Social knowledge. Macrosociology and microsociology

Aimed at producing knowledge about thinking, nature, society and including all the necessary components for this production:

knowledge and abilities, qualifications and experience of scientists;
cooperation and division of scientific labor;
methods and methods of scientific research work;
scientific institutions, laboratory and experimental equipment;
categorical and conceptual apparatus;
the entire body of scientific information.

Modern science is a combination of the following manifestations:

system-forming factor - a special form of knowledge of the world,
a kind of “substance” - a specific activity;
a social institution is a way of uniting scientists and their joint activities.

The interpretation of science from the point of view of epistemology is determined by the level of its development and socio-historical conditions. Science is a system of knowledge and acts as a special form of social consciousness.

In the modern world, science is a type of spiritual production, a special sphere of professionally specialized activity, a social institution.

Note 1

The Social Institute of Science is the central institution of modern society. The very existence of modern society depends on advanced scientific knowledge. The level of development of science determines the idea of the world and the material conditions of society. As a result of the coordination of specialized scientific research, large research centers and communities of scientists, including informal ones, emerged.

Informal communities of scientists allow them to keep abreast of trends in the development of scientific thought, sense new trends, and receive answers to pressing questions.

The moral imperative of science

Awareness of the purpose and growing role of science, the emergence of a community of scientists, and the growing social significance of social demands predetermined the need to formulate the principles and norms that constitute the moral imperative of science:

universalism - discoveries are of a single, universal nature;
disinterest – inadmissibility of data manipulation, personal interest;
communalism - any scientific knowledge should be available to any member of both the scientific community and society as a whole;
organized skepticism - until the relevant facts are fully identified, it is necessary to refrain from formulating conclusions.

Science is influenced by individual social factors and society as a whole; it can follow the path of “normal” development or through “scientific revolutions.” Scientific revolutions lead to the replacement of outdated paradigms and their replacement with new ones, opening up horizons in the development of scientific knowledge.

The social role of science

Science produces and disseminates scientific knowledge, develops research methods and tools, and ensures that scientists fulfill their social functions.

Methods and science data are widely used to develop plans and programs for social and economic development.

Scientific knowledge is the property of all branches of human life. From a modern worker, engineer, specialist, doctor, teacher, etc. knowledge of the basics of scientific knowledge and a broad scientific and technical outlook are required.

Scientific research has a stimulating effect on social production. A scientific approach and scientific knowledge are necessary in

material production,
in management,
in social activities and politics,
in the healthcare system,
in the education system,
in judicial practice, etc.

Science is involved in the formation of new ethics and aesthetics.

Accelerated scientific and technological development raises serious questions about what its results may be in terms of social consequences for the environment, nature and the future of humanity.

Scientific achievements that contain a potential threat to humanity: genetic engineering, thermonuclear weapons, etc. These problems can only be solved at a universal human level.

It is necessary to create an international system of social control that orients world science in the direction of creative development.

MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION OF UKRAINE

MARIUPOL STATE HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY

HISTORY DEPARTMENT

DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND FOREIGN POLICY

The importance of sociological knowledge in modern society

2nd year student

specialty "International Relations"

Kukhaleishvili G.R.

Mariupol 2009

Introduction

Section I. The meaning of sociology as a science, its essence

List of sources and literature

Introduction

Sociology is the most important social science. It provides knowledge about society as a single social organism in the interaction of objective and subjective factors of historical development and functioning, and, therefore, allows people, scientists, parties, and government structures to act consciously, scientifically predicting the possible consequences of their activities.

The topic is relevant because sociological knowledge in our time plays an important role in forecasting, as well as in influencing segments of the population, and is an important indicator of the opinion of the people, in the form of the result of social research. A sociological vision of society, the implementation of a sociological approach to society is always an analysis of a phenomenon, a process in a system of social connections, an analysis from the point of view of its relationship with society as a whole.

The object of the study is sociological knowledge.

The purpose of the study is to determine the significance of sociological knowledge in modern society.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve a number of scientific problems:

· study the literature used

· analyze and determine the meaning of sociology as a science, its functions

· discover the practical impact of sociology

The historiography on this topic is sufficiently studied. For example, this issue was emphasized in the works of Zborovsky G.E., Orlov G.P., Giddens E., Volkov Yu.G., Mostova I.V., Kravchenko A.I., Kravchenko S.A.

