since there were clearly not enough cities that were the centers of counties, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants.

Instead of a governor, a mayor was appointed at the head of the city, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarterly overseer.

Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea. Thus, there was no longer a need to maintain the special rights and management system of the Zaporozhye Cossacks, who served to protect the southern borders of Russia. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.

In 1787, the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 they were granted Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

As a result of general administrative reforms aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire. By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be supervised by a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members (one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts).

The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. The special Baltic order, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners, was also eliminated.

Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

In an effort to create the most real guarantees of an “enlightened monarchy,” Catherine II began to work on granting letters to the nobility, cities, and state peasants. Charters to the nobility and cities received legal force in 1785. The charter to the nobility secured for each hereditary nobleman freedom from compulsory service. They were also exempt from state taxes and corporal punishment. They retained the right of ownership of movable and immovable property, as well as the right to sue only by equals (i.e. nobles) and to conduct trade.

1.2 Economic, social and religious policies

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established for the first time.

Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product.

Russia's role in the global economy has increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, and the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).

Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, and toys. Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the cost of exported goods.

In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.

At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. On October 11, 1783, the Russian Academy was founded.

In Moscow and St. Petersburg, educational homes were created for street children, where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

In general, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued in Russia under Catherine II. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure or oppression. Thus, in 1773, a law on tolerance of all religions was issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other faiths. The secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of churches of any faith.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. The monastic peasants, numbering about 2 million people of both sexes, were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops. In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786. Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.

Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.

Under Catherine II, the persecution of Old Believers ceased. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions) and were allowed to have priests.

The free migration of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.

The Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice its faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.

By decree of Catherine II, in 1787, in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, the complete Arabic text of the Islamic holy book of the Koran was printed for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication differed significantly from European ones, primarily in that it was Muslim in nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the system of government of the empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.

Buddhism also received government support in regions where it was traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Hambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Catherine as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and her humane rule.

2. Foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “you need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”

After the first Turkish war, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.

The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine put strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to carry out a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov.

On October 13, 1795, a conference of three powers took place on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

An important area of Catherine II’s foreign policy also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian troops, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of Ryabaya Mogila, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Larga, the Battle of Chesme), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but in fact became dependent from Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here the Russians also won a number of important victories, both on land - the Battle of Kinburn, the battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Fokshani, and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), the Kerch naval battle (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakra (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, Russia’s political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered into a war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, started a war with it for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered Russian territory were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm, it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - an alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.

In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the USA. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality”, supported by the majority of European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by the fleet of a warring country).

In European affairs, Russia's role increased during the Austro-Prussian War of 1778-1779, when it acted as a mediator between the warring parties at the Congress of Teschen, where Catherine essentially dictated her terms of reconciliation, restoring balance in Europe. After this, Russia often acted as an arbiter in disputes between German states, which turned directly to Catherine for mediation.

One of Catherine’s grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel the Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine’s grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as its emperor. According to the plans, a buffer state of Dacia is created in place of Bessarabia, Moldova and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and Russia’s independent conquest of significant Turkish territories.

In October 1782, a Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular opinion, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a “great power”. As a result of two Russian-Turkish wars that were successful for Russia, the Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795 Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. During Catherine's reign, Russian colonization of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska began.

Conclusion

Estimates of the reign of Empress Catherine II in historical science are ambiguous. Many of her outwardly spectacular undertakings, conceived on a large scale, led to modest results or gave unexpected and often erroneous results.

Some historians are of the opinion that Catherine II simply implemented the changes dictated by the times and continued the policies outlined in her previous reign. Other historians recognize the empress as a major historical figure who took the second, after Peter I, step along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first along the path of reforming it in a liberal-educational spirit.

