The largest plains in the world: where they are located.

Which is determined by the predominance plains Refers to the largest landforms - geotextures.

Geological Dictionary: in 2 volumes. - M.: Nedra. Edited by K. N. Paffengoltz et al.. 1978 .

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COUNTRY, a large territory distinguished by geographical location and natural conditions (for example, the flat country of the West Siberian Plain, the mountainous country of the Caucasus, etc.); in a political-geographical sense, a territory that has certain... ... Modern encyclopedia

A country- COUNTRY, a large territory distinguished by geographical location and natural conditions (for example, the flat country of the West Siberian Plain, the mountainous country of the Caucasus, etc.); in a political-geographical sense, a territory that has certain... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

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Estonia- (Estonia, est. Esti)EstoniaEsti, official name. Republic of Estonia, an independent Baltic state in the south. the coast of the Gulf of Finland, bordered on the east by Russia and on the south by Latvia; pl. 45,100 sq. km, 1,573,000 people. (1989); languages ​​… … Countries of the world. Dictionary

Republic of Finland, state in Northern Europe. Fin. the name of the country is Suomi (Suomi) land of swamps (from suo swamp, maa land). Swede, the name Finland is a country of hunters (from fin other Scand. hunter, land Swede, land, country). This name is used... Geographical encyclopedia

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The most common and almost universally accepted unit of the tectogenic series is the country. Many authors call it physical-geographical, and some even landscape. The first term is too broad, because all taxonomic units of both unilateral and landscape GCs are physiographic. However, for the sake of reducing inconsistency in terminology, the use of the name “physical-geographical country” is acceptable, while the term “landscape country” seems completely unacceptable (see below).

Countries are also still large parts of continents (sometimes of two neighboring continents). There are also island countries. The leading factor in the isolation of countries is the most general and significant differences in the neotectonic regime within the subcontinents. An indicator of this tectogenic unit is the predominance of flat or mountainous terrain one genetic type. Consequently, a country typically corresponds to either a flat area of ​​a platform or a mountainous area of ​​a fold belt of a certain neotectonic regime and age of folding. For example, the West Siberian country (Fig. 10) corresponds to the lowland of the same name, which is confined to a young (Epipaleozoic) platform, neotectonically almost stable (neotectonic uplifts and subsidences of very small amplitude - see FGAM, 1964).

But often countries, especially mountainous ones, unite two or more morphostructural regions of lower rank. Thus, the country of the Western Asian Plateaus consists of the Asia Minor, Armenian and Iranian Plateaus. This is a concrete example of the implementation of the method of combining “small” GCs, because at least the first two highlands (the Iranian Highlands are perhaps a special country), having a number of significant tectogenic similarities, do not individually meet the criterion of country complexity. In other cases, failure to meet this criterion forces the use of the method of accession of a “small” civil code when identifying countries. An example is the East European country, consisting not only of a vast plain of the same name on a Precambrian folded foundation, corresponding to the criterion of the complexity of the country, but also of a relatively small and monotonous plain, which is confined to the Paleozoic Scythian (South Russian) plate; this plain represents a “small” GC.

It already follows from the above that countries are divided into lowland and mountainous. However, such a general division is often insufficient. Due to the fact that in mountainous countries there are areas with flat terrain, and in flat ones - with mountainous ones, and the role of the flat or mountainous terrain, respectively, can be different, we divide lowland countries into plain and mountain-plain, and mountainous countries into mountainous ones. and plain-mountain. When using this classification, the word “actually” in the names of lowland and mountainous countries can be omitted (see Fig. 10).

In lowland countries, mountainous areas are either absent or small in size and occupy a small part of the country (for example, the East European lowland country). In mountainous countries, the role of lowland territories is the same (for example, the Central Asian mountainous country). In mountain-plain countries, with a general predominance of flat terrain, the role of mountain regions is significant, and large ones are found among them. An example is the North European mountain-plain country. In addition to the predominant basement plains of the Baltic Shield, it includes the Scandinavian blocky highlands. In flat-mountainous countries, the ratio of flat and mountainous terrain is the opposite compared to mountain-plain ones (for example, the flat-mountainous country of North-Eastern Siberia).

When identifying countries, their compliance with the complexity criterion is especially important, since the technique of a combined taxonomic unit is not used at this stage of regionalization. This is explained mainly by the fact that the country serves as the largest unit of arrangement of physiographic material in the textual characteristics of the GC (section VII, 2), and within the country not only tectogenic units of lower rank are described, but also landscape GCs. Given this function of a country, it is essential that countries be comparable in size and complexity of structure.

When identifying whether a country meets the complexity criterion, it must be borne in mind that the above criterion is not applicable for this unit: division into at least two civil codes of directly lower rank. The fact is that the next unit - subcountry - is not mandatory, since some countries are not divided into subcountries. Therefore, when identifying the compliance of the identified territorial units with the criterion of the complexity of the country, the only way remains: their comparison with standard and extreme civil codes of a given rank. For countries, this main method of determining compliance with the complexity criterion (see section II, 6) is applicable, because in the identification of these civil codes, especially on the territory of the USSR, Soviet geographers have already achieved significant unity.

When determining whether tectogenic GCs meet the criterion under consideration, it is necessary to take into account that the complexity of their structure is determined not only by their tectonic-geomorphological, but also by zonal and sectoral complexity. This is explained as follows. Those features of zonal and sectoral GCs that are determined by the characteristics of the tectonics and topography of the territory, i.e., are genetically subordinate to these features, can rightfully be considered as manifestations of tectogenic differentiation. One of them is, for example, that in mountainous countries zones are expressed not directly, but through types of altitudinal zonation. The latter are nothing more than mountain tectogenic variants of the corresponding zones of the plains. But even in lowland countries, zones and subzones are represented by special tectogenic variants. Thus, the East European Plain is characterized by relatively well-drained taiga, while the West Siberian country is much more swampy. The more zones, subzones, sectors, and subsectors a country crosses, the more tectogenic variants of these climatogenic GCs are within its boundaries and the more complex its structure.

The complexity of the structure of tectogenic HAs also depends to some extent on their area. Larger countries are usually intersected by a large number of zonal and sectoral GCs. But even with the same zonal and sectoral complexity, those large tectogenic GCs, which are relatively simple in tectonic-geomorphological terms, are comparable in complexity and diversity of natural conditions to GCs that occupy a smaller area but are characterized by a more complex topography. Even relatively uniform relief in individual parts of a large territory varies, which leads to a certain heterogeneity of other components, and, consequently, increases the “total” diversity of its nature.

The tectonic-geomorphological, zonal, sectoral and “areal” components of the complexity of the structure of physical-geographical countries can, as it were, compensate for each other. Thus, mountainous countries, generally speaking, should be smaller in area than flat ones. It is right to classify as countries mountainous or plain-mountain territories that do not have great height and variety of relief, as well as a vast area, but are complex in zonal or, even more so, zonal and sectoral terms. An example is the Novaya Zemlya-Ural plain-mountain country, located in seven zones and two sectors (cf. Fig. 10, 7, 2). Further, a tectogenic country cannot be zonally homogeneous, because otherwise it would turn into a landscape unit - a region. However, high mountainous and lowland mountainous countries with complex terrain can be simple in sector-zonal terms, in particular, located in only two or three zones and even predominantly in one of them. Example - Central Asian mountainous country, which does not extend beyond one sector and lies for the most part in the zone of subtropical semi-deserts and deserts.

Failure to meet the complexity criterion does not allow a large tectogenic GC to be considered a country. For example, unlike a number of authors (FGAM, 1964), we do not include the Yakut Basin among the countries. It is located within one subsector, one zone and, moreover, mainly within the same - middle taiga - subzone. In addition, the basin does not have a complex topography, and is even smaller in area than many mountainous countries (apparently, similar considerations apply to the identification of subcontinents. But when taking into account the zonal complexity of these units, not zones, but geographical zones should be taken into account).

When identifying tectogenic countries and constructing their boundaries, leading importance is attached not to neotectonic, but to paleotectonic similarities and differences, if, of course, they are expressed in modern relief, petrographic composition of rocks and at least some other geocomponents. The priority of paleotectonics in this case is explained by several reasons. Firstly, the structural and petrographic features of many territories are mainly or largely associated with paleotectonics. And these features play an important relief and landscape-forming role. Secondly, paleotectonic units usually coincide with paleogeographic units, which differ in their common development in the geological past. Therefore, paleotectonic units are convenient for characterizing the history of the formation of the modern relief of countries, the roots of which often go far into the geological past. Thirdly, the country is a tectogenic unit, the most convenient for taking into account paleotectonic similarities and differences between territories during physical and geographical zoning. The subcontinents are unsuitable for this purpose, because they are heterogeneous in paleotectonic terms. When identifying tectogenic units of a rank below the country, there are much fewer opportunities to take into account paleotectonic features when zoning, since direct connections between paleo- and neotectonics are characteristic of these units much less often than countries. The latter correspond to the main types of morphostructures, in the identification of which I. P. Gerasimov and Yu. A. Meshcheryakov (FGAM, 1964) assign an important role to paleotectonics.

However, it must be emphasized again that in this case we are not talking about any paleotectonic similarities and differences, but only about those that are expressed in the relief, that is, corrected by neotectonics. If paleotectonic structures of the same type are significantly different in neotectonic regime, then, naturally, they cannot be combined into one country. This applies, for example, to the Paleozoic structures of the Tien Shan mountain system and the Kazakh small hills. The former experienced intense and highly differentiated neotectonic movements; secondly, the neotectonic regime was closer to that characteristic of the plains.

Therefore, the indication of the priority of paleotectonics when identifying countries is somewhat arbitrary and, in essence, does not contradict the neotectonic leading factor in the isolation of these tectogenic GCs. Priority should be understood only in the sense that paleotectonic characteristics are given preference if territories with more or less similar morphometric characteristics of the relief are zoned. Thus, the Trans-Ural peneplain is of a transitional nature from the eastern foothills of the Urals to the strata plains of the West Siberian Lowland. Although the relief of the peneplain is generally closer to flat than to mountainous, based on the priority of paleotectonics, the peneplain should be included in the Novaya Zemlya-Ural plain-mountainous country. Within its boundaries, the rocks of the Ural-Tien-Shan Paleozoic geosyncline predominate in the surface occurrence, and the structural and petrographic features of the latter are manifested in the relief and in some other aspects of the nature of the peneplain (for more details, see: Prokaev, 1973, where other examples are given, and also indicated exceptions to the rule). The borders of the Novaya Zemlya-Ural and West Siberian countries are drawn where the Hercynides of the Urals are covered over most of the area by Cenozoic loose sediments and are no longer expressed in the relief and other geocomponents.

The considered methodological provisions are nothing more than the implementation of a genetic approach when identifying countries. It is important that in this case it does not represent a general position, but is specified in the form of a specific methodology. It is based both on the objective role of paleotectonic and neotectonic differences in the isolation of tectogenic GCs, and, in particular, on an appropriate system for taking these differences into account when zoning, i.e., ultimately, on the principle of comparability of its results.

What has been said about the country can be summarized in the following definition of this most important unit of the tectogenic series. A country is a large tectogenic geocomplex, usually confined to the flat area of ​​a platform or the mountainous area of ​​a fold belt of a certain neotectonic regime and age of folding. With a general predominance of mountainous or flat relief of one genetic type within the country, there may be large areas that differ significantly from the typical nature of neotectonic movements and relief (areas of mountainous relief in lowland countries and lowland in mountainous countries; in mountain-plain and plain-mountain countries there is a significant the role of both flat and mountainous terrain). The unity of the country in tectonic-geomorphological terms determines a certain nature of zoning within its borders, the isolation of specific variants of zones and subzones crossing the country.

Many Soviet geographers view the country not as a one-sided tectogenic, but as a landscape GC (for example, “Physical-geographical zoning of the USSR,” 1968). Moreover, they argue that the country is characterized not only by tectonic-geomorphological unity, but also by sectoral unity, as well as a certain set of horizontal zones and types of altitudinal structure (here and below, when discussing other points of view, our terminology is usually used, and not the terminology of the corresponding authors. This significantly shortens the presentation, because the meaning of our terms is already known to the reader). In other words, according to these scientists, the country is a truly complex unity, since when identifying it, not only morphostructural, but also sectoral, zonal and altitudinal features are taken into account.

However, we cannot agree with the above considerations. Countries are often sectorally heterogeneous, occupying parts of two and sometimes three sectors. For example, the border of the temperate continental and continental sectors of Eurasia only on the territory of the USSR crosses the Western Siberian, Novaya Zemlya-Ural, Eastern European and Crimean-Caucasian countries (cf. Fig. 2 and 10).

The presence within each country of a certain set of zones is by no means proof that the country is a landscape unity. After all, a set of zones is characteristic of any large territory, even if it is contained within political, administrative or any other non-natural boundaries. The set of zones is determined not by the tectonic-geomorphological basis of the country, but by its position in the planetary system of zones and sectors, which in its main features is independent of morphostructures. Therefore, the borders of physical-geographical countries are completely inconsistent with the boundaries of the zones and are crossed by them.

Although countries differ from each other in the nature of the same zones, this is a manifestation not of zonal, but of tectogenic differentiation. Therefore, the presence of specific tectogenic variants of zones within each country cannot be considered as a sign of their zonal homogeneity. In terms of the actual zonal features of nature, caused by planetary differences in the amount and ratio of heat and moisture, the countries are heterogeneous. Namely, the most significant, background features of their soils, vegetation and wildlife are associated with the zonal and sectoral characteristics of territories. Consequently, countries that are distinguished by the homogeneity of the main features of the tectonic-geomorphological component are heterogeneous in the most important features of climate and biocomponents. Therefore, in relation to a given physical-geographical unit, one cannot speak of comparable homogeneity of all geocomponents (an example has already been discussed in Section II, 2).

Let us briefly dwell on an additional unit of the tectogenic series - a subcountry, or a group of edges (the first name is preferable: it is constructed in the same way as the names of a number of other zoning units (see the commonly used “subregion”, “subdistrict”, etc.)). Subcountry is the largest, orographically clearly isolated part of the country (mountain system, highlands, etc.). For example, in the Central Asian mountainous country, the sub-countries are Tien Shan, Pamir-Alai, Hindu Kush; in Western Asia - Asia Minor, Armenian and, possibly (see p. 68) Iranian plateaus. Each of these regions is comparable in complexity of geological structure and topography to some countries, for example, Novaya Zemlya-Ural. Therefore, tectogenic edges, landscape areas and provinces, if identified directly within such countries, turn out to be incomparable in tectonic-geomorphological complexity with the units of the same name in countries that are relatively orographically simple. This forces us to distinguish the named units within sub-countries, which in this case seem to replace countries. Subcountries are also necessary for textual physical-geographical characteristics of countries consisting of several large orographic units.

At the end of the section on the country, we will touch upon the complex and little-developed issue of the position of the islands in the system of countries (or sub-countries) of the land. It seems that mainland islands should be considered as a special country if their totality meets both criteria for the rank of that unit (example - Philippine-Malay Island Highland Country). In the absence of such correspondence, mainland islands should be included in those countries that are similar to them in tectonic and geomorphological terms. For example, the Franz Josef Land archipelago is part of the East European lowland country, about. Newfoundland is part of the Appalachian lowland country.

When determining the rank of groups of oceanic islands, it is necessary to widely use the methods of combining and joining “small” GCs, as well as a combined taxonomic unit. Thus, the numerous small islands of Polynesia, occupying a huge area of ​​the Pacific Ocean, can be considered as a combined unit - a subcontinent-country (Polynesia itself, apparently, cannot be considered a subcontinent due to the small total area of ​​the islands and their significant genetic uniformity, see FGAM, 1964) . The islands of Eastern Micronesia, located, like the islands of Polynesia, within an ancient oceanic platform (thalassocraton), are probably a subcountry of the Polynesian subcontinent-country. Western Micronesia, which is part of the Pacific geosynclinal belt, is a subcountry of either the Philippine-Malayan or East Asian mountainous island country, or is divided between them (this issue requires special study).

The question of dividing the World Ocean into large tectogenic GCs located in several geographical zones and corresponding to the physical-geographical land countries has not yet been resolved (Physical Geography of the World Ocean, 1980).

A plain is a type of relief that is a flat, vast space. More than two-thirds of Russia's territory is occupied by plains. They are characterized by a slight slope and slight fluctuations in terrain heights. A similar relief is found on the bottom of sea waters. The territory of the plains can be occupied by any: deserts, steppes, mixed forests, etc.

Map of the largest plains in Russia

Most of the country is located on a relatively flat type of terrain. Favorable ones allowed a person to engage in cattle breeding, build large settlements and roads. It is easiest to carry out construction activities on the plains. They contain many minerals and others, including, and.

Below are maps, characteristics and photos of landscapes of the largest plains in Russia.

the East European Plain

East European Plain on the map of Russia

The area of ​​the East European Plain is approximately 4 million km². The natural northern border is the White and Barents Seas; in the south, the lands are washed by the Azov and Caspian Seas. The Vistula River is considered the western border, and the Ural Mountains - the eastern border.

At the base of the plain lies the Russian platform and the Scythian plate; the foundation is covered by sedimentary rocks. Where the base is raised, hills have formed: the Dnieper, Central Russian, and Volga. In places where the foundation is deeply sunk, lowlands lie: Pechora, Black Sea, Caspian.

The territory is located at moderate latitude. Atlantic air masses penetrate the plain, bringing with them precipitation. The western part is warmer than the east. The minimum temperature in January is -14˚C. In summer, the air from the Arctic gives coolness. The largest rivers flow south. Short rivers, Onega, Northern Dvina, Pechora, are directed to the north. The Neman, Neva and Western Dvina carry water in a westerly direction. In winter they all freeze. In spring, floods begin.

Half of the country's population lives on the East European Plain. Almost all forest areas are secondary forest, there are a lot of fields and arable lands. There are many mineral deposits in the area.

West Siberian Plain

West Siberian Plain on the map of Russia

The area of ​​the plain is about 2.6 million km². The western border is the Ural Mountains, in the east the plain ends with the Central Siberian Plateau. The Kara Sea washes the northern part. The Kazakh small sandpiper is considered the southern border.

The West Siberian plate lies at its base, and sedimentary rocks lie on the surface. The southern part is higher than the northern and central. The maximum height is 300 m. The edges of the plain are represented by the Ket-Tym, Kulunda, Ishim and Turin plains. In addition, there are the Lower Yisei, Verkhnetazovskaya and North Sosvinskaya uplands. Siberian ridges are a complex of hills in the west of the plain.

The West Siberian Plain lies in three regions: arctic, subarctic and temperate. Due to low pressure, Arctic air penetrates the territory, and cyclones are actively developing in the north. Precipitation is unevenly distributed, with the maximum amount falling in the middle part. Most precipitation falls between May and October. In the southern zone, thunderstorms often occur in summer.

The rivers flow slowly, and many swamps have formed on the plain. All reservoirs are flat in nature and have a slight slope. The Tobol, Irtysh and Ob originate in mountainous areas, so their regime depends on the melting of ice in the mountains. Most reservoirs have a northwestern direction. In spring there is a long flood.

Oil and gas are the main riches of the plain. In total there are more than five hundred deposits of combustible minerals. In addition to them, in the depths there are deposits of coal, ore and mercury.

The steppe zone, located in the south of the plain, is almost completely plowed. Fields of spring wheat are located on black soil. Plowing, which lasted for many years, led to the formation of erosion and dust storms. In the steppes there are many salt lakes, from which table salt and soda are extracted.

Central Siberian Plateau

Central Siberian Plateau on the map of Russia

The area of ​​the plateau is 3.5 million km². In the north it borders on the North Siberian Lowland. The Eastern Sayan Mountains are a natural border in the south. In the west, the lands begin at the Yenisei River, in the east they end at the Lena River valley.

The plateau is based on the Pacific lithospheric plate. Because of it, the earth's crust rose significantly. The average heights are 500 m. The Putorana plateau in the north-west reaches 1701 m in height. The Byrranga Mountains are located in Taimyr, their height exceeds a thousand meters. In Central Siberia there are only two lowlands: North Siberian and Central Yakut. There are many lakes here.

Most of the territories are located in the Arctic and subarctic zones. The plateau is fenced off from warm seas. Due to the high mountains, precipitation is distributed unevenly. They fall in large numbers in the summer. The earth cools greatly in winter. The minimum temperature in January is -40˚C. Dry air and lack of winds help to endure such difficult conditions. During the cold season, powerful anticyclones form. There is little precipitation in winter. In summer, cyclonic weather sets in. The average temperature during this period is +19˚C.

The largest rivers, the Yenisei, Angara, Lena, and Khatanga, flow through the lowland. They cross faults in the earth's crust, so they have many rapids and gorges. All rivers are navigable. Central Siberia has enormous hydropower resources. Most of the major rivers are located in the north.

Almost the entire territory is located in the zone. The forests are represented by larch trees, which shed their needles for the winter. Pine forests grow along the Lena and Angara valleys. The tundra contains shrubs, lichens and mosses.

Siberia has a lot of mineral resources. There are deposits of ore, coal, and oil. Platinum deposits are located in the southeast. There are salt deposits in the Central Yakut Lowland. There are graphite deposits on the Nizhnyaya Tunguska and Kureyka rivers. Diamond deposits are located in the northeast.

Due to difficult climatic conditions, large settlements are located only in the south. Human economic activity is concentrated in the mining and logging industries.

Azov-Kuban Plain

Azov-Kuban Plain (Kuban-Azov Lowland) on the map of Russia

The Azov-Kuban Plain is a continuation of the East European Plain, its area is 50 thousand km². The Kuban River is the southern border, and the northern one is the Yegorlyk River. In the east, the lowland ends in the Kuma-Manych depression, the western part opens to the Sea of ​​Azov.

The plain lies on the Scythian plate and is a virgin steppe. The maximum height is 150 m. The large rivers Chelbas, Beysug, Kuban flow in the central part of the plain, and there is a group of karst lakes. The plain is located in the continental zone. Warm ones soften the local climate. In winter, temperatures rarely drop below -5˚C. In summer the thermometer shows +25˚C.

The plain includes three lowlands: Prikubanskaya, Priazovskaya and Kuban-Priazovskaya. Rivers often flood populated areas. There are gas fields in the territory. The region is famous for its chernozem fertile soils. Almost the entire territory has been developed by humans. People grow cereals. The diversity of flora has been preserved only along rivers and in forests.

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A plain is an area of ​​land whose slope does not exceed 50°, and the heights do not differ by more than 200 meters. This is the most common type of relief on the planet, occupying about 64% of the territory. There are about 30 plains on the territory of the Russian Federation, the most famous of which is the East European one. In area it is second only to the Amazonian lowland and is the second in the world.

For Russia, plains are of great importance, because almost 75% of the country is located on this type of terrain. Historically, it was on the flat areas that the Slavic civilization developed: ancient cities and roads were built, political revolutions and wars took place. The fertile soils of the plains not only provided people with food, but also introduced unique features into culture and fishing.

East European Plain (4 million km2)

One of the largest plains on the planet, covering most of Eastern Europe, received a second name - Russian. The distance between the northern and southern borders exceeds 2500 km. And from west to east it extends for 2700 km. Borders:

• In the northwest are the Scandinavian Mountains;
• In the southwest are the mountains of Central Europe (Sudetes);
• In the southeast - the Caucasus Mountains;
• In the west is the Vistula River;
• In the north - the White and Barents Seas;
• In the east are the Ural Mountains and Mugodzhary.

The height of the plain above sea level is not uniform. Frequently occurring elevations are located at levels of 200-300 m, and large rivers such as the Volga, Dnieper, Danube, Don, Western Dvina and Vistula flow through the lowlands. The origin of the vast majority of highlands and lowlands is tectonic.

At the base of the plain lie two plates: Russian with a Precambrian crystalline foundation and Scythian with a Paleozoic folded foundation. The relief does not express the intertile boundary.

Glaciation had a significant impact on the process of relief formation, especially changing the surface of the northern areas. The passage of the glacier gave rise to the formation of many lakes for which the area is famous. This is how the Beloe, Peipus and Pskov lakes were formed. In the southern part, glaciation activity is weak due to erosion processes.

Central Siberian Plateau (about 3.5 million km2)

In the eastern part of Russia there is another largest flat area - the Central Siberian Plateau. It covers the territories of the Irkutsk region, Krasnoyarsk Territory and Yakutia.

• In the south - the Eastern Sayan mountain system, as well as the mountain regions of the Baikal region and Transbaikalia;
• In the west is the valley of the Yenisei River;
• In the north - the North Siberian Lowland;
• In the east is the Lena River valley.

The plateau is located on the Siberian platform. A characteristic feature is alternating plateaus and ridges. The highest peak is Mount Kamen (height 1701 m above ground level), which belongs to the middle mountains of Putorana. The western edge of the plateau is covered by the dissected hills of the Yenisei Ridge (the highest point is Mount Enashimsky Polkan, 1104 m high). The territory of the Central Siberian Plateau is distinguished by the largest permafrost rocks in the world, the height of which reaches 1500 km.

West Siberian Plain (2.6 million km²)

The plain is located in the northern part of Asia and covers the entire territory of western Siberia. It has a characteristic trapezoidal shape, which tapers towards the north. The length from south to north is about 2500 km, and from west to east it varies from 800 to 1950 km. Borders:

• In the west - the Ural Mountains;
• In the east - the Central Siberian Plateau;
• In the north - the Kara Sea;
• In the south - the Kazakh small hills;
• In the southeast - the West Siberian Plain and the foothills of Altai.

The surface of the plain is relatively uniform with a slight difference in elevation. Lowland areas are concentrated in the central and northern parts, and low elevations are located along the eastern, southern and western outskirts (height does not exceed 250 m).

Baraba Lowland (117 thousand km2)

The Barabinskaya stele is located in the southern part of Western Siberia, between the Irtysh and Ob rivers. It is an undulating plain, in the southern part of which there are ridges (parallel elevations). The Novosibirsk and Omsk regions are located in the lowlands. It is composed of thick deposits of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age.

In low areas (height 80-100 m), fresh (Ubinskoe) and salt (Chany, Tandovo and Sartlan) lakes, swamps filled with peat moss and saline fields were formed. During geological exploration activities, deposits of oil and natural gas were discovered in the north of the plain.

Kulunda Plain (100 thousand km²)

The Kuluda Plain is the southern part of the West Siberian Plain and covers the Altai and Pavlodar regions. Its appearance is associated with the accumulative activity of large rivers - the Irtysh and Ob. The southeast of the plain adjoins the Altai foothills. The highest point does not exceed 250m, low-lying areas mainly occupy the central part (100-120 m above sea level).

The relief is distinguished by the alternation of elevated ridges (50-60m) and low areas separating them. The valleys of the Burla, Kuchuk and Kulunda rivers pass through the lowlands. For the industry of Western Siberia, the plain is of significant importance due to the endorheic lakes, from which table and Glauber's salt (Kuchukskoye and Kulundinskoye lakes), as well as soda (Petukhovsky lakes) are extracted.

Azov-Kuban (Kuban-Azov lowland) plain (about 50 thousand km2)

The lowland is located in the Western part of the Ciscaucasia and covers the territories of the Krasnodar Territory, Stavropol Territory and Rostov Region. The height of the plain above sea level does not exceed 300 m.

• In the south - the Kuban River;
• In the west - the Sea of ​​Azov;
• In the east - the Kumo-Manych depression;
• In the north is the Yegorlyk River.

The main part of the plain is located within the Scythian plate. Rocks of Meso-Cenozoic age, predominantly of sedimentary origin. The lowland area adjacent to the Black Sea is divided by a large number of branches of the Kuban River. In the marshy areas of the plain there are floodplains (flooded floodplains of rivers) and estuaries (bays that arise when a river flows into the sea).

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

State educational institution of higher education

vocational education

"Ural State Pedagogical University"

Faculty of Geography and Biology

Test work on geomorphology on the topic: “Features of relief formation within mountainous and lowland countries”

Performed:

Student of group 204

Nepochatykh Yana

Ekaterinburg 2011

1. Introduction 3

2. Relief formation within mountainous countries 4

2.1 Classification of mountains according to structural features 6

3. Relief formation within lowland countries 8

3.1. Genetic types of the plains 11

4. Conclusion 14

5. References 15

Appendix 16

1. Introduction.

The main landforms of the Earth are mountains and plains. Mountains occupy about 40% of the world's landmass, and plains - more than 60%.

Mountains are vast, highly elevated above the surrounding area, strongly and deeply dissected areas of the earth's crust with a folded or folded-block structure. Mountainous countries consist of individual mountain ranges and intermountain valleys and basins separating them.

Plains are vast areas of the earth's surface with small (up to 200 m) fluctuations in elevation and slight slopes. In tectonic terms, they correspond to more or less stable platforms that have not shown significant activity in recent times. 42% of the plains are located on ancient platforms.

The topic of relief formation is discussed quite closely in universities, in geographical and geological specialties. In grade 6, this topic is discussed in the lessons “Mountains” and “Plains”. And the same throughout the school geography course in lessons related to the topic “Relief”.

The purpose of my work is to identify the features of relief formation within mountainous and lowland countries.

The objectives of my work are: to analyze literary sources, describe the process of formation of mountains, describe the process of formation of plains, identify genetic types of plains and describe the process of their formation.

2. Relief formation within mountainous countries.

A mountainous country is a vast area of ​​the earth's surface with sharp fluctuations in elevation, significantly elevated above the surrounding plains. Typically, a mountainous country is formed as a result of a single stage of tectonic development and consists of several mountain systems that differ in structure and appearance. Sometimes mountainous countries stretch for several thousand kilometers and have a complex configuration.

The highest mountains on Earth are folded or regenerated mountains. Many mountains were formed as medium-height or even low-altitude ones. The height of rising mountains depends on the intensity of mountain building processes. Gradually collapsing under the influence of exogenous processes, the mountains go down, and the higher they are, the more intense the destruction. If no new uplifts occur, high mountains turn into medium-high ones, and medium-high ones into low ones, and then a denudation plain appears in place of the mountains.

The mountains are divided into 3 groups according to their height:

-low(800 m above sea level): Northern Urals, spurs of the Tien Shan, individual ridges of Transcaucasia;

-medium-height(up to 2000 m above sea level). They are characterized by smoothed, soft contours of the peaks, gentle slopes (mountains of the Middle Urals). They are covered with forests and do not rise above the snow line. Very rarely, these mountains have pointed peaks, a narrow jagged ridge (the Polar Urals, the Khibiny Mountains, the mountains of Novaya Zemlya);

-high(more than 2000 m above sea level). Such mountains have steep slopes, their ridges are narrow and jagged. These are the mountains of the Pamirs, Tien Shan, Caucasus, Himalayas, Cordillera, Andes.

Mountains originate in orogenic-geosynclinal highly mobile zones of the earth's crust, otherwise in geosynclinal (folded) belts that stretch inside continents and along their margins. In the first case, they are located between ancient continental platforms, in the second, between the platforms and the ocean floor. At the early stages of development of these zones (geosynclinal stage), subsidence and accumulation of thick strata of sedimentary, sedimentary-volcanogenic and igneous rocks occur.

Folded deformations also develop. Next comes a turning point in the development of the geosyncline, expressed in the transition to a general uplift of the zone, which enters the orogenic stage, i.e. stage of mountain building. The most intense processes of folding and thrust formation, metamorphization of rocks, and ore formation coincide with this stage. Geosynclinal troughs turn into folded (fold-block, fold-cover) mountain structures. Intermountain troughs are formed, and at the border with the platform - marginal troughs. The depressions are filled with destruction products of growing mountains.

The process of mountain formation as a result of the development of geosynclines and the formation of folded structures occurred in different geological periods. The most ancient orogenic processes occurred back in Archean times, covering vast areas of modern continents. On the Eurasian mainland, areas of Archean folding occupy the space between the Yenisei and Lena and the large northern part of Europe.

But the current mountains, formed according to the scheme given, include only relatively young, Cenozoic mountain uplifts. The more ancient ones were leveled long ago by denudation processes and then raised again in the form of arches and blocks by the latest tectonic movements. Arch and block, and most often arch-block, uplifts led to the formation of revived mountains. They are as widespread as the mountains formed by young, Cenozoic folding.

2.1 Classification of mountains according to structural features.

fold mountains. These are primary uplifts during the bending of the earth's layers by tectonic movements, mainly in geosynclinal areas, in oceanic depths. In general, folded mountains on land are a rare phenomenon, since when they rise above sea level, the folds of rocks lose their plasticity and begin to break, crack with displacements and disruption of the ideal folding of a consistent and continuous alternation of synclines and anticlines. Typical folded mountains have been preserved only in isolated areas in the Himalayas, Copenhagen, and Dagestan, that is, in the mountains that arose during the Alpine folding.

Arch Mountains. In many areas, land areas that experienced tectonic uplift acquired a mountainous appearance under the influence of erosion processes. Where the uplift occurred over a relatively small area and was arched in nature, arched mountains were formed, a striking example of which is the Black Hills Mountains in South Dakota, which are approx. 160 km. The area experienced arch uplift and most of the sedimentary cover was removed by subsequent erosion and denudation. As a result, a central core composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks was exposed. It is framed by ridges consisting of more resistant sedimentary rocks, while the valleys between the ridges are worked out in less resistant rocks.

Remnant Mountains (plateau). Due to the action of erosion-denudation processes, mountain landscapes are formed on the site of any elevated territory. When high plateaus, such as Colorado (in the southwestern United States), are destroyed, highly dissected mountainous terrain is formed. The Colorado Plateau, hundreds of kilometers wide, was raised to a height of approx. 3000 m. Erosion-denudation processes have not yet managed to completely transform it into a mountain landscape, however, within some large canyons, for example the Grand Canyon of the river. Colorado, mountains several hundred meters high arose. These are erosional remains that have not yet been denuded. With the further development of erosion processes, the plateau will acquire an increasingly pronounced mountain appearance.

Block mountains (folded-block mountains). These are uplifts of the earth's crust as a result of tectonic faults during repeated uplifts (movements) of ancient, destroyed mountain systems (revived mountains). Block mountains often consist of folded rock layers, have flat top surfaces and steep rocky valley slopes.

Volcanic mountains. There are different types. Common in almost every region of the globe, volcanic cones are formed by accumulations of lava and rock fragments erupted through long cylindrical vents by forces acting deep within the Earth. Illustrative examples of volcanic cones are Mount Mayon in the Philippines and Mount Fuji in Japan. Ash cones have a similar structure, but are not as high and are composed mainly of volcanic scoria - porous volcanic rock that looks like ash. Such cones are found near Lassen Peak in California and northeastern New Mexico. Shield volcanoes are formed by repeated outpourings of lava. They are usually not as tall and have a less symmetrical structure than volcanic cones. There are many shield volcanoes on the Hawaiian and Aleutian Islands. In some areas, the foci of volcanic eruptions were so close that the igneous rocks formed entire ridges that connected the initially isolated volcanoes. This type includes the Absaroka Range in the eastern part of Yellowstone Park in Wyoming. Chains of volcanoes occur in long, narrow zones.

3. Relief formation within lowland countries.

A flat country is a vast territory on the earth's surface, the geomorphological appearance of which is determined by the predominance of plains. Refers to the largest forms of relief - geotextures.

The relief of the plains is not very diverse. This is explained by the homogeneity of the geological structure of the platform areas of the continental crust and their low mobility. The significant elevation of some platform plains (for example, in Eastern Siberia and North America), which determines the great depth of their erosional dissection, is the result of neotectonic movements. The surface of plains, in general, can be horizontal, inclined, convex, or concave. The general nature of its relief is varied: flat, hilly, wavy, stepped, etc.

Based on absolute height, the following plains are distinguished:

- lowlands- their absolute height is from 0 to 200 m (Amazonian);

- hills- from 200 to 500 m above sea level (Central Russian);

- plateaus- over 500 m above ocean level (Central Siberian Plateau);

- depression- plains lying below ocean level (Caspian).

The main geomorphological processes on the plains include fluvial, glacial, and aeolian processes.

Surface flowing water is one of the most important factors in transforming the Earth's topography. The set of geomorphological processes carried out by flowing waters is called fluvial. Watercourses perform destructive work - erosion, transfer of material and its accumulation and create exhausted (erosive) and accumulative forms of relief. Both are closely related to each other, since what was carried away by water in one place is deposited somewhere else. Erosion work is a complex process and it consists of a number of particular processes:

From the removal by water of clastic rock material entering the riverbed from the eroding steep slopes of the valley;

From grinding or scraping (corrosion) of the bed of the channel with hard material dragged along it (sand, pebbles, boulders);

From the dissolution by water of some rocks (limestones, dolomites, gypsum) exposed in the riverbed.

A common feature of the erosion work of watercourses is its selective nature. When excavating a channel, water, as it were, reveals the most pliable areas for cutting, adapting to the outcrops of more easily eroded rocks. Where the kinetic energy ("living force") of flowing water drops sharply due to a decrease in slope or flow rate, the excess of transported solid material is deposited in the bed of the watercourse or on a flat horizontal surface onto which the river emerges from the mountains: sediment deposition, or accumulation, occurs. In addition to river valleys, under the influence of erosion, ravines and gullies are formed (erosion forms created by intermittent watercourses and often forming complex branched systems).

Examples of plains where fluvial processes are one of the main geomorphological processes include the Russian Plain and the Mississippi Lowland.

Glacial relief-forming processes are caused by ice activity. A prerequisite for the development of such processes is glaciation, i.e. long-term existence of ice masses within a given area of ​​the earth's surface. During the geological history of the Earth, conditions arose more than once under which the largest covers of continental ice were formed, spreading over many millions of square kilometers.

The glacier performs denudation, transport and accumulation work. The destruction of rocks is called gouge. Glacial accumulation predominates on the plains. The material carried by the glacier accumulates where ice consumption through melting and evaporation predominates. This material accumulates at the edge of the glacier in the form of a ridge, repeating the outline of the edge in plan. The ridge is usually curved in a horseshoe shape and is called a terminal moraine. With intense melting and retreat of the glacier, several terminal moraines are formed. As a result of the melting of the glacier, a bottom moraine, formed at the contact of the glacier and the bedrock, is exposed from under the ice; lateral (fragments on the lateral edges of the glacier) and middle moraines are projected onto it. A thick cover of clastic sediments appears, called the main moraine.

Glacial relief is characteristic of the North German and Polish plains, the Russian plain.

Aeolian processes are associated with the influence of wind on the topography. The wind captures, lifts from the surface and transports loose soil particles. This process is called deflation. A somewhat smaller denudation role is played by the knocking out of weakly bonded particles and the destruction of rocks due to dynamic impacts of the air flow together with solid particles moving in this flow - aeolian corrosion.

3.1. Genetic types of the plains.

Primary plains, or plains of marine accumulation- the most extensive in area. They are formed as a result of marine accumulation during temporary flooding of platform areas by transgressions of shallow epicontinental seas with their subsequent transformation into land during oscillatory positive movement. They represent a seabed exposed from under the water, covered with sedimentary marine deposits, usually already covered with a layer of eluvium or some other continental formations (glacial, fluvial, aeolian), often determining the secondary micro- and mesorelief of these plains. Examples of marine accumulation plains include the plains of the European part of the former USSR, the West Siberian Plain, and the Caspian Lowland.

Alluvial plains are formed as a result of the accumulative activity of rivers and are composed of layered river sediments on the surface. The thickness of the latter in some cases can reach a very significant thickness - several tens and even hundreds of meters (the lower reaches of the Ganga River, the Po River valley, the Hungarian Lowland), in others it forms only a thin covering over eroded bedrock. The first occurs in river deltas and in areas of tectonic subsidence, covering parts of river basins, the second - in normal floodplains of mature river valleys. Alluvial plains include the Kura-Araks, Upper Rhine and other plains.

Fluvioglacial plains. The transfer, sorting and redeposition of solid clastic material over large areas can also be produced by meltwater from glaciers flowing from under their ends or edges. These waters usually do not have the character of regular permanent watercourses near their outlet, often changing their water content and direction of flow where they emerge from under the ice. They are overloaded with washed-up fragmentary moraine material, sort it by size, transport it and deposit it, widely distributing it as they wander in front of the glacier front. Examples include the Munich and other plains at the northern foot of the Alps, the Kuban, Kabardian, and Chechen plains at the northern foot of the Greater Caucasus.

Lake Plains They represent the flat bottoms of former lakes, dried up either due to the descent of rivers flowing from them, or due to the disappearance of the dam, or due to the filling of their baths with sediment. Along their margins, such lacustrine plains are often contoured by ancient coastlines, expressed in the form of low abrasion ledges, coastal levees, coastal dune ridges or lacustrine terraces, indicating the standing of the former lake level. In most cases, plains of lacustrine origin are of insignificant size and are much smaller in size than the first three types. An example of one of the most extensive lacustrine plains is the plain of the Quaternary periglacial Lake Agassiz in North America. Lake plains also include the Turaigyr-kobo, Jalanash and Kegen plains in Kazakhstan.

Residual or marginal plains. These names mean spaces that initially had a high absolute height and a sharply defined relief, perhaps once even representing a mountainous country, which acquired a flat character only as a result of long-term exposure to exogenous factors of destruction and demolition - pppa.ru. These plains are therefore in the final stage of the descending development of a mountainous country, assuming a continued state of relative tectonic rest, which seems to rarely occur. As an example of a marginal plain, already somewhat modified by subsequent processes, one can cite the sloping plain stretching along the eastern base of the Appalachian Mountains of North America, gently sloping to the east.

Volcanic upland plateaus. They occur in cases where huge masses of predominantly basic lava flow to the surface through cracks in the earth’s crust. Spreading due to its great mobility over vast spaces, lava fills and buries all the unevenness of the primary relief and forms lava plateaus of enormous area. Examples include the Columbia basalt plateau of North America, the trap plateau of the northwestern Deccan, and some parts of the Transcaucasian Plateau.

4. Conclusion

As a result of writing the work, I became familiar with the processes that formed the main forms that make up the Earth's topography - mountains and plains. I read the literature on this topic.

This work can be used in educational activities (not only school, but also university).

In general, the study of the origin of the plains and the modern forms of their surface is of very important economic importance, since the plains are densely populated and developed by humans. They are home to many settlements, a dense network of communication routes, large forests and agricultural land. It is with plains that we have to deal with when developing new territories, designing the construction of settlements, communications routes, and industrial enterprises.

5. References

1. Leontyev, O.K. General geomorphology / O.K. Leontyev, G.I. Leverages. – M.: Higher. school, 1988. – 319 p.

2. Lyubushkina, S.G. General geography: textbook. aid for students higher textbook establishments for special purposes “Geography” / S.G. Lyubushkina, K.V. Pashkang; edited by A.V. Chernova. – M.: Education, 2004. – 288 p.

3. Milkov F.N. General geography: textbook. for students geographer. specialist. universities / F.N. Milkov. – M.: Higher. school, 1990. – 335 p.

4. Rychagov, G.I. General geomorphology: textbook. 3rd ed., revised. And additional / G.I. Leverages. – M.: Publishing house Mosk. Univ.: Nauka, 2006. – 416 p.

5. Engineering geology [Electronic resource]: scientific reference resource / Access mode: http://www.pppa.ru/geology/about02/. Date of visit: 03/07/2011

APPLICATION

Annex 1.

Appendix 2. Collision of platforms and subsidence of the earth's crust I stage of the folding era

Appendix 3. The emergence of mountains. II folding stage.