Prepared the presentation
I.Yu. Astashenko
Types of temperament.
Modern approaches to the psychological characteristics of temperament types.
According to I.P. Pavlov, temperaments are the “main features” of a person’s individual characteristics. They are usually distinguished as follows:
· sanguine,
· phlegmatic,
choleric,
· melancholic.
Sanguine temperament
Phlegmatic temperament
Choleric temperament
Melancholic temperament
A sanguine person quickly gets along with people, is cheerful, easily switches from one type of activity to another, but does not like monotonous work. He easily controls his emotions, quickly gets used to a new environment, and actively comes into contact with people. His speech is loud, fast, distinct and is accompanied by expressive facial expressions and gestures. But this temperament is characterized by some duality. If stimuli change quickly, novelty and interest of impressions are maintained all the time, a state of active excitement is created in a sanguine person and he manifests himself as an active, active, energetic person. If the influences are long-lasting and monotonous, then they do not maintain a state of activity, excitement, and the sanguine person loses interest in the matter, he develops indifference, boredom, and lethargy.
A sanguine person quickly develops feelings of joy, grief, affection and hostility, but all these manifestations of his feelings are unstable, do not differ in duration and depth. They arise quickly and can disappear just as quickly or even be replaced by the opposite. The mood of a sanguine person changes quickly, but, as a rule, a good mood prevails.
Sanguine temperament
A person of this temperament is slow, calm, unhurried, and balanced. In his activities he demonstrates thoroughness, thoughtfulness, and perseverance. As a rule, he finishes what he starts. All mental processes in a phlegmatic person seem to proceed slowly. The feelings of a phlegmatic person are poorly expressed outwardly; they are usually inexpressive. The reason for this is the balance and weak mobility of nervous processes. In relationships with people, a phlegmatic person is always even-tempered, calm, moderately sociable, and has a stable mood. The calmness of a person of phlegmatic temperament is also manifested in his attitude towards events and phenomena in life, a phlegmatic person is not easily enraged and emotionally hurt. It is easy for a person of phlegmatic temperament to develop self-control, composure, and calmness. But a phlegmatic person should develop the qualities he lacks - greater mobility, activity, and not allow him to show indifference to activity, lethargy, inertia, which can very easily form under certain conditions. Sometimes a person of this temperament may develop an indifferent attitude towards work, towards life around him, towards people and even towards himself.
Phlegmatic temperament
Melancholic temperament
Melancholic people have slow mental processes, they have difficulty reacting to strong stimuli; Prolonged and strong stress causes people of this temperament to slow down their activity and then stop it. Melancholic people are usually passive in their work, often with little interest (after all, interest is always associated with strong nervous tension). Feelings and emotional states in people of melancholic temperament arise slowly, but are distinguished by depth, great strength and duration; melancholic people are easily vulnerable, have a hard time withstanding insults and grief, although outwardly all these experiences are poorly expressed in them. Representatives of a melancholic temperament are prone to isolation and loneliness, avoid communicating with unfamiliar, new people, are often embarrassed, and show great awkwardness in a new environment. Everything new and unusual causes melancholics to become inhibited. But in a familiar and calm environment, people with this temperament feel calm and work very productively. It is easy for melancholic people to develop and improve their characteristic depth and stability of feelings, increased susceptibility to external influences.
Choleric temperament
People of this temperament are fast, excessively mobile, unbalanced, excitable, all mental processes occur quickly and intensely in them. The predominance of excitation over inhibition, characteristic of this type of nervous activity, is clearly manifested in the incontinence, impetuosity, hot temper, and irritability of the choleric person. Hence the expressive facial expressions, hasty speech, sharp gestures, unrestrained movements. The feelings of a person with choleric temperament are strong, usually clearly manifested, and arise quickly; the mood sometimes changes dramatically. The imbalance characteristic of a choleric person is clearly associated with his activities: he gets down to business with increasing intensity and even passion, showing impetuosity and speed of movements, working with enthusiasm, overcoming difficulties. But in a person with a choleric temperament, the supply of nervous energy can quickly be depleted in the process of work, and then a sharp decline in activity may occur: elation and inspiration disappear, and the mood drops sharply. In communicating with people, a choleric person admits harshness, irritability, and emotional incontinence, which often does not give him the opportunity to objectively evaluate people’s actions, and on this basis he creates conflict situations in the team. Excessive straightforwardness, hot temper, harshness, and intolerance sometimes make it difficult and unpleasant to be in a group of such people.
Knowledge of temperament, knowledge of the peculiarities of the innate organization of the nervous system, which influences the course of a person’s mental activity, is necessary for a teacher in his educational and educational work. It should be remembered that the division of people into four types of temperament is very arbitrary. There are transitional, mixed, intermediate types of temperament; Often a person's temperament combines traits of different temperaments. “Pure” temperaments are relatively rare.
- Psychology knows two fundamentally different personality types: extroverts and introverts.
- Extroverts are a type of personality (or behavior) that is oriented in its manifestations outward, towards others.
- Introverts are a type of personality (or behavior) oriented inward or towards oneself.
- Extroverts are characterized by behavior in which a person strives to:
- to communicate with people,
- attention from others,
- participation in public speaking,
- participation in crowded events and parties.
Extroverts and Introverts
An extrovert can be an excellent toastmaster, organizer (often on a voluntary basis), official, manager of people, artist or entertainer.
Introverts are characterized by behavior that is more related to comfortable solitude, internal reflections and experiences, creativity, or observation of the process. An introvert can be an excellent scientist, researcher, observer, writer, or self-employed entrepreneur. If an extrovert needs the presence of other people for comfort, then an introvert is comfortable working alone.
What is the reason for the existence of such different personality types? You and I know that a person is built much more complex than his anatomical structure. And part of this complex mechanism of change is the energy aspect. Probably, all processes occurring in a person are associated with the expenditure of energy, and therefore the method of replenishing energy is an important element of the life and behavior of every person.
Usually a person receives energy into the etheric body through breathing, nutrition and sleep. During sleep, a person’s biofield is restored, since the “waste” of ethereal energy on other subtle bodies is reduced to a minimum (the physical body makes almost no movements during sleep, the mental body gradually lives out those thoughts and ideas that a person thought during the day, and consumption of the astral body is minimal), and the energy potential generated and stored during sleep allows a person to live and work fruitfully the next day. That's why after sleep we feel rested, filled with strength and energy. But this filling does not happen to all people equally. It turns out that extroverts do not have enough energy that they received during sleep. And for a full life, they have to look for energy replenishment in the surrounding world (society). This is what they do successfully, receiving energy in one form or another from other people. Actually, it is precisely this fact that unconsciously forces extroverts to seek the company of other people, to attract attention, to be in public, in the center of attention.
Introverts, on the other hand, perfectly replenish their energy reserves during sleep and then live mainly off this energy all day long. This allows them to do their own work or creativity alone. They do not have a burning or urgent need to communicate with others; they are comfortable alone with themselves.
The well-known term “energy vampire,” which was written about in the article about “energy vampirism,” only tells us that this is a person of an extroverted type who needs energy replenishment, and he receives this energy from people, and at the same time does it in an unconstructive way. Simply put, an “energy vampire” is an extrovert who gains energy by hurting people and harming them (through grievances, fears, unfounded accusations, criticism, etc.). But, fortunately, there are extroverts (and they are the majority) who get energy from doing good and benefiting people.