In internal affairs, the legislation of Catherine II completed the historical process that began under the temporary workers. Under Catherine, the nobility became not only a privileged class with a proper internal organization, but also a class ruling in the district (as a landowning class) and in general administration (as a bureaucracy). Parallel to the growth of noble rights and depending on it, the civil rights of landowner peasants are falling. The heyday of noble privileges in the 18th century. necessarily connected with the rise of serfdom. Therefore, the time of Catherine II was the historical moment when serfdom reached its full and greatest development. Thus, the activities of Catherine II in relation to the estates were a direct continuation and completion of those deviations from the Old Russian system that developed in the 18th century.

In foreign policy, the Empress refused to follow her predecessors, Elizabeth and Peter III. She consciously deviated from the traditions that had developed at the St. Petersburg court, and yet the results of her activities were essentially such that they completed the traditional aspirations of the Russian people and government.

List of used literature

1. Berdyshev S.N. Catherine the Great. - M.: World of Books, 2007;

2. History of diplomacy - M., 1959;

3. History of Imperial Russia from Peter I to Catherine II. – M.: Priora, 1998;

4. History of Russia: In 2 vols. T. 1: From ancient times to the end of the 18th century. / A. N. Sakharov, L. E. Morozova, M. A. Rakhmatullin, etc. - M.: Astrel, 2007;

5. Manfred A. Z. The Great French Revolution. - M, 1983;

6. Tomsinov V.A. Empress Catherine II (1729-1796) / Russian jurists of the 18th-20th centuries: Essays on life and work. In 2 volumes. T.1 - M.: Mirror, 2007

7. Catherine and the development of the Russian military fleet // Questions of history, 2005, No. 4

8. http://www.history-gatchina.ru

Tomsinov V.A. Empress Catherine II (1729-1796) // Russian jurists of the 18th-20th centuries: Essays on life and creativity. In 2 volumes. - M.: Mirror, 2007. - T. 1., P. 63

Berdyshev S.N. Catherine the Great. - M.: World of Books, 2007. P.198-203

History of diplomacy - M., 1959, p. 361

Catherine and the development of the Russian military fleet // Questions of history, 2005, No. 4

Manfred A. Z. The Great French Revolution. - M, 1983. - P.111

Catherine the Second was a Russian empress who reigned from 1762 to 1796. Unlike previous monarchs, she came to power thanks to a palace coup, overthrowing her husband, the narrow-minded Peter III. During her reign, she became famous as an active and powerful woman, who finally culturally strengthened the highest status of the Russian Empire among the European powers and metropolises.

Domestic policy of Catherine II.

While verbally adhering to the ideas of European humanism and enlightenment, in reality the reign of Catherine 2 was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of noble powers and privileges. The following reforms were carried out
1. Reorganization of the Senate. Reduction of the powers of the Senate to a body of judicial and executive power. The legislative branch was transferred directly to Catherine 2 and the cabinet of secretaries of state.
2. Laid Commission. Created with the aim of identifying people's needs for further large-scale reforms.
3. Provincial reform. The administrative division of the Russian Empire was reorganized: instead of the three-level “Guberniya” - “Province” - “District”, a two-level “Government” - “District” was introduced.

4. Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich. After the Provincial Reform led to equalization of rights between the Cossack atamans and the Russian nobility. That. There was no longer any need to maintain a special management system. In 1775, the Zaporozhye Sich was dissolved.

5. Economic reforms. A number of reforms were carried out to eliminate monopolies and establish fixed prices for vital products, expand trade relations and boost the country's economy.
6. Corruption and favorites. Due to the increased privileges of the ruling elite, corruption and abuse of rights became widespread. The empress's favorites and those close to the court received generous gifts from the state treasury. At the same time, among the favorites there were very worthy people who participated in the foreign and domestic policies of Catherine II and made a serious contribution to the history of Russia. For example, Prince Grigory Orlov and Prince.
7. Education and science. Under Catherine, schools and colleges began to open widely, but the level of education itself remained low
8. National policy. The Pale of Settlement was established for the Jews, German settlers were exempt from taxes and duties, and the indigenous population became the most powerless segment of the population.
9. Class transformations. A number of decrees were introduced expanding the already privileged rights of the nobility
10. Religion. A policy of religious tolerance was pursued, and a decree was introduced prohibiting the Russian Orthodox Church from interfering in the affairs of other faiths.