As for the research methodology, deduction, logical method, and analysis were used during the work.

As for the sections of the study, the first section examined the importance of sociology as a science and its functions. Sociology is a discipline with important practical applications. Sociology studies and explains the patterns of social development at various levels of the social system. Based on knowledge of the laws of social development, sociology is able to build short-, medium- and long-term forecasts in the field of demography, social structures, urbanization, living standards, election campaigns, etc. The task of social design includes the development of optimal models not only for the organization of various social communities, for example a work collective, a new enterprise, a new city, a political party or movement, but also for management to achieve their goals.

The second section identified the practical impact of sociology. Sociological research allows us to look at the social world as a variety of cultural perspectives, and this helps to eliminate the prejudices of different groups towards each other. Self-help groups and social movements are examples of community associations that directly push for practical reforms. Sociology plays an important role in society in terms of predicting social processes and conducting sociological research. Information obtained during sociological research can help solve problems in various areas of human life and activity.

Thus, to implement the task, it is necessary to solve problems.

Section I. The importance of sociology as a science, its functions

Sociology is a discipline with important practical applications. Her contributions to social criticism and to practical social reform come in several directions. First, a better understanding of social circumstances often gives us a chance to better control them. Secondly, sociology contributes to the growth of our cultural sensitivity, allowing us to take into account differences in cultural values in any political action. Third, we can evaluate the consequences (intended and unintended) of the adoption of certain policy programs. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, sociology promotes self-knowledge by providing groups and individuals with greater power to change the conditions of their lives.

Modern sociology, as a science about the social patterns of development of society, performs quite broad functions. One of the main ones is cognitive. Sociology studies and explains the patterns of social development at various levels of the social system. The implementation of the cognitive function also includes the development of the theory and methods of sociological research, techniques for collecting and processing sociological information.

Separately, the importance of social design should be emphasized. The task of social design includes the development of optimal models not only for the organization of various social communities, for example a work collective, a new enterprise, a new city, a political party or movement, but also for management to achieve their goals. In countries with a developed civil society, the majority of professionally trained sociologists are engaged in precisely this type of work.

An integral function of sociology is the creation of social development services in enterprises, large organizations, and associations where professional sociologists work. They are engaged, for example, in identifying potential staff turnover, studying the socio-psychological situation in teams, managing social conflicts, managing election campaigns, and forming primary teams with suitable age and psychological characteristics. Within the framework of social engineering, the organizational and technological function manifests itself in social invention, when, as a result of studying the patterns of functioning of a certain psychological situation in a social community, sociologists propose optimal ways to organize it. Typical examples of social invention are a youth housing cooperative, a family-type orphanage, and student construction teams. Sociology, especially applied sociology, is directly related to management activities. Without sociological training and sociological knowledge, it is almost impossible to engage in management in modern conditions. For example, it is pointless to start any change in the working hours of the workforce without analyzing the undesirable social consequences, otherwise the scheme will work: they wanted the best, but it turned out as always.

In countries with a developed civil society, many enterprises have special human relations services. In our country, traditionally, a significant part of this work was carried out by various public organizations, and therefore such services did not develop. During the period of reforms, a need arose for a new type of specialist: social workers, social sector managers.

Thus, sociology is an instrument of direct social transformation, a theoretical source of social policy at all levels of the social structure.

Like any other science about society, sociology carries a certain ideological load, if only because it explains the state of society, social processes, studies public opinion, way of life, ratings of political figures, etc.

Sometimes sociology is used to manipulate public opinion. This is dangerous because it can compromise sociology as a science and undermine confidence in its conclusions. The fact is that the results of surveys and ratings influence the positions of large groups of people, and even the entire society. A typical example is elections.

Section II. The Practical Impact of Sociology

sociological knowledge research society

Sociology has many practical impacts on our lives. The contribution of sociological thinking and research to practical policy and social reform occurs in several ways. The most direct way is to provide a clearer or more accurate understanding of the social situation. This can be done either at the level of factual knowledge, or by gaining a better understanding of why something happens (in other words, through theoretical reasoning). For example, research may show that a much larger proportion of the population lives in poverty than is commonly believed. Any attempt to improve living standards is more likely to succeed if it is based on accurate rather than erroneous information. The more we know about why poverty remains common, the more likely it is that effective action will be taken against it.

A second way in which sociology can contribute to practical politics is by helping to foster greater cultural sensitivity towards different groups in society. Sociological research allows us to look at the social world as a variety of cultural perspectives, and this helps to eliminate the prejudices of different groups towards each other. One cannot be considered an enlightened politician without a developed understanding of differences in cultural values. Practical policies that are not based on awareness of the lifestyles of those to whom they are aimed have little chance of success.

Sociological research has practical value in assessing the results of political initiatives. A program of practical change may not achieve the goals set by its creators, or it may entail a series of unforeseen consequences of an undesirable nature. For example, in the post-war years, large communal houses were built in the central areas of cities in many countries. It was intended to improve living standards for low-income groups living in slums; It was also planned to locate various trade and consumer services here. However, research has shown that many who have moved from their previous homes into larger homes feel isolated and unhappy. High-rise buildings and shopping areas quickly fell into disrepair and became breeding grounds for gang violence and other serious crimes.

Sociology can give social groups a more enlightened view of themselves, increasing their self-understanding. The more people know about the conditions of their own activities, about how society functions, the more likely they are to be able to influence the circumstances of their own lives. It would be incorrect to imagine the practical role of sociology only as helping politicians or power groups to make informed decisions. Those in positions of power cannot always be expected to look out for the interests of the underprivileged. Groups with high self-awareness can effectively respond to the actions of government officials and other influential individuals, and can also put forward their own political initiatives. Self-help groups and social movements are examples of community associations that directly push for practical reforms.

Should social scientists themselves actively advocate and promote programs of practical change and social change? Some believe that sociology can only remain objective if sociologists remain neutral on moral and political issues, but there is no reason to think that scientists who eschew public debate are necessarily more objective in their assessment of sociological problems. There is an obvious connection between the study of sociology and the awakening of social consciousness. No sociologically experienced person will remain indifferent to the inequalities that exist in the world today, the lack of social justice in many situations, or the lack of rights of millions of people. It would be strange if sociologists did not take part in practical activities, and it would be illogical and impractical to try to prevent them from using their sociological expertise.

It is necessary to emphasize the important role of sociology in society in terms of forecasting social processes and conducting sociological research. Forecasting in sociology is a method of scientific prediction with varying degrees of probability of the outcome, direction, or character. Sociological research is a reliable way of understanding social reality, allowing us to comprehend the essence of certain phenomena and processes. It enables a specialist in any field to take into account the social consequences of certain actions, increase the efficiency of activities, and reduce the possibility and consequences of errors. To put it figuratively, it allows “to understand the entire mechanism of social life, to reveal its secrets, to make the incomprehensible understandable, the complex simple, the random natural.”

Information obtained during sociological research can help solve problems in various areas of human life and activity. With its help, you can find out the hidden qualities of social phenomena and processes, and establish the essential reasons underlying them. The most important role sociological research should play in the conditions of the formation of market relations, economic and social life, when it is necessary to clarify the driving factors of development and activity of social, ethnic, demographic communities, reveal the features of the social status and life of various social groups, show social mobility and differentiation of society in modern conditions. A thorough study by sociologists of the current state of social and national relations in the world, revealing contradictions, problems, crisis situations in interethnic relations and ways to overcome them will help show how national policy solves the problems of meeting the needs and interests of the individual. Today, in the system of social relations, the problems of crisis, poverty, inequality and unemployment have come to the fore. Social relations acquired nationalistic, ideological and political overtones. Therefore, value orientations and features of the social functioning of norms and values, the relationship and interrelation of social and spiritual values also need to be illuminated. Universal human values act as the core of culture and the basis of civilizational processes in society. It is necessary to justify the types of values and levels of culture. The unity of culture and civilization is the basis for the stability of social development.

By studying public opinion as a specific phenomenon of spiritual life, forming public consciousness, showing the mechanism of social change, identifying the main trends and directions of movement of humanity, sociological science contributes to the solution of social problems and the development of society.

Sociologists have created serious scientific works of enormous scientific and social significance, including research into the social consequences of ongoing reforms and the study of the dynamics of society's mentality. Sociological dictionaries, textbooks and teaching aids on theoretical sociology, the history of foreign and domestic sociology, on various branches of sociological knowledge and many other works have been published. The merit of sociology is that sociological research systematically monitors the impact of reform on a person, his social status, physical and mental state, etc.

The most pressing task of sociology today is the development of theoretical and methodological foundations of sociological knowledge at the level of international scientific standards.

Unfortunately, in many sociological studies, a person is relegated to the background and is considered as an appendage to the social system, a means of solving the problems of society, the party, the nation. Our society will take the path of prosperity only if the focus of its attention is not itself, not the system, not the nation, but the person, his inalienable rights to a dignified existence: political, economic, cultural, spiritual. Without this, any society or system turns into a collection of disconnected “average individuals.”

Sociology allows not only to describe phenomena and processes, but also to explain them, to provide a model of the phenomenon and society as a whole. Sociological analysis of the process in dynamics allows us to determine and predict trends in change and formulate prospects for the future. Wright Mills said that only the sociological imagination can provide an understanding of the complex relationship between man and society.

In this way it was possible to clarify the practical impact of sociology.

conclusions

Thus, during the study it was possible to solve the set tasks.

During the study, the significance of sociology as a science and its functions were analyzed and determined. Sociology is a discipline with important practical applications. Also, sociology studies and explains the patterns of social development at various levels of the social system. Among the functions, cognitive, design, creation of social development services were considered

Based on knowledge of the laws of social development, sociology is able to build short-, medium- and long-term forecasts in the field of demography, social structures, urbanization, living standards, election campaigns, etc. The task of social design includes the development of optimal models not only for the organization of various social communities, for example a work collective, a new enterprise, a new city, a political party or movement, but also for management to achieve their goals.

It was possible to find out the practical impact of sociology. It is known that sociological research allows us to look at the social world as a variety of cultural perspectives, and this helps to eliminate the prejudices of different groups towards each other. Self-help groups and social movements are examples of community associations that directly push for practical reforms. Sociology plays an important role in society in terms of predicting social processes and conducting sociological research. Information obtained during sociological research can help solve problems in various areas of human life and activity.

List of used literature

1.Zborovsky G.E., Orlov G.P. Sociology. M.: Nauka, 1995.- 288 p.

.Volkov Yu.G., Mostovaya I.V. Sociology. M.: Nauka, 1998.- 216 p.

.Giddens E. Sociology. M.: URSS, 2005.- 515 p.

.Kozhevnikova Yu. The importance of sociology in modern society. M.: Nauka, 1999. - 314 p.

.Komarov M.S. Introduction to Sociology. M.: Nauka, 1994. -346 p.

.Kravchenko A.I. Sociology. Ekaterinburg, 1998.- 275 p.

.Kravchenko S.A., Mnatsakyan M.O., Pokrovsky N.E. Sociology: paradigms and themes. M. Nauka, 1998.- 468 p.

.Fundamentals of applied sociology / F.E. Sheregi, M.K. Gorshkov. - M. Olma-press, 1995. -235 p.

.Thompson D.L., Priestley D. Sociology. M.: Nauka, 1998. -282 p.

.Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. Sociology. Voronezh, 1994. -345 p.

.Russian sociological encyclopedia / G.V. Osipov.- M.: Nauka, 1998.-483 p.

.Rudenko R.I. Workshop on sociology. M.: Olma-press, 1999. - 352 p.

.Sociology / A.V. Mironov, V.V. Panferova, V.M. Utenkov. - M.: Nauka, 1996.-367 p.

.Sociology of modern times / K. O. Magomedov. - M.: Nauka, 1996. - 260 p.

.Yadov V.A. The present and future of theoretical sociology in Russia. M.: Nauka, 1995.- 382 p.

Social sciences, their classification

Society is such a complex object that science alone cannot study it. Only by combining the efforts of many sciences can we fully and consistently describe and study the most complex formation that exists in this world, human society. The totality of all sciences that study society as a whole is called social studies. These include philosophy, history, sociology, economics, political science, psychology and social psychology, anthropology and cultural studies. These are fundamental sciences, consisting of many subdisciplines, sections, directions, and scientific schools.

Social science, having emerged later than many other sciences, incorporates their concepts and specific results, statistics, tabular data, graphs and conceptual diagrams, and theoretical categories.

The entire set of sciences related to social science is divided into two types - social And humanitarian.

If the social sciences are the sciences of human behavior, then the humanities are the sciences of the spirit. It can be said differently, the subject of social sciences is society, the subject of humanities is culture. The main subject of social sciences is study of human behavior.

Sociology, psychology, social psychology, economics, political science, as well as anthropology and ethnography (the science of peoples) belong to social sciences . They have a lot in common, they are closely related and form a kind of scientific union. Adjacent to it is a group of other related disciplines: philosophy, history, art history, cultural studies, literary studies. They are classified as humanitarian knowledge.

Since representatives of neighboring sciences constantly communicate and enrich each other with new knowledge, the boundaries between social philosophy, social psychology, economics, sociology and anthropology can be considered very conditional. At their intersection, interdisciplinary sciences are constantly emerging, for example, social anthropology appeared at the intersection of sociology and anthropology, and economic psychology appeared at the intersection of economics and psychology. In addition, there are such integrative disciplines as legal anthropology, sociology of law, economic sociology, cultural anthropology, psychological and economic anthropology, historical sociology.

Let's get acquainted more thoroughly with the specifics of the leading social sciences:

Economy- a science that studies the principles of organizing the economic activities of people, the relations of production, exchange, distribution and consumption that are formed in every society, formulates the grounds for the rational behavior of producers and consumers of goods. Economics also studies the behavior of large masses of people in a market situation. In small and large - in public and private life - people cannot take a step without affecting economic relations. When negotiating a job, buying goods on the market, counting our income and expenses, demanding payment of wages, and even going on a visit, we - directly or indirectly - take into account the principles of saving.

Sociology– a science that studies the relationships that arise between groups and communities of people, the nature of the structure of society, problems of social inequality and the principles of resolving social conflicts.

Political science– a science that studies the phenomenon of power, the specifics of social management, and the relationships that arise in the process of carrying out government activities.

Psychology- the science of the laws, mechanisms and facts of the mental life of humans and animals. The main theme of psychological thought in antiquity and the Middle Ages is the problem of the soul. Psychologists study stable and repetitive behavior in individual behavior. The focus is on problems of perception, memory, thinking, learning and development of the human personality. There are many branches of knowledge in modern psychology, including psychophysiology, zoopsychology and comparative psychology, social psychology, child psychology and educational psychology, developmental psychology, occupational psychology, creativity psychology, medical psychology, etc.

Anthropology - the science of the origin and evolution of man, the formation of human races, and the normal variations in the physical structure of man. She studies primitive tribes that have survived today from primitive times in the lost corners of the planet: their customs, traditions, culture, and behavior patterns.

Social Psychology studies small group(family, group of friends, sports team). Social psychology is a frontier discipline. She was formed at the intersection of sociology and psychology, taking on tasks that her parents were unable to solve. It turned out that a large society does not directly influence the individual, but through an intermediary - small groups. This world of friends, acquaintances and relatives closest to a person plays an exceptional role in our lives. In general, we live in small, not large worlds - in a specific house, in a specific family, in a specific company, etc. The small world sometimes influences us even more than the big one. That is why science appeared, which took it closely and very seriously.

Story- one of the most important sciences in the system of social and humanitarian knowledge. The object of its study is man and his activities throughout the existence of human civilization. The word “history” is of Greek origin and means “research”, “search”. Some scholars believed that the object of studying history is the past. The famous French historian M. Blok categorically objected to this. “The very idea that the past as such can be an object of science is absurd.”

The emergence of historical science dates back to the times of ancient civilizations. The “father of history” is considered to be the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who compiled a work dedicated to the Greco-Persian wars. However, this is hardly fair, since Herodotus used not so much historical data as legends, legends and myths. And his work cannot be considered completely reliable. There are much more reasons to consider Thucydides, Polybius, Arrian, Publius Cornelius Tacitus, and Ammianus Marcellinus to be considered the fathers of history. These ancient historians used documents, their own observations, and eyewitness accounts to describe events. All ancient peoples considered themselves historiographers and revered history as a teacher of life. Polybius wrote: “lessons drawn from history most surely lead to enlightenment and prepare us for engaging in public affairs; the story of the trials of other people is the most intelligible or the only teacher that teaches us to courageously endure the vicissitudes of fate.”

And although, over time, people began to doubt that history could teach subsequent generations not to repeat the mistakes of previous ones, the importance of studying history was not disputed. The most famous Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote in his reflections on history: “History teaches nothing, but only punishes for ignorance of the lessons.”

Culturology I am primarily interested in the world of art - painting, architecture, sculpture, dance, forms of entertainment and mass spectacles, institutions of education and science. The subjects of cultural creativity are a) individuals, b) small groups, c) large groups. In this sense, cultural studies covers all types of associations of people, but only to the extent that it concerns the creation of cultural values.

Demography studies population - the entire multitude of people who make up human society. Demography is primarily interested in how they reproduce, how long they live, why and in what numbers they die, and where large masses of people move. She looks at man partly as a natural, partly as a social being. All living things are born, die and reproduce. These processes are influenced primarily by biological laws. For example, science has proven that a person cannot live more than 110-115 years. This is its biological resource. However, the vast majority of people live to be 60-70 years old. But this is today, and two hundred years ago the average life expectancy did not exceed 30-40 years. Even today, people in poor and underdeveloped countries live less than in rich and highly developed countries. In humans, life expectancy is determined both by biological and hereditary characteristics, and by social conditions (life, work, rest, nutrition).

3.7 . Social and humanitarian knowledge

Social cognition- this is knowledge of society. Understanding society is a very complex process for a number of reasons.

1. Society is the most complex of the objects of knowledge. In social life, all events and phenomena are so complex and diverse, so different from each other and so intricately intertwined that it is very difficult to detect certain patterns in it.

2. In social cognition, not only material (as in natural science), but also ideal, spiritual relationships are studied. These relationships are much more complex, diverse and contradictory than connections in nature.

3. In social cognition, society acts both as an object and as a subject of cognition: people create their own history, and they also know it.

When talking about the specifics of social cognition, extremes should be avoided. On the one hand, it is impossible to explain the reasons for Russia’s historical lag using Einstein’s theory of relativity. On the other hand, it cannot be argued that all the methods by which nature is studied are unsuitable for social science.

The primary and elementary method of cognition is observation. But it differs from the observation that is used in natural science when observing the stars. In social science, cognition concerns animate, endowed with consciousness objects. And if, for example, the stars, even after many years of observation of them, remain completely unperturbed in relation to the observer and his intentions, then in public life everything is different. As a rule, a reverse reaction is detected on the part of the object being studied, something that makes observation impossible from the very beginning, or interrupts it somewhere in the middle, or introduces interference into it that significantly distorts the results of the study. Therefore, non-participant observation in social science does not provide sufficiently reliable results. Another method is needed, which is called participant observation. It is carried out not from the outside, not from the outside in relation to the object being studied (social group), but from within it.

For all its significance and necessity, observation in social science demonstrates the same fundamental shortcomings as in other sciences. While observing, we cannot change the object in the direction that interests us, regulate the conditions and course of the process being studied, or reproduce it as many times as required to complete the observation. Significant shortcomings of observation are largely overcome in experiment.

The experiment is active and transformative. In an experiment we interfere with the natural course of events. According to V.A. Stoff, an experiment can be defined as a type of activity undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, the discovery of objective laws and consisting of influencing the object (process) under study using special tools and devices. Thanks to the experiment, it is possible to: 1) isolate the object under study from the influence of side, insignificant phenomena that obscure its essence and study it in its “pure” form; 2) repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed, controllable and accountable conditions; 3) systematically change, vary, combine various conditions in order to obtain the desired result.

Social experiment has a number of significant features.

1. The social experiment is of a concrete historical nature. Experiments in the field of physics, chemistry, biology can be repeated in different eras, in different countries, because the laws of natural development do not depend on the form and type of production relations, or on national and historical characteristics. Social experiments aimed at transforming the economy, the national-state structure, the system of upbringing and education, etc., can give not only different, but also directly opposite results in different historical eras, in different countries.

2. The object of a social experiment has a much lesser degree of isolation from similar objects remaining outside the experiment and from all the influences of a given society as a whole. Here, such reliable isolating devices as vacuum pumps, protective screens, etc., used in the process of a physical experiment, are impossible. This means that a social experiment cannot be carried out with a sufficient degree of approximation to “pure conditions”.

3. A social experiment places increased demands on compliance with “safety precautions” during its implementation compared to natural science experiments, where even experiments carried out by trial and error are acceptable. A social experiment at any point in its course constantly has a direct impact on the well-being, well-being, physical and mental health of the people involved in the “experimental” group. Underestimation of any detail, any failure during the experiment can have a detrimental effect on people and no good intentions of its organizers can justify this.

4. A social experiment may not be conducted for the purpose of obtaining direct theoretical knowledge. Conducting experiments (experiments) on people is inhumane in the name of any theory. A social experiment is an ascertaining, confirming experiment.

One of the theoretical methods of cognition is historical method research, i.e., a method that reveals significant historical facts and stages of development, which ultimately makes it possible to create a theory of the object, revealing the logic and patterns of its development.

Another method is modeling. Modeling is understood as a method of scientific knowledge in which research is carried out not on the object of interest to us (the original), but on its substitute (analogue), similar to it in certain respects. As in other branches of scientific knowledge, modeling in social science is used when the subject itself is not available for direct study (say, does not yet exist at all, for example, in predictive studies), or this direct study requires enormous costs, or it is impossible due to ethical considerations.

In his goal-setting activities, from which history is formed, man has always strived to comprehend the future. Interest in the future has especially intensified in the modern era in connection with the formation of the information and computer society, in connection with those global problems that call into question the very existence of humanity. Foresight came out on top.

Scientific foresight represents such knowledge about the unknown, which is based on already known knowledge about the essence of the phenomena and processes that interest us and about the trends in their further development. Scientific foresight does not claim absolutely accurate and complete knowledge of the future, or its mandatory reliability: even carefully verified and balanced forecasts are justified only with a certain degree of reliability.

Social sciencies – a form of spiritual activity of people, directions for the production of knowledge about society.

Since society is a complex and multidimensional concept, each of the social sciences examines a defining area of social life. The most general knowledge about society as a whole is intended to be provided by such sciences as philosophy and sociology.

Sample assignment

A1. Choose the correct answer. Which science is superfluous in the list of sciences that have as their immediate subject the problem of man?

1) philosophical anthropology

2) economics

3) sociology

4) social

5) psychology

Answer: 2.

Topic 7. Social and humanitarian knowledge

The question of the uniqueness of social knowledge is a subject of debate in the history of philosophical thought.

Social and humanitarian knowledge are interpenetrated. Without a person there is no society. But a person cannot exist without society.

Features of humanitarian knowledge: understanding; appeal to texts letters and public speeches, diaries and policy statements, works of fiction and critical reviews, etc.; the impossibility of reducing knowledge to unambiguous, universally accepted definitions.

Humanitarian knowledge is designed to influence a person, spiritualize, transform his moral, ideological, ideological guidelines, and contribute to the development of his human qualities.

Social and humanitarian knowledge is the result of social cognition.

Social cognition – the process of acquiring and developing knowledge about man and society.

The knowledge of society and the processes occurring in it, along with features common to all cognitive activity, also has significant differences from the knowledge of nature.

Features of social cognition

1. The subject and object of knowledge coincide. Social life is permeated by the consciousness and will of man; it is essentially subject-objective and represents, on the whole, a subjective reality. It turns out that the subject here cognizes the subject (cognition turns out to be self-knowledge).

2. The resulting social knowledge is always associated with the interests of individual subjects of knowledge. Social cognition directly affects people's interests.

3. Social knowledge is always loaded with evaluation; it is value knowledge. Natural science is instrumental through and through, while social science is the service of truth as a value, as truth; natural sciences are “truths of the mind,” social sciences are “truths of the heart.”

4. The complexity of the object of knowledge - society, which has a variety of different structures and is in constant development. Therefore, the establishment of social laws is difficult, and open social laws are probabilistic in nature. Unlike natural science, social science makes predictions impossible (or very limited).

5. Since social life changes very quickly, in the process of social cognition we can talk about establishing only relative truths.

6. The possibility of using such a method of scientific knowledge as experiment is limited. The most common method of social research is scientific abstraction; the role of thinking is extremely important in social cognition.

The correct approach to them allows us to describe and understand social phenomena. This means that social cognition must be based on the following principles.

– consider social reality in development;

– study social phenomena in their diverse connections and interdependence;

– identify the general (historical patterns) and the specific in social phenomena.

Any knowledge of society by a person begins with the perception of real facts of economic, social, political, spiritual life - the basis of knowledge about society and people’s activities.

Science distinguishes the following types of social facts.

For a fact to become scientific, it must be interpret(Latin interpretatio – interpretation, explanation). First of all, the fact is brought under some scientific concept. Next, all the essential facts that make up the event are studied, as well as the situation (setting) in which it occurred, and the diverse connections of the fact being studied with other facts are traced.

Thus, the interpretation of a social fact is a complex multi-stage procedure for its interpretation, generalization, and explanation. Only an interpreted fact is a truly scientific fact. A fact presented only in the description of its characteristics is just raw material for scientific conclusions.

Associated with the scientific explanation of the fact is its grade, which depends on the following factors:

– properties of the object being studied (event, fact);

– correlation of the object being studied with others, one ordinal, or with an ideal;

– cognitive tasks set by the researcher;

– personal position of the researcher (or just a person);

– interests of the social group to which the researcher belongs.

Sample assignments

Read the text and complete the tasks C1‑C4.

“The specificity of cognition of social phenomena, the specificity of social science is determined by many factors. And, perhaps, the main one among them is society itself (man) as an object of knowledge. Strictly speaking, this is not an object (in the natural scientific sense of the word). The fact is that social life is thoroughly permeated with the consciousness and will of man; it is essentially subject-objective and represents, on the whole, a subjective reality. It turns out that the subject here cognizes the subject (cognition turns out to be self-knowledge). However, this cannot be done using natural scientific methods. Natural science embraces and can master the world only in an objective (as an object-thing) way. It really deals with situations where the object and the subject are, as it were, on opposite sides of the barricades and therefore so distinguishable. Natural science turns the subject into an object. But what does it mean to turn a subject (a person, after all, in the final analysis) into an object? This means killing the most important thing in him - his soul, making him into some kind of lifeless scheme, a lifeless structure.<…>The subject cannot become an object without ceasing to be itself. The subject can only be known in a subjective way - through understanding (and not an abstract general explanation), feeling, survival, empathy, as if from the inside (and not detachedly, from the outside, as in the case of an object).<…>

What is specific in social science is not only the object (subject-object), but also the subject. Everywhere, in any science, passions are in full swing; without passions, emotions and feelings there is no and cannot be a human search for truth. But in social studies their intensity is perhaps the highest” (Grechko P.K. Social studies: for those entering universities. Part I. Society. History. Civilization. M., 1997. pp. 80–81.).

C1. Based on the text, indicate the main factor that determines the specifics of cognition of social phenomena. What, according to the author, are the features of this factor?

Answer: The main factor that determines the specifics of cognition of social phenomena is its object – society itself. The features of the object of knowledge are associated with the uniqueness of society, which is permeated with the consciousness and will of man, which makes it a subjective reality: the subject knows the subject, i.e. knowledge turns out to be self-knowledge.

Answer: According to the author, the difference between social science and natural science lies in the difference in the objects of knowledge and its methods. Thus, in social science, the object and subject of knowledge coincide, but in natural science they are either divorced or significantly different; natural science is a monological form of knowledge: the intellect contemplates a thing and speaks about it; social science is a dialogical form of knowledge: the subject as such cannot be perceived and studied as a thing, because as a subject he cannot, while remaining a subject, become voiceless; in social science, knowledge is carried out as if from within, in natural science - from the outside, detached, with the help of abstract general explanations.

C3. Why does the author believe that in social science the intensity of passions, emotions and feelings is the highest? Give your explanation and, based on knowledge of the social science course and the facts of social life, give three examples of the “emotionality” of cognition of social phenomena.

Answer: The author believes that in social science the intensity of passions, emotions and feelings is the highest, since here there is always a personal attitude of the subject to the object, a vital interest in what is being learned. As examples of the “emotionality” of cognition of social phenomena, the following can be cited: supporters of the republic, studying the forms of the state, will seek confirmation of the advantages of the republican system over the monarchical one; monarchists will pay special attention to proving the shortcomings of the republican form of government and the merits of the monarchical one; The world-historical process has been considered in our country for a long time from the point of view of the class approach, etc.

C4. The specificity of social cognition, as the author notes, is characterized by a number of features, two of which are revealed in the text. Based on your knowledge of the social science course, indicate any three features of social cognition that are not reflected in the fragment.

Answer: As examples of the features of social cognition, the following can be cited: the object of cognition, which is society, is complex in its structure and is in constant development, which makes it difficult to establish social laws, and open social laws are probabilistic in nature; in social cognition the possibility of using such a method of scientific research as experiment is limited; in social cognition the role of thinking, its principles and methods (for example, scientific abstraction) is extremely important; Since social life changes quite quickly, in the process of social cognition we can talk about establishing only relative truths, etc.