How to recognize an introvert and an extrovert? To do this, you should pay attention to human behavior. After all, the essence of each of us is 99.9% manifested in our behavior. You've probably encountered a similar situation. An elderly woman gets on the tram. The young man immediately begins to read the newspaper and doze off, and a serious man loudly asks him to give way to the woman who has entered. The young man doesn’t even get up, but a satisfied old woman sits down in his place. If we analyze this situation energetically, it turns out that the young man is an introvert, immersed only in his own problems and interests. A serious man, an extrovert, who took care of my grandmother and preserved his energy. After all, he did not give up his seat, and at the same time received the energy of dissatisfaction from the young man, the energy of gratitude from the old woman, the energy of those passengers who were worried about their place, the energy of passengers who support a serious person in what young people need teach to give way to elders. If during a break at work you go into the smoking room and see a person who is enthusiastically telling jokes to eagerly listening colleagues, you can be sure that the speaker is an extrovert who brings benefit and pleasure to people - for the energy of their attention.
In any business, both types of personality work. Each of these personality types has its own advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of each type must be used 100%, and the disadvantages of these two approaches must also gradually be turned into advantages.
So, the advantages of introverts in the work of a manager:
- a communication style that is comfortable for the client (making your interlocutor angry is a disaster for an introvert);
- ability to work individually (there is no need to constantly be in a team).
Advantages of an extrovert:
- easily make contacts (including cold ones, there is no fear of a possible negative reaction),
- there is no fear of public speaking (the more people, the more attention, and therefore, energy).
Disadvantages of introverts:
- communication is difficult (no need for new contacts, fear of causing a negative reaction),
- reluctance to go on stage (no need to attract attention).
Disadvantages of Extroverts
: do not care about the client’s comfortable state (even a negative reaction, on an energetic level, suits them),
- sometimes they turn public speaking into a farce (the main thing is energy, not business).
How can I help myself achieve the maximum with my potential? First of all, you probably need to realize what type of personality you are. There are many tests to determine your personality type. Analyze your behavior:
- Are you comfortable working alone?
- Is it easy for you to make contacts?
- Do you have a passion for public speaking?
- On the train, do you prefer to communicate or remain silent? etc.
Introverts should learn to communicate with people in such a way as to have only a positive reaction from the interlocutor or listener. And for this you need to respect your interlocutor and put his interests first. Most likely, introverts need to learn how to evoke a positive reaction from the first word.
The concept of temperament and its types.
Physiological bases of temperament.
Modern approaches to the mental characteristics of temperament types.
There are no uninteresting people in the world
Their destinies are like the stories of planets. Each one has everything special, its own,
And there are no planets similar to it.
(Evtushenko E.A.)
The psyche of each person is unique. Its uniqueness is associated both with the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, and with the unique composition of social connections and contacts (external influences).
Biologically determined personality substructures include temperament, as well as gender and age-related mental properties. Thus, personality acts as a set of internal conditions through which all external influences are refracted. The most important component of internal conditions is part of the properties of the nervous system. The type of nervous system, in turn, determines a person’s temperament. Therefore, we begin by considering the influence of temperament on behavior.
It would be wrong to think that temperament depends only on the hereditary properties of the nervous system. The social environment has a significant impact on both the rate of development of temperament and the ways in which it is manifested by an individual.
Temperament is the biological foundation on which the personality is formed as a social being. It reflects mainly the dynamic aspects of behavior, mainly of an innate nature. Features of a person’s temperament are an important condition that should be taken into account when taking an individual approach to education, training and development of his abilities.
Human behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on the characteristics of its natural organization.
TEMPERAMENT
Not a single mental process, not a single mental property characterizes our behavioral appearance as much as temperament. The properties of temperament, defining the dynamic side of personality, are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person. The main components of temperament are:
general psychological activity,
motor skills,
emotionality,
sensual tone,
The following depends on temperament: the speed of occurrence of mental processes and their stability, the pace and rhythm of activity and behavior, the intensity of mental processes. Speech activity, its rhythm, tempo are always colored by such a mental feature as temperament. Our feelings and experiences are organically interconnected with the manifestation of all the properties of temperament Facial expressions, gestures, acts and actions of non-verbal communication, gait, motor skills always bear the mark of one or another type of temperament.
In the history of the study of temperament, the properties of temperament from the very beginning were characterized as group, “typological” features. In other words, the concept of temperament was associated with the idea of types of temperaments, the properties by which some groups of people differ from others.
In the traditional classification of temperament, coming from Kant and Wundt, such properties were the speed and strength of emotional reactions. For the modern American psychologist Diamond, the level of activity and the predominant feeling tone. For the English psychologist Eysenck, extraversion - introversion and neuroticism - emotional stability.
In Russian literature, for example, N.D. Livitogo, - emotional excitability; in the works of V.D. Nebylitsyn - general psychological activity, especially motor, and emotional. The similarity noticeable in these classifications shows that the identified psychological characteristics form a special, more or less uniquely defined group of individual properties. A more complete list of temperament properties is given by V.S. Merlin: sensitivity, reactivity, activity, the ratio of activity and reactivity, reaction rate, plasticity and rigidity, extroversion and introversion, emotional excitability (see the dictionary of psychological terms). This list identifies a special group of properties in personality, different from both abilities and characteristics of motivation. In terms of specific psychological content, these properties are very different.
The history of the study of this issue is an interesting attempt to establish a connection between human behavior and the characteristics of his external body structure, the structure of the surface of his skull, endocrine and vascular systems.
But all these attempts turned out to be anti-scientific and reactionary in their conclusions. Each of the researchers focuses on one system while ignoring the others.
The body must be considered as a complex whole in its connections with the outside world. In the body it is necessary to find a component that, firstly, regulates the activity of all organs and tissues, secondly, unites and coordinates the activities of the diverse parts in the system, and thirdly, experiences the activity of all organs and, under the influence of the impulses they send, are restructured, ensuring the maintenance of life in the body and tissues; fourthly, it is the organ of communication of the body with the external conditions of life, ensuring the reflection of these conditions.
Pavlov saw in the activity of the higher part of the brain the organ that controls all the phenomena occurring in the body.
Pavlov, using the method of conditioned reflex, revealed the intentions of higher nervous activity and the basic properties of nervous processes.
The main properties of nervous processes are:
1) The strength of the basic nervous processes - irritable and inhibitory;
2) Equilibrium of these processes:
3) Their mobility.
The strength of nervous processes is an indicator of the performance of nerve cells and the nervous system as a whole. A strong nervous system can withstand heavy and prolonged stress, while a weak one “breaks” under these conditions. Balance is a certain balance between the processes of excitation and inhibition. These processes may be balanced with each other, or they may be unbalanced: one process may be stronger than the other.
Mobility is the speed of changing one process to another, ensuring adaptation to unexpected and sudden changes in circumstances.
Pavlov identified 4 types of nervous activity. Three are considered strong, one is weak.
Strong ones, in turn, are divided into balanced and unbalanced, and balanced ones into mobile (mobile) and calm (inert). The result is the following type system:
1. A strong, unbalanced (uncontrollable) type of nervous activity is characterized by a strong process of excitation and less strong inhibition.
2.Strong, balanced (for balanced people, “the process of excitation is well balanced with the process of inhibition”), mobile.
3.Strong, balanced, inert (outwardly calmer, more respectable).
4. Weak, characterized by weakness of both excitation and inhibition processes, with increased inhibition.
Due to the low mobility of nervous processes, inertia is observed.
Later, various variations of the weak type were discovered - mobile, inert, unbalanced.
Nebylitsyn established that the weak type is highly sensitive and can adapt to living conditions.
But it would be wrong to think that 4 types of the nervous system can exhaust the variety of individual forms of manifestation of an individual’s GNI. There are intermediate and transitional ones. Pavlov believed that these types must be known in order to navigate human behavior.
Teplov also identified partial typological properties that characterize the work of individual areas of the cortex (auditory, visual, motor areas). These intermediate and transitional partials can be a consequence of inclinations and are formed from the main types in the process of an individual’s life.