Catherine's foreign policy

1. Expanding the borders of the empire. Annexation of Crimea, Balta, Kuban region, western Rus', Lithuanian provinces, Duchy of Courland. Division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the war with the Ottoman Empire.
2. Georgievsky Treaty. Signed to establish a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (Georgia).
3. War with Sweden. Untied for the territory. As a result of the war, the Swedish fleet was defeated and the Russian fleet was sunk by a storm. A peace treaty was signed, according to which the borders between Russia and Sweden remain the same.
4. Politics with other countries. Russia often acted as a mediator establishing peace in Europe. After the French Revolution, Catherine joined the anti-French coalition due to the threat to the autocracy. Active colonization of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands began. The foreign policy of Catherine 2 was accompanied by wars, in which talented commanders, such as, helped the empress win victories.

Despite the wide scale of the reforms carried out, Catherine’s successors (especially her son) had an ambivalent attitude towards them and, after their accession, very often changed both the internal and external course of the state.

Domestic policy of Catherine II

First of all, Catherine II carried out a reform of public administration. The Cabinet of Ministers, introduced by Anna Ivanovna, was liquidated. The Senate was weakened, divided into six departments, each of which had certain powers. The departments were supervised by Prosecutor General Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, known for his incorruptibility. The hetmanate in Left-Bank Ukraine was abolished, and the governor-general of Little Russia began to govern it.

Catherine carried out the second secularization of the monastery lands, taking them to the treasury. The clergy was losing economic power; it was finally turning into a special category of bureaucracy.

The Empress decided to create a Commission to draw up a new Code. 564 delegates were elected to it throughout Russia (nobles, townspeople, Cossacks, foreigners, state peasants, etc.). For two years (1764-1765), Catherine II worked on drawing up the “Nakaz,” a manual for deputies, which declared that the purpose of power was to promote goodness, to introduce the best laws, and this could only be done by an enlightened, autocratic sovereign. However, the Legislative Commission, without fulfilling its task and without creating a new general law, was dissolved in 1769 (and abolished in 1774).

Administrative reform was carried out. The empire was divided into 50 provinces, the provinces were abolished, and the provinces were divided into counties. Power in the provinces belonged to the governor, appointed by the Senate. All financial affairs of the province were managed by the Treasury Chamber.

The judicial system, which was built on the class principle, has completely changed. The highest judicial body of the empire was the Senate.

The nobles actually received the right of local self-government. At their meetings they elected a district leader of the nobility, and in the province a provincial leader of the nobility was elected. In 1785, the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility” was published, which confirmed the class rights and privileges of the nobles - exemption from poll tax, corporal punishment, and compulsory service.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

The foreign policy of Catherine II was quite successful. Thanks to the empress's successes in this area, Russia acquired unprecedented authority in Europe.

Immediately after her accession to the throne, Catherine terminated the military alliance with Prussia concluded by Peter III. Under Catherine, a new foreign policy course for Russia was formed, which was to act in accordance with its own interests, without being in constant dependence on other states.

Catherine had to solve three problems that she inherited:

Return of Belarusian and Ukrainian lands that remained part of Poland;

Ensuring the security of the southern outskirts of Russia and access to the Black Sea;

Strengthening Russia on the shores of the Baltic Sea.

Matters with Courland and Poland were settled diplomatically, without war. The solution to the Black Sea problem required serious military efforts. The interests of Russia and Turkey collided not only in the Black Sea region, but also in Orthodox Moldova and in the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia, where a pro-Russian orientation has emerged in the ruling circles of Georgia and Armenia.

At the end of 1768, Türkiye declared war on Russia. Military operations unfolded on three fronts: in the Crimea, on the Danube and in Transcaucasia, where Russian troops entered at the request of Georgia. The war with Turkey ended with the signing of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace (1774), according to which significant territories were transferred to Russia. But in 1787 the second Russian-Turkish war began. In it A.V. showed his leadership talents. Suvorov. The war ended with Russian victory in 1791.

While the Russian-Turkish war was going on, Austria and Prussia, without Russian participation, began dividing Poland. Under these conditions, Russia, which benefited from a united but dependent Poland, was forced to engage in negotiations on the division of this country. As a result of an agreement between the three states, Poland ceased to exist as an independent state; after three partitions (1772, 1793, 1795), its entire territory was divided between Austria-Hungary, Prussia and Russia.

Introduction

1. Domestic policy of Catherine II

1.1 Power reform

1.2 Economic, social and religious policies

2. Foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

1. Catherine's domestic policyII

1.1 Power reform

More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod. 1 The first meeting of the Statutory Commission was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow, but due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.

At the head of the district was a captain-mentor - the leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government.

Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

1.2 Economic, social and religious policies

Chronology

1764 Decree on the secularization of church lands.
1765 Decree allowing landowners to exile serfs to hard labor.
1768 - 1774 I Russian-Turkish War.
1772, 1793, 1795 Three divisions of Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia.
1773 - 1775 Uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev.
1774 Signing of the Kuchuk-Kaynajir peace treaty between Russia and Turkey.
1775 Provincial reform.
1785 Charters granted to the nobility and cities.
1787 - 1791 II Russian-Turkish War.
1796 - 1801 Reign of Paul I.

"Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II

“Have the courage to use your mind,” - this is how the German philosopher Immanuel Kant defined the mentality of the era, which was called the Age of Enlightenment. In the second half of the 18th century. In connection with the general economic upswing in the ruling circles of European countries, awareness of the need to modernize the economic and political system is growing. This pan-European phenomenon is traditionally called Enlightened absolutism. Without essentially changing the state forms of absolute monarchy, within the framework of these forms, monarchs carried out reforms in various sectors.

The ideas of the French enlighteners Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot highlighted society, a specific person, his personal prosperity, which was a reflection of the emerging ideology of a new class - the bourgeoisie. Rousseau proposed creating a democratic state in which everyone could take part in governance. Voltaire actively preached humanity and justice, insisted on the abolition of medieval forms of legal proceedings. Diderot called for the abolition of class privileges and the liberation of the peasants.

Catherine II became acquainted with the works of French educators while she was still a princess. Having ascended the throne, she made an attempt to implement these ideas on Russian soil. The key word for her was “law.”

In 1767, Catherine convened a special commission in Moscow to draw up a new set of laws of the Russian Empire to replace the outdated Council Code of 1649. 572 deputies, representing the nobility, clergy, government institutions, peasants and Cossacks, participated in the work of the Coded Commission. Serf peasants, who made up half of the country's population, did not participate in the work of the commission.

Catherine prepared a special “Instruction” for the Commission to draft a new Code - a theoretical justification for the policy of enlightened absolutism. “The Mandate” consisted of 20 chapters and 655 articles, of which Catherine borrowed 294 from Montesquieu. “I only own the arrangement of the material, and here and there a line or another,” she wrote to Frederick II. The main provision of this document was the justification of the autocratic form of government and serfdom, and the features of enlightenment were visible in the creation of courts, separated from administrative institutions, and the recognition of the rights of people to do what the laws allow. Articles that protected society from despotism and the arbitrariness of the monarch deserve a positive assessment. Institutions were given the right to draw the attention of the sovereign to the fact that “such and such a decree is contrary to the Code, that it is harmful, obscure, and that it cannot be carried out according to it.” The articles that determined the economic policy of the government, which included concern for the construction of new cities, the development of trade, industry and agriculture, had a progressive significance. The commission, after working for just over a year, was dissolved under the pretext of starting a war with Turkey, but mainly because Catherine, having learned the positions of various groups of the population, considered the task completed, although not a single law was adopted.

The nobility remained the main social support of the autocracy in Russia. It opposed the huge mass of the peasantry and the weak third estate. The autocracy was strong and relied on the army and the bureaucratic apparatus to carry out its policies.