Pavlov experimentally proved the possibility of changing the properties of the type of nervous activity. For example: in an unrestrained type, a strong excitation process is unbalanced by a strong inhibition process; it turned out that through training, it was possible to increase the strength of the inhibitory process and bring it into balance with the excitation process. Pavlov concludes: in a strongly excitable type, it is possible through training to achieve strong inhibition, sufficient to balance the processes of excitation.
Along with this, the characteristics of the individual’s behavior also change.
According to Pavlov, there are several options for the unrestrained type. A type in which the excitation process has reached extreme strength, and the inhibition process is weakened, or the processes of both excitation and inhibition are strong, but the excitation process exceeds it. The third option is when the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition reaches almost the first level, i.e. is balanced.
Pavlov says that through long-term training you can strengthen a weak nervous system. A person with a weak type, in favorable conditions, can become a representative of a full-fledged type of behavior and solve any life problems.
Pavlov’s ideas about the types of higher nervous activity were developed by such Soviet scientists as E.M. Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsyn, who created a new direction in psychology - differential psycho-physiology. They experimentally established additional properties of the nervous system: lability - the speed of occurrence and progression of excitable and inhibited processes; dynamism - speed and ease of development of conditioned reflexes; concentration is an indicator of the degree of differentiation of stimuli; an important positive property of the weak type has been discovered - high sensitivity.
Recently, a number of new data have been obtained indicating the heredity of certain properties of the nervous system.
The properties of the nervous system must be studied taking into account the characteristics of people's behavior in life situations. Natural features of the nervous system can be masked by a system of temporary connections developed during life. No mental trait is purely innate. The manifestation of the properties of the nervous system, as such, is possible only in extreme (extraordinary) conditions. Therefore, modern research into the problem of individual differences is aimed at developing a special system of “vital indicators”, i.e. objectively assessed vital manifestations of the studied properties of the nervous system.
The problem of psychological characteristics of temperament in life situations was actively studied by V.S. Merlin and his staff.
On specific properties of temperament V.S. Merlin includes features of the emotional-volitional sphere: activity, restraint, emotional excitability, speed of emergence and change of feelings, mood features, anxiety, restlessness, as well as a number of other mental features: performance, speed of inclusion in new work, general rigidity of personality, features of attention and etc.
Among the outstanding people of the past there are people with a wide variety of temperaments. A. Suvorov and A. Herzen were sanguine, Peter 1 and I. Pavlov were choleric, N.V. Gogol and P. Tchaikovsky were melancholic, and M.I. Kutuzov and I.N. Krylov - phlegmatic. And among our contemporaries, outstanding athletes, cosmonauts, and government officials, we see people who differ in temperament.
I. Kant, a German philosopher, divided temperaments into two types: temperaments of feeling and temperaments of activity. He classifies the temperament of feelings as sanguine and melancholic. Those. the relationship between different feelings and different degrees of activity. For W. Wundt, this is the relationship between the speed and strength of mental movements.
Of greatest importance is the struggle between two main directions - the explanation of the types of temperament and the relationship between the activity of the endocrine glands by the German doctor E. Kretschmer or the American Sheldon or the relationship of the nervous system (Pavlov).
Temperament is a personality quality formed in a person’s personal experience on the basis of his genetically determined type of nervous system and largely determines the style of his activity. Temperament is part of the biopsychic substructure of the dynamic functional structure of personality. There are four main temperaments: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic. Temperament is determined by the procedural in personality, but it is influenced by the interaction of the procedural and the substantive.
“Temperament is the most general characteristic of each individual person, the most basic characteristic of his nervous system, and this latter puts one or another stamp on the entire activity of each individual,” wrote I.P. Pavlov (Complete collection of works. M. - L., 1951, vol. III, book 2, p. 85.).
The type of temperament is determined by the combined indicators of extroversion - introversion and neuroticism.
Extraversion is a genetic personality trait that manifests itself in sociability, activity, optimism, a tendency to lead and carelessness, impulsiveness and excitability. More often contributes to good adaptation to the social environment.
Introversion – individualism, one’s own evaluation system is stronger than external judgments, emotionality, more often – social inadequacy, lack of contact with people; pronounced introversion is a factor of emotional instability.
It is not uncommon for there to be no clear predominance of any manifestations of temperament. The classic type of temperament, according to G. Eysenck, consists of the ratio of a person’s manifestations of emotional stability - instability and extraversion and introversion.
Emotional stability (stability) is a trait that expresses the preservation of organized behavior and situational focus in normal and stressful situations. They are determined by the absence of great tension, anxiety, a tendency to lead, sociability, etc. Emotional instability - expresses a tendency to rapid changes in mood (lability), feelings of guilt and anxiety, preoccupation, depressive reactions, absent-mindedness, etc. (neuroticism), which gives rise to instability in stressful situations. It often corresponds to emotionality, inability to adapt to the environment, impulsiveness, unevenness in contacts with people, variability of interests, self-doubt, and introversion.
A person with high neuroticism is characterized by hypersensitive reactions, tension, anxiety, dissatisfaction with himself and the world around him. A person with a low level of neuroticism is calm, carefree, easy-going, and reliable.
Using the G. Eysenck questionnaire, not only the severity of this personality trait of choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic and sanguine, extraversion, neuroticism, but also psychoticism is measured. The psychoticism scale indicates a tendency to associative behavior, pretentiousness, inadequacy of emotional reactions, and high conflict levels in individuals who score high on this scale.
Even Hippocrates (5th century BC) believed that the state of the body depends on the quantity and ratio of “juices” or liquids available
Extroverts are people oriented towards the world around them, spontaneous, active, open in their emotional manifestations, loving movement and risk. They are characterized by impulsiveness, behavioral flexibility, sociability and social adaptability. Usually these are active, noisy people and the “soul of the company”, ringleaders, excellent businessmen and organizers, have external charm, and are straightforward in their judgments. As a rule, they are guided by external assessment, so they can pass exams well, are drawn to new impressions and sensations, are optimistic, and cope well with work that requires quick decision-making.
Introverts are people for whom the greatest interest is in the phenomena of their own inner world; for them, their theories and assessments of reality are more important than reality itself. They are prone to reflection, introspection, unsociable, withdrawn and have difficulty in social adaptation and are often socially passive. They are usually more sensitive to external stimuli, recognize colors and sounds more accurately, are more careful, accurate and pedantic, show the best results on intelligence tests, do better at school and university than others, and cope better with monotonous work. Bosses who hold high positions that do not require constant communication with people are most often introverts.
Choleric – characterized by a high level of mental activity, energetic actions, sharpness, swiftness, force of movement, their fast pace, impetuosity. He is prone to sudden mood swings, quick-tempered, impatient, prone to emotional breakdowns, and sometimes aggressive. In the absence of proper upbringing, lack of emotional balance can lead to an inability to control one's emotions in difficult life situations.
Sanguine - characterized by high mental activity, efficiency, swiftness and vivacity of movements, variety and richness of facial expressions, fast speech. They strive for frequent changes of impressions, respond easily and quickly to surrounding events, and are sociable. Emotions - mostly positive - arise quickly and quickly change. They experience failures relatively easily and quickly. Under unfavorable conditions and negative educational influences, mobility can result in a lack of concentration, unjustified haste in actions, and superficiality.
Phlegmatic - this type of temperament is characterized by a low level of mental activity, slowness, and inexpressive facial expressions. He does not easily switch from one activity to another and has difficulty adapting to a new environment. A phlegmatic person has a calm, even mood. Feelings and moods are usually constant. Under unfavorable conditions, he may develop lethargy, poverty of emotions, and a tendency to perform monotonous actions.
Melancholic – characterized by a low level of mental activity, slowness of movements, restraint of facial expressions and speech, and rapid fatigue. He is distinguished by high emotional sensitivity to the events happening to him, usually accompanied by increased anxiety, depth and stability of emotions with their weak external manifestation, and negative emotions predominate. Under unfavorable conditions, a melancholic person may develop increased emotional vulnerability, isolation, alienation, fear of new situations, people and various kinds of tests.
10.1. Approaches to the study of temperament and their use in domestic and foreign penitentiary psychology
Temperament determines differences in people's behavior, primarily in dynamic aspects. It is based on a type of higher nervous activity.
There are different approaches to characterizing temperament. The humoral theory of individual differences linked the state of the body with the ratio of various juices (liquids). In this regard, four types of temperament were distinguished: sanguine, choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic (Hippocrates, Galen, Kant). J. Strelyau noted that “the influence that the teachings of ancient doctors and philosophers had on the further development of the typology of temperaments can be judged at least by the fact that until the middle of the 18th century. almost all researchers saw the anatomical and physiological basis of temperament in the structure and functioning of the nervous system” (Ya. Strelyau. The role of temperament in mental development. - M., 1982. P. 20.).
Constitutional theories of temperament were based on differences in the constitution of the body - its physical structure, the relationship of its individual parts, various tissues (E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon). On this basis, E. Kretschmer identified three types of temperament: schizothymic, ixothymic and cyclothymic. A schizothymic person has an asthenic build, is closed, prone to fluctuations in emotions, stubborn, difficult to change attitudes and views, and has difficulty adapting to the environment. An ixothymic person, on the contrary, has an athletic build, is calm, unimpressive, distinguished by restrained gestures and facial expressions, low flexibility of thinking, and pettiness. The cyclothymic has a picnic physique, is sociable and realistic, his emotions are dynamic.
W. Sheldon distinguishes types of temperament depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: viscerotonia (from lat. viscera– entrails), somatonia (from Greek. soma– body) and cerebrotonia (from lat. cerebrut- brain). The differences between temperaments lie in the predominance of certain properties.
The main disadvantage of these theories of temperament can be considered that they judge temperament by the systems of the body that are least associated with temperament.
The dependence of the course of mental processes and human behavior on the functioning of the nervous system was determined by I.P. Pavlov. He and his students identified three main properties of the nervous system: the strength of excitation and inhibition, their mobility (the ability to quickly replace each other) and balance. Based on the doctrine of the properties of the nervous system I.P. Pavlov developed the doctrine of types of higher nervous activity (HNA).
Excitation is a property of living organisms, the active response of excitable tissue to irritation, the process of transferring information about the properties of irritations coming from outside.
Inhibition is an active process inextricably linked with excitation, leading to a delay in the activity of nerve centers or working organs.
The typology of GNI included four main types and coincided with the ancient classification of temperaments: sanguine, with a strong, balanced and mobile type of nervous system; choleric – a strong, mobile, but unbalanced type of nervous system; phlegmatic - a strong, balanced, but inert type of nervous system; melancholic – a weak type of nervous system.
K. Cooper gave characteristics of different types of temperament (Table 8).
Table 8
| Sign | Sanguine | Choleric | Phlegmatic person | Melancholic |
| Speech, movements, facial expressions | Joyfully animated | Energetic, determined, alive | Calm, slow, heavy | Slow, lethargic |
| Features of life attitudes | A joyful manifestation of inner life. Always cheerful, happy and cheerful. Cares and the tragic, as well as the unpleasant, are swept aside. Loves fun, bustle and would like to always live without complications | Lives energetically, asserting his will. Activity is combined with a strong will. Irritable, quick-tempered, quick in business. Hates laziness, slowness and stiffness. Wants to quickly achieve the goal and is not afraid of dangers | Slow in feelings. Calm and cool. Has difficulty losing balance, avoids vigorous activity and effort, is never in a hurry | He thinks and thinks for a long time. Dissatisfied if he is distracted from internal experiences or disturbed. He takes everything seriously, so he doesn’t find real joy in life. Loves loneliness and thinks about bad things that can happen or have happened |
| Social roles | Trade workers, merchants, actors and workers | Officers, executives, mechanics, drivers, business people | Employees, lawyers | Philosophers, scientists, poets |
In the works of followers of I.P. Pavlov, while studying the neurophysiological foundations of temperament and individual differences in people, ideas about the properties of the human nervous system were clarified and developed. B.M. Teplov (1956) and V.D. Nebylitsyn (1972) considered it inappropriate to reduce all typological variations to four main types. They also discovered new properties of the nervous system, which in various combinations are included in the corresponding temperament:
1. Speed and intensity of mental processes, mental activity.
2. Extraversion or introversion.
3. Adaptability, plasticity, adaptation to external changing conditions or reduced adaptability, inflexibility.
4. Sensitivity, emotional excitability or weakness of emotions, emotional instability.
Table 9
Types of temperament and their corresponding mental properties
| Mental properties | Types of temperament and corresponding properties of GNI | ||||
| Sanguine | Choleric | Phlegmatic person | Melancholic | ||
| strong, balanced suspended, mobile |
strong, excitable, agile | strong, balanced suspended, inert |
weak, unbalanced suspended, nervous processes are poorly vision |
||
| 1. Speed and strength of mental reactions |
speed | high | very high | slow | average |
| force | average | very big | big | big | |
| 2. Extraversion /introversion |
extrovert | extrovert | introvert | introvert | |
| 3. Plastic /rigidity |
plastic | plastic | rigid | rigid | |
| 4. Sensitivity |
excitability | moderate | high | weak | high |
| strength of emotions | average | very big | weak | big | |
| expression | moderate | increased Naya |
reduced Naya |
increased Naya |
|
| sustainability | stable | unstable | very stable | very unstable | |
It is important to know the relationship between a person’s biological properties, his organic basis and the psychological content of temperament. In the works of B.M. Teplova, V.D. Nebylitsyna, V.S. Merlin developed a concept, the essence of which is to highlight the subject-substantive and formal-dynamic aspects in the human psyche.
The subject-content aspect is represented by images, ideas, motives, relationships, values; formal-dynamic – traits and properties of the human psyche that underlie his activity, regardless of its specific motives, goals, methods and relationships and manifested in the “external picture of behavior” (I.P. Pavlov). The dynamic features of the psyche are determined by the neurophysiological properties of the human body.
The formal-dynamic features of the human psyche constitute temperament. They highlight two characteristics of temperament: general mental activity and emotionality.
Activity is, first of all, the dynamic-energetic intensity of human behavior (tempo, rhythm, speed, intensity, plasticity, strength, endurance, energy, etc.), manifested in his relationships with the outside world.
Emotionality includes all the richness of a person’s emotional manifestations and moods: impressionability, sensitivity, emotional excitability and stability, lability, joy, sadness, anger, fear. Emotionality is a sign or character of a person’s attitude towards the objective world, himself, and other people.
Thus, temperament can be defined as a formal-dynamic component of human behavior, manifested in the general activity of his interaction with the outside world and emotional attitude towards the process of interaction and its results (V.I. Slobodchikov, E.I. Isaev, 1995; M.I. . Enikeev, 1996).
B.M. Teplov, V.D. Nebylitsyn, V.S. Merlin, N.S. Leitis, E.A. Klimov considers it impossible to draw definitive conclusions about the number of types of the nervous system, as well as about the number of typical temperaments. Nevertheless, for studying the personality of the convict and determining an individual approach to it, the classification of temperament types we presented can be of great help.
Let's consider the psychological characteristics of the convicts' temperaments.
1. A sanguine person is an impressionable, lively, moderately excited person who responds to everything that attracts his attention. He is extremely active and energetically takes on any task. At the same time, his activity and reactivity are balanced with each other, so he quite easily restrains the manifestation of his feelings. He has an accelerated gait, rapid movements and rate of speech. He easily gets used to a new environment and switches from one job to another. Extroverted. However, the emotional experiences of a sanguine convict, as a rule, are shallow, and his mobility, activity and reactivity under negative educational influence can lead to a lack of proper concentration, haste, and sometimes to amateurism.
2. A choleric person is an impetuous, carried away person who easily becomes extremely excited and loses his temper. He is unrestrained, impatient, quick and harsh, because in him reactivity prevails over activity. His movements are swift, his speech is heated, rich in emotional shades, his facial expressions and pantomimes are varied and bright. He is able to perform work for a long time and with concentration, and at the same time shows increased perseverance. His interests and hobbies are quite constant. He does not get lost when difficulties arise and overcomes them with ease. Quite extroverted. His lack of balance and slight excitability can, under unfavorable upbringing conditions, result in incontinence, hot temper, and inability to self-control.
3. A phlegmatic person usually has a relatively low level of behavioral activity and low reactivity. He is characterized by equanimity, unexpressive facial expressions and pantomimes. He is quite stable in his desires, aspirations and hobbies. He slowly gets involved in the work and, having entered into its rhythm, calmly, without unnecessary hesitation or retreat, strives to bring it to completion. Somewhat closed, introverted, emotionally low-excitable, rigid. Under unfavorable influence, a phlegmatic convict may develop lethargy, poverty and weakness of emotional states, and a tendency to habitual actions and behaviors.
4. A melancholic person is characterized by changes in mood even for a very minor reason, touchiness and slight vulnerability. He quickly withdraws into himself and easily gets lost, does not complete the work he has begun if difficulties and obstacles are encountered. His facial expressions and pantomime are sluggish, his speech is slow. He experiences troubles and joys for a long time, although outwardly it is almost imperceptible. Unsociable, introverted. In the absence of appropriate upbringing conditions, a melancholic person may develop painful emotional vulnerability, isolation and alienation, and a tendency to difficult internal experiences of minor life circumstances.
Thus, when working with convicts, one must not transform one temperament into another, but strive to develop the positive traits inherent in each temperament and try to weaken the influence of negative ones. It should be borne in mind that the temperament of a convicted person does not characterize the content side of a person (worldview, interests, attitudes, ideals, beliefs), but only the dynamics of mental phenomena (tempo, speed, rhythm, intensity).
Temperament should not be confused with the character of the convicted person, which is inextricably linked with the content side of the personality. Temperament does not determine a person’s values, nor does it set a limit for a person’s ability to achieve success in a particular area. The formation of temperament depends on the development of character, the will of the individual, and its orientation. The same initial properties of temperament can determine different properties of will and character. With appropriate upbringing and activity, a person with a weak type of nervous system can develop a strong character and strong will.
10.2. Manifestations of temperament in convicts. Diagnosis of temperament
Correctional officers often have to deal with numerous intermediate and transitional types of temperament in a convict. Incontinence depends on the strength of nervous processes. The imbalance of convicts is due to the predominance of strong excitation over less strong inhibition or weak excitation over even weaker inhibition. Moreover, in the first case we are dealing with passionate uncontrollability, and in the second - hysterical imbalance.
How can a correctional officer determine the temperament of a particular convict?
According to I.P. Pavlov, “temperament is a general characteristic of each individual person, the most basic characteristic of his nervous system, and this latter puts one or another stamp on the entire activity of each individual...” (Pavlov I.P. Physiological doctrine of the types of the nervous system, temperaments. – 2nd ed. Book 1. – M., 1951. P. 375.). This means that temperament manifests itself in activity.
Indicators of the basic properties of the nervous system help to get an idea of the types of temperament.
The traits of temperament, determined by the strength-weakness of nervous processes, can be judged by how the convict overcomes obstacles, what is his endurance in work, whether he is able to maintain active tension in himself for a long time, whether he can perform work with concentration in the presence of extraneous stimuli or needs calm environment, silence, how to behave in dangerous situations. When determining the traits of temperament associated with the balance or imbalance of nervous processes, it is necessary to establish: how the convict behaves under normal conditions, what his mood is (even, calm or rapidly changing), whether he is balanced or shows irritability, how irritability manifests itself (flares up sharply or accumulates) gradually). Balance can be judged by how the convict behaves when forced to wait: calmly or impatiently.
Temperamental traits, determined by the mobility-inertia of nervous processes, are found in the prisoner’s easy adaptability to changing conditions, quick switching and distribution of attention.
Under normal conditions, each temperament has its own advantages and disadvantages. With good upbringing and self-control, a sanguine person is characterized by high responsiveness, a phlegmatic person is characterized by endurance and self-control, the absence of impulsive and rash actions, a choleric person is characterized by passion and high activity, a melancholic person is characterized by deep experiences, an emotional response, and great impressionability.
Among convicts, negative qualities of temperament are emphasized: in a sanguine person - superficiality, carelessness, frivolity; in a phlegmatic person - emotional dullness, indifference, suspicion, passivity; in a choleric person - affectivity, explosiveness, aggressiveness; in a melancholic person - pessimism, isolation, gloominess, anxiety, suspiciousness. Thus, a state of emotional outburst and anger in a choleric convict can arise with a single strong impact, and in a phlegmatic person - only with repeated, separated in time impacts.
For a choleric convict, a state of depression and uncertainty arises as a result of severe overwork, while for a melancholic convict, this occurs due to a strong and sudden single impact or in the event of a radical change in circumstances.
Some features of convicts are related to the type of crimes committed. Thus, those convicted of violent crimes have high reactivity, rigidity, low ability for adaptive forms of behavior, and aggressiveness; Those convicted of selfish crimes are characterized by impulsiveness, emotional instability, and a certain ability to reflect. Among those who have committed crimes against the person, the choleric type of temperament predominates, and among those who have committed property crimes, the phlegmatic type predominates. In this regard, the situational role attitudes of those convicted of selfish crimes may be more susceptible to change than the attitudes of those convicted of violent crimes.
At the same time, one cannot give a criminal assessment of a person based on temperament, because he can be neither criminal nor non-criminal. It manifests itself in a person’s criminal behavior in an organic connection with the direction of his moral qualities, mental development and only gives it an appropriate coloring.
The temperament of convicts must be taken into account in the process of their correction and resocialization. Employees must be able to correctly determine an individual approach (methods and means of influence); manage temperament, taking into account its positive and negative properties, and at the same time remember that they can be equalized, as I.P. believed. Pavlov, over time through slow, repeated exercises; know that temperament is disguised (thus, lack of self-control as a character trait can easily be mistaken for a property of choleric temperament).
1 When studying the temperament of convicts, it is necessary to establish: sensitivity (the ability to respond to the least force of external influences); reactivity (the degree of emotional reaction to external or internal influences of the same force); activity (the degree of energy in achieving a goal); the ratio of reactivity and activity (the degree of dependence on the situation and the ability to resist it); reaction rate (speed of mental processes); plasticity or rigidity (ease or difficulty of adapting to changing conditions); extroversion or introversion.
Of great importance for further work with a convicted person is his diagnosis directly in quarantine, which is carried out using the Luscher, Eysenck, Leary, MMPI tests, etc.
A study using the Eysenck circle (Fig. 7) and indicators of extraversion-introversion made it possible to identify the frequency of manifestation of various types of temperament among convicts in correctional institutions (N.D. Del, 1996).
During the experimental study of nonverbal manifestations of temperament and testing them with tests, models-matrices of visual criteria were identified (O.Yu. Shabalin, 1997).
Choleric convict: the gait is fast, does not stop at the threshold in front of the door to the office, walks into the middle of the room; his step is confident, firm and wide; sits freely on a chair, without leaning against the back of the chair; prone to short range; legs widely spaced; the gaze is darting, at the first stage of the conversation it examines the objects in the room; mobile facial expressions, frequent movements of the eyebrows, rolls the eyes if thinking, to the right, left or up; arm movements are sweeping, sharp and intense, with frequent changes of positions on the chair; taps both feet (tap dance); often and sharply turns his head in different directions; when defending his point of view, he sharply leans towards his opponent, sometimes pointing his index finger at himself; speech is fast, intermittent, often turning into a scream, uneven; patience is weak; mood changes suddenly; often brings his hands to his face; rubs chin, cheeks, lips; squints, rubs his eyes, while biting his lips or index finger; during a conversation, he rarely looks at the interlocutor, attention is scattered to surrounding objects; often rubs hands; when any object appears in his hands, he begins to twist it, shift it, and is distracted by it; trembling is very noticeable; very sociable.
Sanguine convict: gait is confident, light, firm; the chest moves forward, the head is raised high, does not linger at the door of the office, walks into the middle of the room or close to the table (chair); sits freely on a chair (occupies the entire chair, armchair, leans on the back); verbose, his speech is loud, lively, smooth; the gaze is directed towards the interlocutor; attention is focused on the topic of conversation; lively facial expressions; frequent changes in emotional states, eyebrow movements, smiling; thinking, he looks up, biting his lower lip; often changes body position on a chair; during a confidential conversation, the legs are spread wide apart, the body leans forward towards the interlocutor; when in doubt, crosses legs, hands clasped in front of chest, treats interlocutor in a friendly manner; sometimes straightens her hair; rubs his hands; his laughter is loud and infectious; body movements are frequent but smooth; in unfavorable conditions, he frowns and takes a defensive-wait-and-see position.
Phlegmatic convict: measured gait, sedate step; balanced behavior; stable, poor facial expressions, often frowning; weak expression of emotions; speech is monotonous, slow, judicious; uncommunicative, reserved, cold-blooded, unperturbed, not subject to eccentricity and frivolity; sits upright in a chair, rarely leaning on the back; in conversation tends to take a long distance; places his legs directly in front of the chair, crosses his arms, rests his forearms on his hips; does not change his position on the chair, makes inexpressive movements with his hands (raises, lowers either his right or left hand); focuses attention on the interlocutor; rubs his fingers during a conversation; when changing posture, takes a closed position (legs crossed, arms crossed in front of the chest, gaze directed at one point); unsociable.
Melancholic convict: the gait is heavy, he shuffles his feet, his head is lowered, his body is hunched; facial expressions are more flexible than those of a phlegmatic person, but an expression of bitterness or dissatisfaction often appears on the face; before entering, he stops at the threshold, gives his face an expression of readiness to completely submit; sits on the edge of the chair, hands are lowered, palms down, resting on the knees, legs together; his eyes are downcast, his head is tilted, his chin rests on his chest, his speech is quiet with noticeable breathing; distracted attention; characterized by deep and lasting emotional experiences; gesticulation is practically absent; the eyes are, as it were, in a tear membrane; is reluctant to answer questions and make contact; impatient; mood is unstable, it may change frequently; pessimism prevails; anxiety, absent-mindedness, depression; very suggestible; often rubs eyes with hands; agrees with everything he is told; adaptation is difficult; closed.
Accentuated traits of temperament in a correctional facility require correction. One of its methods is autogenic training, during which it is necessary to take into account extroversion, anxiety, neuroticism, volitional self-control, well-being, activity, and mood. Thus, extroverted convicts are more adaptive in stressful conditions, in which an introvert may experience depressive states. In a situation with weak stimuli, on the contrary, the introvert’s behavior is more adequate. Anxiety is defined as an individual’s tendency to experience an emotional state that manifests itself in anticipation of an unfavorable development of events for oneself. Situational anxiety is associated with a specific situation, while personal anxiety indicates dissatisfaction, indecision, and confusion of the individual.
A psychologist can determine the effectiveness of autogenic training by analyzing the self-reports of convicts compiled by them after each lesson.
10.3. Taking into account the psychological characteristics of the temperament of convicts in the process of correction and resocialization
The peculiarities of the temperament of convicts should be taken into account by penitentiary staff when choosing methods of correctional influence and means of influence in order to resocialize the criminal. Thus, educational work with a choleric convict is aimed at developing self-control and discipline in him, since he is quick-tempered, irritable, easily excitable, affective, conflict-ridden, and requires frequent changes of activity and constant monitoring. The impetuosity of a choleric person must be countered with tactful restraint and correctness. If he complains about something, you need to give him the opportunity to calm down and then sort out the situation. If an employee gets excited and begins to prove the convict wrong, then resentment, mistrust, and sometimes a long-term conflict are inevitable.
The educational impact on a sanguine convict is the requirement to complete the work started. His behavior and activities require constant and careful monitoring, since he quickly gets involved in work and just as quickly turns off from it. He constantly needs perspective. He is sociable and easily gets along with people, which must be used to involve him in the activities of public organizations.
A phlegmatic convict is slow and prone to calm, so he should not be given the opportunity to withdraw into himself. It is necessary to create an environment that requires activation and energy. It is important to help him overcome his indifference and laziness, to develop focus and dedication.
In the process of educational work, one should not speak to a melancholic convict in a raised and especially irritated tone, since he may withdraw into himself and become depressed. He requires systematic psychological help and must be constantly in public. To build his confidence in his own strengths and capabilities, you need to celebrate his successes more often.
Convicts with different types of higher nervous activity are characterized by unequal adaptation times to the conditions of a penitentiary institution. When a person moves from one social environment to another, the existing stereotype has to be completely or partially changed. It coincides with convicts who have repeatedly served criminal sentences in places of deprivation of liberty. To form a new stereotype, a certain time is needed, during which it is necessary to adapt to new conditions, the requirements of the regime, and the environment of the convicts. The adaptation of first-time convicts with melancholic and phlegmatic types of temperament is more difficult and longer than for persons with choleric and sanguine traits.
The behavior of convicts with different types of temperament also depends on the type of correctional institution. The conditions of a closed space (pretrial detention center, prison) are most difficult for those with choleric and sanguine temperament types; In the cell they show anxiety, and on walks they show increased physical activity.
Convicts of melancholic and phlegmatic types of temperament, especially in the initial period of serving a sentence, exhibit anxiety, gloominess, pessimism, and isolation, which often leads to suicidal attempts and auto-aggression. The so-called maladaptive type stands out - these are convicts who have a mainly melancholic type of temperament; they have difficulty adapting to the conditions of the social environment.
Convicts of choleric and sanguine temperament types, being extroverts, adapt to the conditions of a correctional institution faster than introverts (melancholic and phlegmatic). However, this adaptation can have both a positive and negative direction. These psychological patterns of convicts' temperament appear before release, when the conditions of serving a criminal sentence change.
Features of temperament must be taken into account in the conditions of work, general education and professional training.
Any activity (individual, group) places special demands on the formal-dynamic side of the personality. The main characteristic of temperament is manifested in the style of work, that is, a set of behavior patterns in work (commitment, interest, duration of work, labor productivity, rhythm of the work and educational process). Thus, a convicted student with a choleric type of temperament can show haste in everything: without listening to the explanation, ask a question, without understanding the essence of the task, begin to complete it. Having not achieved the desired result, he begins to show dissatisfaction with himself or the conditions of study.
A convict with a sanguine type of temperament can be reliable both in work and in educational activities. But she must demand from him ingenuity, resourcefulness and activity. He gets used to any business relatively quickly. However, if interference occurs from someone else, he becomes indifferent to work.
The phlegmatic features of a convict are most consistent with educational and production work, which does not require the rapid execution of dexterous and varied actions. The phlegmatic person is in no hurry to start work and prepares for it in detail. It takes a long time to get into a normal rhythm. The pace of his work is relatively low, but his labor productivity can be quite satisfactory. Demanding of himself, does not strive to do more or better than is required of him. Not inclined to change the type of activity and its goals, disposed to monotonous, well-mastered work. He is an average student and does not stand out among others. Purposeful, persistent, works with tension, which manifests itself in some stiffness and slowness. A phlegmatic convict has to be hurried, but he cannot be reproached for slowness. He needs help and encouragement.
A melancholic convict, in terms of emotional excitability and impressionability, is the complete opposite of a phlegmatic convict. Their some similarity is manifested only in a sluggish response to certain stimuli and in the slowness of actions. However, the reasons for their lethargy and slowness are different. A melancholic person can work successfully in a calm and safe environment that does not require him to react quickly and frequently change the nature of his activity. However, he endures grievances for a long time and even minor “injections” inflicted on his pride, he is inattentive, and makes mistakes. In this regard, it becomes accustomed to the normal rhythm of work slowly and does not retain it for long as a result of periodic appearances of apathy and lethargy. The productivity of labor can be high when you are in a cheerful mood and low when you are depressed.
A melancholic convict usually does not set himself the goal of achieving high quality work. He often works and studies just to avoid getting into trouble; he tends to work in. alone. In order for his work and educational work to be successful, it is necessary to have a favorable attitude towards him from teachers, the foreman and comrades, which would exclude sudden swings in his mood and instill confidence in him.
The peculiarities of the temperament of convicts must be taken into account when staffing cells and teams, as well as when organizing psychological adaptation in places of deprivation of liberty and preparing them for release.
Key terms and concepts
Theoretical approaches to characterizing temperament, accentuation of temperament types in convicts, types of temperament and corresponding mental qualities, type of temperament and type of crime, methods for diagnosing temperament in convicts, visual psychodiagnostics of temperament in convicts, extroversion and introversion.
Psychological self-education
Questions for discussion and reflection
1. Analyze which theories of temperament are presented in the “Salerno Code of Health” (Vilanovo, 1480):
Every sanguine person is always a merry fellow and a joker by nature;
Hungry for any rumor and tirelessly ready to delve into it;
Bacchus and Venus are his delight, food and fun;
Amorous, generous, laughing, ruddy-faced,
Song-loving, meaty, truly brave and kind.
Bile exists - it is unbridled in people.
A person like this strives to surpass everyone and in everything,
Always disheveled, crafty, irritable, bold and unrestrained,
Full of passion and cunning, he is dry and has a saffron face.
Phlegm gives only meager strength, width, short stature,
Fat also gives rise to lazy blood.
Sleep is nothing to do, the phlegmatic devotes his leisure time to his movements,
Always sleepy, and lazy, and with profuse saliva.
He is slow in mind, usually white-faced.
Black bile gives rise to silent and gloomy people,
They are always awake in their labors and their minds are not given over to slumber,
Firm in intentions, but only danger awaits from everywhere,
They are greedy, sad, envy gnaws at them, they will not miss theirs.
They are timid, they are no stranger to deception, and their faces are earthy in color.
2. Explain how people with different types of temperament perceive each other:
– a melancholic person perceives a sanguine person as a lightweight, superficial person, he is at odds with all cheerful people;
– a sanguine person considers a melancholic person to be a lost person who is wasting time worrying;
- the choleric person considers the phlegmatic person to be lazy and always expresses this to him in a sharp form, with irritation, in turn, the phlegmatic person considers the choleric person to be an excited, hot-tempered person.
Two phlegmatic people, like two melancholic people, can easily maintain good relationships or, conversely, separate due to their great similarities.
Two sanguine people, like two choleric people, behave actively in life together (when the goals correspond).
Two choleric people are quick-tempered and often quarrel.
3. What, in your opinion, causes the accentuation of the temperament of convicts and how do they manifest themselves in behavior and activities in correctional institutions?
4. Do you think employees can use audiovisual diagnostic methods to determine the type of temperament of convicts? If you think they can, please justify your answer.
Audiovisual psychodiagnostics of convicts. – Ryazan, 1997.
Vasilyev V.L. Legal psychology. – St. Petersburg, 1997.
Eshkeev M.I. Fundamentals of general and legal psychology. – M., 1996.
Correctional labor psychology. – Ryazan, 1985.
Psychology. Pedagogy. Ethics/Ed. Yu.V. Naumkina. – M., 2002.
Pozdnyakov V.M. Domestic penitentiary psychology: history and modernity. – M., 2000.
The doctrine of temperament was first created by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460-356 BC). It was from his teaching that the term “temperament” subsequently came into use, and the names of all four types were fixed.
According to the teachings of Hippocrates, the difference between people in temperament is explained by the different ratio of juices (liquids) in the human body. There are four types of liquids: bile, designed to maintain dryness; blood intended to warm; mucus, designed to cool, and black bile - dampness, moisture in the body.
According to Hippocrates, in each person one of the liquids predominates. Depending on what type of liquids predominates in this mixture, people differ in their temperament types.
What is temperament from a psychological point of view?
Temperament is an individual psychological feature of a person, which manifests itself in the degree of emotional excitability, the speed and energy of mental processes, the speed and expressiveness of movements, facial expressions and gestures, as well as in the peculiarities of mood changes.
One of the classifications connects the characteristics of temperament with the difference in the types of higher nervous activity. According to the teachings of physiologist I.P. Pavlov, types of higher nervous activity are characterized by such basic properties as strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition. Strength refers to the performance of nerve cells, their ability to withstand strong stress without falling into an inhibited state.
(melancholic)
(choleric)
(sanguine) (phlegmatic)
Relationship between temperament and the type of higher nervous activity
Mobility is the speed of change from one process to another. It ensures adaptation to unexpected and drastic changes in circumstances, adaptation to a new team, and transition from one type of activity to another.
I. P. Pavlov gives 4 main typical combinations of the named properties in the form of 4 types of nervous activity. They correspond to the four classical temperaments, the names of which, as already noted, are associated with the works of the ancient Greek physician and philosopher Hippocrates.
It should be borne in mind that temperament is little subject to change under the influence of environment and upbringing. This is an innate personality quality. Temperament properties can either favor or counteract the formation of certain personality traits. Currently, the generally accepted point of view is the equivalence of temperaments, since each of them has positive and negative qualities. Based on each temperament, with improper upbringing, negative personality manifestations can develop.
A manager needs to know the characteristics of the temperament types of his subordinates and take this into account when hiring, when distributing work, and when communicating with them personally. In addition, you should know the characteristics of your temperament and take them into account when establishing contacts with colleagues and business partners, which will allow you to avoid conflicts, as well as correctly select personnel and distribute work.
It is known that the same impact on workers with different temperaments can cause them to react differently. So, for example, a critical remark irritates a choleric person, pushes a sanguine person to take active action, leaves a phlegmatic person indifferent and unsettles a melancholic person. When communicating with a choleric or melancholic person, it is necessary to show maximum restraint and tact, since in the case of, for example, harsh expression of comments, a violent negative reaction on the part of the choleric person or resentment on the part of the melancholic person is possible. It is inappropriate to entrust work related to efficiency and new communication with people to a melancholic person, and to a choleric person - tasks that require special endurance, tact and patience.
A person’s temperament influences his work activity both positively and negatively. However, only extreme manifestations of one or another type of higher nervous activity, for example, excessive excitability or inhibition, mobility or inertia, adversely affect work.
For successful work activity, what is important is not some optimal temperament or the adaptation of the activity to the employee’s temperament. It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of temperament in such a way that it helps to better perform work tasks, so that a person’s temperament can be regulated. That is, use strong qualities of temperament. Knowing your capabilities and temperamental characteristics, it is not difficult to determine in which area you will be more successful. Then, by building on your strengths and developing your weaknesses, you can quickly achieve success in life.
For a long time, psychologists believed that temperament does not change throughout a person’s life. Recent research has shown that it can change, albeit slowly. Eastern psychologists even believe that as a result of certain exercises, a complete restructuring of temperament can occur. The so-called “law of seven” has been discovered, according to which more or less noticeable changes in a person’s temperamental structure occur during periods from one seven-year period to another. This is most clearly observed, for example, around 7 years old, when childhood ends, and between 14 and 21 years old, when a teenager becomes an adult. The next period, ending at 28 years, marks social adaptation. The critical age is between 49 and 56 years. At this time, age-related changes occur.
Of course, these boundaries are fluid, but the trend is common to everyone. After all, temperament changes primarily because the body itself and its physical capabilities change. Over the years, a mobile choleric person can become outwardly indistinguishable from a phlegmatic person, and only special tests will help recognize the passions raging in him. And modern means of self-regulation can help a melancholic person acquire traits of a strong type.
Regarding the possibility of changing the type of temperament, I would like to emphasize that, in our opinion, only the external manifestation of temperament changes.
So, let's consider the psychological characteristics of temperament types.
Of the four known types of temperament, sanguine and choleric people are more common in life, melancholic people are less common, and phlegmatic people are even less common. Many people have a temperament that uniquely combines the features of several types of temperaments, but the features of one of them predominate. In accordance with this, you should determine what type of temperament you belong to. This can be done with the help of well-known psychological tests, including the Eysenck test, which, agreeing with the famous psychologist C. G. Jung, believes that there are two options for adapting to the world around us - extraversion and introversion. These concepts subsequently began to be considered the main characteristics of temperament. In addition, the Eysenck test determines the stability or instability of the nervous system.
Extraversion is manifested in the personality’s focus on the outside world: sociability, activity, optimism, self-confident and impulsive behavior. Extroverts are people who are open in their emotional expressions and love movement and risk. They are characterized by impulsiveness, behavioral flexibility, and social adaptability.
These are usually active, noisy people, “the life of the party”, ringleaders, excellent businessmen and organizers, have external charm, are straightforward in their judgments, and, as a rule, focus on external assessment, so they can pass exams well, they are drawn to new sensations , optimistic, good at work that requires quick decision making.
Where should extroverts work (cholerics and sanguines):
* investment planning;
* corporate finance;
* positions related to working with clients;
* sale;
* Public Relations;
* management, including work with personnel;
* marketing.
Introverts are characterized by a focus on the inner world of a person; an introvert is uncommunicative, passive, calm, thoughtful, reasonable.
Introverts are people for whom the greatest interest is in the phenomena of their own inner world; For them, their theories and assessments of reality are often more important than reality itself. They are prone to reflection, introspection, are withdrawn and experience difficulties in social adaptation, and are often socially passive. Typically, they are more sensitive to external stimuli, recognize colors and sounds better, are more careful, neat and pedantic, show better results on intelligence tests, and do better at school and university.
Introverts cope better with monotonous work. Bosses who hold high positions that do not require constant communication with people are most often introverts.
Introverts (phlegmatic and melancholic) often work:
* financial analysts,
* accountants,
* auditors,
* simultaneous interpreters,
* dispatchers.
That is, they work where perseverance, attentiveness and concentration are required. It can also be precise work combined with diplomacy in relationships with people.
Temperament should be understood as natural behavioral characteristics that are typical for a given person and manifest themselves in the dynamics, tone and balance of reactions to life influences. Behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on the characteristics of the natural organization of the individual. Temperament is precisely determined by the biological organization of the individual, and therefore is detected quite early and clearly in children in play, activities and communication.
Temperament colors all mental manifestations of an individual; it affects the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, volitional action, and affects the pace and rhythm of speech. At the same time, we must remember that neither interests, nor hobbies, nor social attitudes, nor the moral upbringing of an individual depend on temperament.
The doctrine of temperament arose in ancient times. Doctors Hippocrates and then Galen, observing the individual characteristics of people's behavior, made an attempt to describe and explain these characteristics. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates is considered to be the founder of the doctrine of temperament. Hippocrates believed that there are four fluids in the human body: blood, mucus, yellow and black bile. When these liquids are mixed correctly, a person is healthy; when mixed incorrectly, a person is sick. One of the liquids predominates, which determines a person’s temperament. The names of the temperaments, given by the names of the liquids, have survived to this day. Thus, choleric temperament comes from the word chole (bile), sanguine - from sanguis (blood), phlegmatic - from phlegma (mucus), melancholic - from melan chole (black bile).
Hippocrates believed that temperament to a certain extent depends on a person’s lifestyle and climatic conditions. Thus, with a sedentary lifestyle, phlegm accumulates, and with an active lifestyle, bile accumulates, hence the corresponding manifestations of temperament. Hippocrates correctly described the types, but could not explain them scientifically.
Subsequently, in addition to humoral theories, chemical, physical, anatomical, neurological and purely psychological theories were put forward. However, none of them provides a correct and complete explanation of the nature of temperament.
A scientific solution to the question of the fundamentals of temperament was first given by I.P. Pavlov in his teaching on the types of nervous systems of animals and humans. I. P. Pavlov and his colleagues, studying the conditioned reflex reactions of dogs, paid attention to individual differences in their behavior, which are manifested primarily in the speed and accuracy of the movement of conditioned reactions - positive or inhibitory, their intensity, and the ability to adequately respond to changes in stimuli , general behavior in experimental situations. I.P. Pavlov, proving the existence of a certain pattern in the manifestation of individual differences, put forward the hypothesis that they are based on the fundamental properties of nervous processes - excitation and inhibition, their balance and mobility.
The strength of the nervous system determines its performance. It manifests itself primarily in functional endurance, i.e. the ability to withstand long-term or short-term, but strong stimulation. The balance of nervous processes is the balance between the processes of excitation and inhibition, and their mobility is the rate of change of excitation and inhibition. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior depending on conditions, to quickly move from a passive state to an active one, or vice versa. The opposite quality to mobility is the inertia of nervous processes. The nervous system is more inert when it takes more time and effort to move from one process to another.
These qualities of nervous processes form certain systems, combinations, which predetermine the type of nervous system.
I. P. Pavlov identified four main types of the nervous system, close to the traditional typology of Hippocrates - Galen. Comparing his types of nervous system with the typology of Hippocrates - Galen, the great Russian physiologist describes them as follows:
Strong, balanced, agile type - sanguine;
Strong, balanced, inert type - phlegmatic;
Strong, unbalanced type - choleric;
The weak type is melancholic.
According to I.P. Pavlov, temperament is the most important characteristic of the human nervous system, which in one way or another affects all the activities of each individual. I.P. Pavlov understood the type of nervous system as innate, relatively weakly susceptible to changes under the influence of environment and upbringing. He called it genotype. Based on each type, different systems of conditioned neural connections are formed. The process of their formation depends on the type of nervous system. Thus, the type of nervous system provides uniqueness to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the entire essence of a person - determines the mobility of mental processes and their stability. However, it is not a decisive factor in behavior, actions, and beliefs that are formed in the process of a person’s individual life and in the process of upbringing.
IP Pavlov's typology has become the source of many studies of temperament. So, at the end of the 50s of the XX century. Laboratory studies were carried out under the guidance of B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebilitsin, V. S. Merlin, who supplemented I. P. Pavlov’s typologies with new elements. Many techniques have been developed for studying the human nervous system, which have made it possible to better understand the role of individual temperamental characteristics in human activity.