It is important to emphasize that, in contrast to the overt pro-noble and pro-serfdom policy of the autocracy of the previous period, the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was carried out in new forms.

In February 1764, the secularization of church land ownership was carried out, as a result, more than a million souls of peasants were taken away from the church, and a special board was created to manage them - the College of Economics. Much former church land was transferred to the nobles in the form of grants.

A series of decrees of the 60s crowned the feudal legislation, which turned the serfs into people completely defenseless from the arbitrariness of the landowners, obliged to meekly obey their will. In 1765, a decree was issued in favor of the serf owners, providing for the assignment to the nobles of all lands seized by them from various categories of peasants. According to the Decree of January 17, 1765, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor. In August 1767, Catherine II issued the most feudal decree in the entire history of serfdom. This decree declared any complaint by a peasant against a landowner to be a grave state crime. Legally, the landowners were deprived of only one right - to deprive their serfs of life.

In Catherine’s “enlightened age,” trade among peasants reached enormous proportions. The decrees adopted during these years testified to the deep development of serfdom. But serfdom also developed in breadth, including new categories of the population within its sphere of influence. The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of Left Bank Ukraine from changing from one owner to another. This decree of the tsarist government legally formalized serfdom in the Left Bank and Sloboda Ukraine.

A manifestation of “enlightened absolutism” was the empress’s attempt to shape public opinion through journalism. In 1769, she began to publish the satirical magazine “All sorts of things,” where human vices and superstitions were criticized, and opened a printing house at Moscow University, headed by N.I. Novikov is a Russian educator, publicist and writer. Pushkin called him “one of those who spread the first rays of enlightenment.” He made the works of W. Shakespeare, J.B. available to a wide range of readers. Moliere, M. Cervantes, works of French educators, Russian historians. Novikov published many magazines, where, for the first time in Russia, criticism of serfdom was voiced. Thus, it was in the age of Catherine that, on the one hand, the serfdom reached its apogee, and on the other, a protest against it arose not only from the oppressed class (the peasant war led by E. Pugachev), but also from the emerging Russian intelligentsia.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Illustration 29. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century. (European part)

Two main questions in Catherine’s international policy, posed and resolved by her during her reign:

Firstly, territorial - this is the task of promoting the southern border of the state (Black Sea, Crimea, Sea of Azov, Caucasus Range).
Secondly, the national one is the reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands that were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with Russia.

After the Seven Years' War, France became one of Russia's main opponents in the international arena, which sought to create the so-called “Eastern Barrier”, consisting of Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is becoming an arena for clashes between these states.

In the context of an aggravated situation, Russia managed to conclude an alliance with Prussia. Catherine II preferred to have a complete Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Frederick II strives for its territorial division.

The Ottoman Empire, which closely followed the events in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from there. In 1768 she declared war on Russia. During the first years of the war, Turkish troops were forced to abandon Khotyn, Iasi, Bucharest, Izmail and other fortresses in the Danube theater of operations.

It is necessary to note two major victories of the Russian troops.

The first occurred on June 25-26, 1770, when the Russian squadron, having circumnavigated Europe, arrived in the Mediterranean Sea and won a brilliant victory near Chesma. A month later, the talented commander P.A. Rumyantsev inflicted a serious defeat on the Turks at the Battle of Kagul. The hostilities did not stop there.

France continued to push the Ottoman Empire into war with Russia. On the other hand, Austria supported Turkey, pursuing its own goals in this war - to conquer part of the Danube principalities that were in the hands of Russian troops. Under the current conditions, the Russian government was forced to agree to the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Convention of 1772 formalized the first section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Austria captured Galicia, Pomerania, as well as part of Greater Poland, went to Prussia. Russia received part of Eastern Belarus.

Now Türkiye in 1772 agreed to conduct peace negotiations. The main point of disagreement in these negotiations was the question of the fate of Crimea - the Ottoman Empire refused to grant it independence, while Russia insisted on it. Hostilities resumed. Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov in June 1774 managed to defeat the Turkish troops at Kozludzha, this forced the enemy to resume negotiations.

On July 10, 1774, negotiations in the Bulgarian village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi ended with the signing of a peace treaty. Through this world, Kerch, Yenikale, and also Kabarda passed to Russia. At the same time, she received the right to build a navy in the Black Sea, her merchant ships could freely pass through the straits. Thus ended the First Russian-Turkish War (1768 - 1774).

However, the Turks already in 1775 violated the terms of the treaty and arbitrarily proclaimed their protege Devlet-Girey Khan of the Crimea. In response, the Russian government sent troops into Crimea and confirmed its candidate, Shagin-Girey, on the khan’s throne. The rivalry between the two powers in the struggle for Crimea ended with the promulgation in April 1783 of Catherine II’s decree on the inclusion of Crimea into Russia.

Among other Russian foreign policy steps of that period, the Georgievsky Tract should be highlighted. In 1783, an agreement was concluded with Eastern Georgia, which went down in history under the name “Treaty of St. George”, which strengthened the position of the peoples of Transcaucasia in the fight against the Iranian and Ottoman yoke.

The Ottoman Empire, although it recognized the annexation of Crimea to Russia, was intensively preparing for war with it. She was supported by England, Prussia, and France. At the end of July 1787, the Sultan's court demanded the right to Georgia and Crimea, and then began military operations with an attack on the Kinburn fortress, but this attempt was repulsed by Suvorov.

In the defeat of the Ottoman army and navy, great credit goes to the outstanding Russian commander Suvorov, who was at the head of the army, and the extraordinary talent of naval commander F.F. Ushakova.

1790 was marked by two outstanding victories. At the end of August, a naval victory was won over the Turkish fleet. Another important event of this period was the assault and capture of the Izmail fortress. This powerful fortress with a garrison of 35 thousand people and 265 guns was considered inaccessible. On December 2, A.V. appeared near Izmail. Suvorov, at dawn on December 11, the assault began, and the fortress was taken by Russian troops.

These victories of the Russian troops forced Turkey to end the war, and at the end of December 1791 to conclude a peace treaty, which confirmed the annexation of Crimea to Russia and the establishment of a protectorate over Georgia. Thus ended the Second Russian-Turkish War (1787 - 1791).

Poland continues to occupy a large place in Russian foreign policy these years. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth itself, some magnates and gentry turned to Russia for help. At their call, Russian and Prussian troops were brought into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and conditions were created for its new division.

In January 1793, a Russian-Prussian treaty was concluded, according to which Polish lands (Gdansk, Torun, Poznan) went to Prussia, and Russia was reunited with Right Bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus, from which the Minsk province was later formed - the second partition of Poland occurred.

The second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth caused the rise of a national liberation movement led by General Tadeusz Kosciuszko. In the fall of 1794, Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov entered Warsaw. The uprising was suppressed, and Kosciuszko himself was captured.

In 1795, the third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place, putting an end to its existence. The agreement was signed in October 1795, Austria sent its troops to Sandomierz, Lublin and Chelmin, and Prussia to Krakow. The western part of Belarus, Western Volyn, Lithuania and the Duchy of Courland went to Russia. The last king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth abdicated the throne and lived in Russia until his death in 1798.

The reunification of Belarus and Western Ukraine, ethnically close to the Russian peoples, with Russia contributed to the mutual enrichment of their cultures.

Paul I

The reign of Paul I (1796 - 1801) is called “unenlightened absolutism” by some historians, “military-police dictatorship” by others, and the reign of a “romantic emperor” by others. Having become emperor, the son of Catherine II tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking in Russia. His characteristic features were harshness, temper, and instability. He tightened the order of service for nobles, limited the effect of the Charter of Grant to the nobility, and introduced Prussian order in the army, which inevitably caused discontent among the upper class of Russian society. On March 12, 1801, with the participation of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander I, the last palace coup in history was carried out. Pavel was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg.