Distribution of races on the surface of the earth. World population

Rams is a system of human populations characterized by similarity in a set of certain hereditary biological characteristics, which have an external phenotypic manifestation and formed in a certain geographical region. Traits that characterize different races often arise as a result of adaptation to different environmental conditions over many generations.

The criterion for distinguishing a race from a species is the absence of significant obstacles to the creation of fertile offspring, which leads to the formation of many transitional forms in the area of ​​mixing races.

Typological concept of race

The typological concept of race historically appears first. According to the typological approach, having described the traits of a particular person, one can clearly attribute him to one or another race: racial types are identified, and each individual is assessed according to the degree of approximation to one or another “pure” type. For example, the width of the lips and nose is greater than a certain value in combination with a low cephalic index, a large protrusion of the face, curly hair and skin darker than a certain type standard is regarded as evidence of belonging to the Negroid race. Using this scheme, you can even determine the race of a particular person as a percentage. The complexity of the typological concept lies in the identification of “pure” types that are clearly different from one another. Depending on the number of such types and characteristics defined as racial, the racial definition of a person will change. Moreover, the consistent strict application of the typological principle leads to the fact that siblings can be classified as different races. As noted by the prominent Russian anthropologist V.P. Alekseev, the typological concept of race “is increasingly becoming anachronistic and receding into the history of anthropological science.”

A number of hypotheses within the typological concept (for example, the existence of an equatorial race) have been refuted by modern genetic research.

Population concept of race

In modern Russian racial studies, the population concept of race dominates. According to it, race is a collection of populations, not individuals. Race is seen as an independent entity with its own structure. Traits within a race form different combinations compared to those of an individual.

In the USA, the departure from the typological concept of race to the population-genetic one dates back to 1950. In the USSR, the foundations of the population concept of race were formulated back in 1938 by V. V. Bunak. The concept was later developed by V.P. Alekseev.

Caucasian

The natural range of Caucasians is from Europe to the Urals, North Africa, South-West Asia and Hindustan. Includes Armenoid, Nordic, Mediterranean, Phalic, Alpine, East Baltic, Caucasian, Dinaric and other subgroups. It differs from other races primarily in its strong facial profile. Other signs vary widely.

Negroid race

A representative of the Negroid race is a native Kenyan.

Natural range - Central, Western and Eastern Africa. Characteristic differences are curly hair, dark skin, widened nostrils, thick lips, etc. There is an eastern subgroup (Nilotic type, tall, narrowly built) and a western subgroup (Negro type, round-headed, medium height). The group of pygmies (Negrill type) stands apart.

Pygmies compared to a Caucasian of average height

The natural range of pygmies is the western part of Central Africa. Height ranges from 144 to 150 cm for adult males, light brown skin, curly, dark hair, relatively thin lips, large torso, short arms and legs, this physical type can be classified as a special race. The possible number of pygmies can range from 40 to 200 thousand people.

Kapoids, Bushmen

Kapoids (Bushmen, Khoisan race). Natural habitat - South Africa. Short, with infantile facial features. They have the shortest and curliest hair. The skin is yellow-brown, not elastic - wrinkles quickly appear, the fold above the pubis sags (“Hottentot apron”). Characterized by steatopygia (predominant deposition of fat on the buttocks), severe lordosis. A special fold of the eyelid, prominent cheekbones and yellowish skin give the Bushmen some resemblance to the Mongoloids. These are parallel adaptations to life in similar semi-desert conditions.

Rosenberg clusters

The races of the eastern trunk are characterized by two differences: greater evolutionary archaism (in particular, the universal human process of dental simplification proceeds more slowly) and increased migration. This is caused by the geographical features of the eastern outbreak. The abundance of geographical barriers - seas, mountains, huge rivers, as well as shelves, which were either exposed or flooded during the glaciation period, gave advantages to more migrant groups. And in conditions of dispersed population, the factor of infantilization, which forged modern man, had a weaker effect.

Mongoloid race

Initially they inhabited Eastern Eurasia and formed on the territory of modern Mongolia. Appearance reflects adaptation to desert conditions (the Gobi Desert is one of the largest deserts in the world by area; it is located in Mongolia and northern China, the territory of which is mainly inhabited by Mongoloids). The main feature is the protection of the eyes from increased insolation, dust, cold, etc. This is achieved by a narrow eyelid cut, an additional fold - epicanthus, dark iris, thick eyelashes, protruding cheekbones with pads of fat, long (if not cut) straight and black hair. There are two contrasting groups: the northern (massive, tall, light-skinned, with a large face and low skull vault) and the southern (gracile, short, dark-skinned, small face and high forehead). This contrast is caused by the effect of the infantilization factor in the overpopulated southern regions. The young race is about 12 thousand years old.

Americanoid race

Americanoid race is a race common in North and South America. Americanoids are characterized by straight black hair and an aquiline nose. The eyes are black, wider than those of Asian Mongoloids, but narrower than those of Caucasians. Epicanthus is relatively rare in adults, although quite common in children. Americanoids are often very tall.

Australoids

Australoids (Australo-Oceanian race). An ancient race that had a huge range, limited to the regions: Hindustan, Tasmania, Hawaii, the Kuril Islands (that is, almost half of the globe). Everywhere she was forced out and mixed with migrants. Includes groups: Polynesian, Melanesian, Australian, Veddoid, Ainu. An extremely diverse race. The appearance features of indigenous Australians - lighter skin of brown shades, a large nose, long wavy hair that fades like tow, a massive eyebrow, powerful jaws - sharply distinguish them from African Negroids. The genetic distance between them is also great. However, among the Melanesians (Papuans), spiral hair is often found, which, along with genetic proximity, indicates a small influx of migrants from Africa. Veddoids are more graceful Australoids, originally inhabiting Hindustan. As Caucasian migrants settled in Hindustan, they were oppressed as members of the “lower castes.” In Indonesia and Indochina, the Veddoids mixed with the southern Mongoloids.

Ancient and relic races

Modern population genetics admits that currently existing races do not exhaust the entire historical morphological diversity of people of the modern type, and that in ancient times there were races that either disappeared without a trace, or whose characteristics were later blurred as a result of assimilation by carriers of other races. In particular, the uralist V.V. Napolskikh put forward a hypothesis about the existence in the past of the Paleo-Uralic race, the characteristics of which are currently blurred between the Ural-Siberian Caucasoids and the Western Mongoloids, but are not characteristic of either Caucasians in general or Mongoloids in general. Biologist S.V. Drobyshevsky points out that the morphological diversity of people in the Paleolithic was perhaps even more pronounced than at the present time, and that the skulls of people of that time do not fall under the classification characteristics of modern races. In particular, in Europe alone he identifies at least the following extinct prehistoric races:

Mixed marriages result in mixed races. Mulattoes are the result of a combination of Negroid and Caucasoid races, mestizo - Mongoloid and Caucasoid, and Sambo - Negroid and Mongoloid. Moreover, there are entire nationalities that are currently changing their racial identity. For example, the inhabitants of Ethiopia and Somalia move from Negroid to Caucasoid, and the inhabitants of Madagascar - from Mongoloid to Negroid. It should be borne in mind that in the post-Columbian era, huge masses of the population left their natural habitats. Therefore, a Bushman may live in Saskatchewan, and a Dutchman may live in Nuku'alofa. But this is already the result of the action not of anthropological, but of historical factors. In addition, a significant proportion of modern humanity are mestizos, the result of interracial mixing (for example, Afro-Asians). Even in the pre-Columbian era, mestizo transitional types - Ethiopian, Ainu, South Siberian and others - were formed on the border of races. Active settlements and conquests of Europeans intensified the process of mixing and migration. The largest mestizo population is in South and North America.

Racial differences

Each race, in its own way, is better suited to survive in specific conditions: the Eskimos in the Arctic deserts, and the Nilotes in the savannas. However, in the era of civilization, such opportunities arise for representatives of all races. However, facts related to racial physiology continue to have an impact on people's lives.

The population of our planet today exceeds 7 billion people. This figure is increasing every day.

World population

Scientists have determined that in just a decade, the number of people on Earth will increase by 1 billion people. However, this dynamic demographic picture was not always so high.

Until a few centuries ago, the human population grew slowly. People died from unfavorable weather conditions and diseases at an early age, since the development of science and technology was at a low level.

Today, the largest countries in terms of population are Japan, China and India. The population of these three countries becomes half of the total world population.

The smallest number of people live in countries whose territory covers equatorial forests, tundra and taiga zones, as well as mountain ranges. The bulk of the planet's population lives in the Northern Hemisphere (about 90%).

Races

All humanity is divided into races. Races are organized groups of people who are united by common external characteristics - body structure, face shape, skin color, hair structure.

Such external signs were formed as a result of the adaptation of human physiology to environmental conditions. There are three major races: Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid.

The most numerous is the Caucasian race, accounting for about 45% of the planet's population. Caucasians inhabit the territory of Europe, part of Asia, South and North America and Australia.

The second largest race is the Mongoloid race. The Mongoloid race includes people living in Asia, as well as the aborigines of North America - the Indians.

The Negroid race ranks third in number. Representatives of this race live in Africa. After the slave period, representatives of the Negroid race remained to live in South and North America.

Peoples

Large races are formed by representatives of many nations. Most of the planet's population belongs to 20 major nations, their number exceeds 50 million people.

Nations are communities of people who lived in the same territory over long historical periods and are united by cultural heritage.

There are about 1,500 peoples in the modern world. The geography of their settlement is very diverse. Some of them are spread all over the planet, some live within a populated area.

The population of our planet is so diverse that one can only be surprised. What kind of nationalities and nationalities can you meet! Everyone has their own faith, customs, traditions, and orders. Its own beautiful and extraordinary culture. However, all these differences are formed only by people themselves in the process of social historical development. What lies behind the differences that appear externally? After all, we are all very different:

• dark-skinned;
• yellow-skinned;
• white;
• with different eye colors;
• different heights and so on.

Obviously, the reasons are purely biological, independent of people themselves and formed over thousands of years of evolution. This is how modern human races were formed, which explain the visual diversity of human morphology theoretically. Let's take a closer look at what this term is, what its essence and meaning are.

The concept of "race of people"

What is race? This is not a nation, not a people, not a culture. These concepts should not be confused. After all, representatives of different nationalities and cultures can freely belong to the same race. Therefore, the definition can be given as given by the science of biology.

Human races are a set of external morphological characteristics, that is, those that are the phenotype of a representative. They were formed under the influence of external conditions, the influence of a complex of biotic and abiotic factors, and were fixed in the genotype during evolutionary processes. Thus, the characteristics that underlie the division of people into races include:

• height;
• skin and eye color;
• hair structure and shape;
• hair growth of the skin;
• structural features of the face and its parts.

All those signs of Homo sapiens as a biological species that lead to the formation of a person’s external appearance, but do not in any way affect his personal, spiritual and social qualities and manifestations, as well as the level of self-development and self-education.

People of different races have completely identical biological springboards for the development of certain abilities. Their general karyotype is the same:

• women - 46 chromosomes, that is, 23 XX pairs;
• men - 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs XX, 23 pairs - XY.

This means that all representatives of Homo sapiens are one and the same, among them there are no more or less developed, superior to others, or higher. From a scientific point of view, everyone is equal.

The species of human races, formed over approximately 80 thousand years, have adaptive significance. It has been proven that each of them was formed with the aim of providing a person with the opportunity for a normal existence in a given habitat and facilitating adaptation to climatic, relief and other conditions. There is a classification showing which races of Homo sapiens existed before, and which ones exist today.

Classification of races

She's not alone. The thing is that until the 20th century it was customary to distinguish 4 races of people. These were the following varieties:

• Caucasian;
• Australoid;
• Negroid;
• Mongoloid.

For each, detailed characteristic features were described by which any individual of the human species could be identified. However, later a classification became widespread that included only 3 human races. This became possible due to the unification of the Australoid and Negroid groups into one.

Therefore, the modern types of human races are as follows.

1. Large: Caucasoid (European), Mongoloid (Asian-American), Equatorial (Australian-Negroid).
2. Small: many different branches that formed from one of the large races.

Each of them is characterized by its own characteristics, signs, external manifestations in the appearance of people. All of them are considered by anthropologists, and the science itself that studies this issue is biology. Human races have interested people since ancient times. After all, completely contrasting external features often became the cause of racial strife and conflicts.

Genetic research in recent years allows us to again talk about the division of the equatorial group into two. Let's consider all 4 races of people who stood out earlier and became relevant again recently. Let us note the signs and features.

Australoid race

Typical representatives of this group include the indigenous inhabitants of Australia, Melanesia, Southeast Asia, and India. The name of this race is also Australo-Veddoid or Australo-Melanesian. All synonyms make it clear which small races are included in this group. They are as follows:

• Australoids;
• Veddoids;
• Melanesians.

In general, the characteristics of each group presented do not vary too much among themselves. There are several main features that characterize all small races of people of the Australoid group.

1. Dolichocephaly is an elongated shape of the skull in relation to the proportions of the rest of the body.
2. Deep-set eyes, wide slits. The color of the iris is predominantly dark, sometimes almost black.
3. The nose is wide, with a pronounced flat bridge.
4. The hair on the body is very well developed.
5. The hair on the head is dark in color (sometimes among Australians there are natural blondes, which was the result of a natural genetic mutation of the species that once took hold). Their structure is rigid, they can be curly or slightly curly.
6. People are of average height, often above average.
7. The physique is thin and elongated.

Within the Australoid group, people of different races differ from each other, sometimes quite strongly. So, a native Australian may be tall, blond, of a dense build, with straight hair and light brown eyes. At the same time, a native of Melanesia will be a thin, short, dark-skinned representative with curly black hair and almost black eyes.

Therefore, the general characteristics described above for the entire race are only an averaged version of their combined analysis. Naturally, crossbreeding also occurs - the mixing of different groups as a result of natural crossing of species. That is why it is sometimes very difficult to identify a specific representative and attribute him to one or another small or large race.

Negroid race

The people who make up this group are the settlers of the following areas:

• Eastern, Central and Southern Africa;
• part of Brazil;
• some peoples of the USA;
• representatives of the West Indies.

In general, such races of people as Australoids and Negroids used to be united in the equatorial group. However, research in the 21st century has proven the inconsistency of this order. After all, the differences in the manifested characteristics between the designated races are too great. And some similar features are explained very simply. After all, the habitats of these individuals are very similar in terms of living conditions, and therefore the adaptations in appearance are also similar.

So, the following signs are characteristic of representatives of the Negroid race.

1. Very dark, sometimes bluish-black, skin color, as it is especially rich in melanin content.
2. Wide eye shape. They are large, dark brown, almost black.
3. The hair is dark, curly, and coarse.
4. Height varies, often low.
5. The limbs are very long, especially the arms.
6. The nose is wide and flat, the lips are very thick and fleshy.
7. The jaw lacks a chin protrusion and protrudes forward.
8. The ears are large.
9. Facial hair is poorly developed, and there is no beard or mustache.

Negroids are easy to distinguish from others by their external appearance. Below are the different races of people. The photo reflects how clearly Negroids differ from Europeans and Mongoloids.

Mongoloid race

Representatives of this group are characterized by special features that allow them to adapt to rather difficult external conditions: desert sands and winds, blinding snow drifts, etc.

Mongoloids are the indigenous people of Asia and much of America. Their characteristic signs are as follows.

1. Narrow or oblique eye shape.
2. The presence of epicanthus - a specialized fold of skin aimed at covering the inner corner of the eye.
3. The color of the iris is from light to dark brown.
4. distinguished by brachycephaly (short head).
5. The superciliary ridges are thickened and strongly protruding.
6. Sharp, high cheekbones are well defined.
7. Facial hair is poorly developed.
8. The hair on the head is coarse, dark in color, and has a straight structure.
9. The nose is not wide, the bridge is located low.
10. Lips of different thicknesses, often narrow.
11. Skin color varies among different representatives from yellow to dark, and there are also light-skinned people.

It should be noted that another characteristic feature is short stature, both in men and women. It is the Mongoloid group that predominates in numbers when comparing the main races of people. They populated almost all climatographic zones of the Earth. Close to them in terms of quantitative characteristics are Caucasians, whom we will consider below.

Caucasian

First of all, let’s designate the predominant habitats of people from this group. This:

• Europe.
• North Africa.
• Western Asia.

Thus, the representatives unite two main parts of the world - Europe and Asia. Since living conditions were also very different, the general characteristics are again an average option after analyzing all the indicators. Thus, the following appearance features can be distinguished.

1. Mesocephaly - medium-headedness in the structure of the skull.
2. Horizontal eye shape, lack of pronounced brow ridges.
3. A protruding narrow nose.
4. Lips of varying thickness, usually medium in size.
5. Soft curly or straight hair. There are blondes, brunettes, and brown-haired people.
6. Eye color ranges from light blue to brown.
7. Skin color also varies from pale, white to dark.
8. The hairline is very well developed, especially on the chest and face of men.
9. The jaws are orthognathic, that is, slightly pushed forward.

In general, a European is easy to distinguish from others. Appearance allows you to do this almost without error, even without using additional genetic data.

If you look at all the races of people, the photos of whose representatives are located below, the difference becomes obvious. However, sometimes the characteristics are mixed so deeply that identifying an individual becomes almost impossible. He is able to relate to two races at once. This is further aggravated by intraspecific mutation, which leads to the appearance of new characteristics.

For example, albinos Negroids are a special case of the appearance of blondes in the Negroid race. A genetic mutation that disrupts the integrity of racial characteristics in a given group.

Origin of the races of man

Where did such a variety of signs of people’s appearance come from? There are two main hypotheses that explain the origin of human races. This:

• monocentrism;
• polycentrism.

However, none of them has yet become an officially accepted theory. According to the monocentric point of view, initially, about 80 thousand years ago, all people lived in the same territory, and therefore their appearance was approximately the same. However, over time, growing numbers led to a wider spread of people. As a result, some groups found themselves in difficult climatographic conditions.

This led to the development and consolidation at the genetic level of some morphological adaptations that help in survival. For example, dark skin and curly hair provide thermoregulation and a cooling effect for the head and body in Negroids. And the narrow shape of the eyes protects them from sand and dust, as well as from being blinded by white snow among Mongoloids. The developed hair of Europeans is a unique way of thermal insulation in harsh winter conditions.

Another hypothesis is called polycentrism. She says that different types of human races descended from several ancestral groups that were unequally distributed around the globe. That is, there were initially several foci from which the development and consolidation of racial characteristics began. Again influenced by climatographic conditions.

That is, the process of evolution proceeded linearly, simultaneously affecting aspects of life on different continents. This is how the formation of modern types of people from several phylogenetic lines took place. However, it is not possible to say for certain about the validity of this or that hypothesis, since there is no evidence of a biological and genetic nature, or at the molecular level.

Modern classification

The races of people, according to current scientists, have the following classification. There are two trunks, and each of them has three large races and many small ones. It looks something like this.

1. Western trunk. Includes three races:

• Caucasians;
• capoids;
• Negroids.

The main groups of Caucasians: Nordic, Alpine, Dinaric, Mediterranean, Falsky, East Baltic and others.

Small races of capoids: Bushmen and Khoisan. They inhabit South Africa. In terms of the fold above the eyelid, they are similar to the Mongoloids, but in other characteristics they differ sharply from them. The skin is not elastic, which is why all representatives are characterized by the appearance of early wrinkles.

Groups of Negroids: pygmies, nilots, blacks. All of them are settlers from different parts of Africa, so their appearance is similar. Very dark eyes, same skin and hair. Thick lips and lack of chin protuberance.

2. Eastern trunk. Includes the following large races:

• Australoids;
• Americanoids;
• Mongoloids.

Mongoloids are divided into two groups - northern and southern. These are the indigenous inhabitants of the Gobi Desert, which left its mark on the appearance of these people.

Americanoids are the population of North and South America. They are very tall and often have an epicanthus, especially in children. However, the eyes are not as narrow as those of the Mongoloids. They combine the characteristics of several races.

Australoids consist of several groups:

• Melanesians;
• Veddoids;
• Ainians;
• Polynesians;
• Australians.

Their characteristic features were discussed above.

Minor races

This concept is a rather highly specialized term that allows you to identify any person to any race. After all, each large one is divided into many small ones, and they are compiled on the basis of not only small external distinctive features, but also include data from genetic studies, clinical tests, and facts of molecular biology.

Therefore, small races are what make it possible to more accurately reflect the position of each specific individual in the system of the organic world, and specifically, within the species Homo sapiens sapiens. What specific groups exist was discussed above.

Racism

As we have found out, there are different races of people. Their signs can be very polar. This is what gave rise to the theory of racism. It says that one race is superior to another, since it consists of more highly organized and perfect beings. At one time, this led to the emergence of slaves and their white masters.

However, from a scientific point of view, this theory is completely absurd and untenable. The genetic predisposition to the development of certain skills and abilities is the same among all peoples. Proof that all races are biologically equal is the possibility of free interbreeding between them while maintaining the health and vitality of the offspring.

When studying the earth's surface physically and geographically, the role and significance of human society should always be taken into account. With the emergence of human society on Earth, a new factor appeared in the development of the geographical environment. Nowadays man is the master of our planet. Unlike animals, he influences nature not spontaneously, but consciously, with the help of tools, and in the course of this influence significantly changes it.

Number and placement. There are a large number of people living on Earth and there are more than a hundred different countries. In some countries, population censuses have not been carried out, and therefore it is not possible to give an exact figure for the human population. Approximately 2655 million people live on the globe. On 1 km 2 sushi serves an average of about 18 people.

But the population on Earth is distributed extremely unevenly. In some economically developed areas, population density reaches 500-1000 or even more people per 1 km 2, and other areas are sparsely populated and even uninhabited. In many hunting and nomadic areas, the density is less than 1 person per 1 km 2.

The bulk of the population is concentrated within the temperate and warm-temperate climate zone, where the geographical environment is favorable for people's life and activities. Territories characterized by difficult conditions of settlement and economic development are uninhabited or very sparsely populated: polar and high-mountain regions of eternal cold, arid deserts, areas of dense humid tropical forests. At the same time, it should always be borne in mind that there is no direct relationship between population density and the geographic environment. Sparsely populated areas are also found in temperate and warm-temperate climate zones (some areas of Canada, Southern Siberia, etc.), and densely populated areas are also found among deserts (the Nile Valley and Libyan oases in the Sahara, oases in Central Asian deserts, etc.) , tropical forests and highlands. Many cities are located at an altitude of 3-4 thousand. m and higher. Le (the main city of Ladakh in Kashmir) lies at an altitude of 3506 m, Lhasa - at an altitude of 3658 m, Kumbal in Colombia - 3747 m, Potosi in Bolivia - 4000 m, San Cristoval in Bolivia - 4380 m. Small human settlements are found at even higher altitudes. For example, Buddhist hermits in Tibet live at an altitude of 5300 m. The current nature of population distribution is determined by historical and socio-economic conditions, but, undoubtedly, with a certain influence of the geographical environment.

The most densely populated part of the world is Europe. On an area of ​​10.5 million. km 2 565 million people live here. The average density is 55 people per 1 km 2. Although Asia has a larger population (1496 million), the average density corresponding to its vast territory is 34 people per 1 km 2. 239 million people live in North and Central America, 216 million in Africa, 124 million in South America, 15 million in Australia and Oceania. The average density in North and Central America is 10 people per 1 km 2, in Africa 7, in South America 7, in Australia and Oceania less than 2, Antarctica is completely uninhabited. Within the continents, the population is also unevenly distributed. Currently, almost 3/4 of humanity is concentrated in five areas: China, India, Europe, northeastern USA and Japan.

According to rough estimates, 85 million people are born and 60 million people die every year on Earth. The average population growth is thus 25 million per year. Over the past 300 years, the world's population has quadrupled. This gave rise to XVIII V. Malthus put forward a reactionary theory, according to which the population supposedly tends to increase quickly, in geometric progression (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.), while the means of subsistence increase much more slowly - in arithmetic progression (1, 2 , 3, 4, 5, etc.). The result is overpopulation, leading to poverty, hunger, disease, war, etc. Currently, this theory is widely used by bourgeois scientists to justify unemployment and the plight of the working masses in capitalist countries, to promote the need for wars, which, as we know, are carried out capitalists to seize other people's territories for personal enrichment. Some bourgeois scientists are trying to prove that the Earth can feed no more than 900 million people, and, therefore, there are a large number of “extra” people on Earth. Regarding this, they put forward misanthropic ideas: reduction of medical care and famine relief, forced sterilization, “effective” war, that is, a war with the maximum number of victims.

Bourgeois scientists defend the capitalist order and therefore do not want to admit that the means of subsistence depend not only on the level of technology, but also on the form of the social system. Under the capitalist system, the main wealth is in the hands of a small handful of capitalists, and the many millions of working people are deprived of tools and means of production. Under the socialist system, all wealth and sources of livelihood are in the hands of the entire society and are used in the interests of all members of society. Under socialism there is and cannot be unemployment.

Modern productive forces, if used rationally, can ensure the existence of at least 8-11 billion people. The development of science and technology makes it possible to limitlessly increase the sources of livelihood.

Races. People living on Earth differ from each other in appearance. Especially noticeable external differences are observed between people of different countries. A group of people united by a commonality of external physical characteristics (color of skin, hair and eyes; hair shape, skull shape, height, etc.) is called a race.

Experiences in classifying races already existed in the works of naturalists and philosophers XVII V. To date, a large number of race classification schemes have accumulated, in some of them the number of races reached 34-36. Recently, a classification of races was proposed by N. N. Cheboksarov. According to this classification, three large races are distinguished: Eurasian (or Caucasoid), Asian (or Mongoloid) and Equatorial (or Negro-Australoid). Each large race is divided into two or three small races, and these in turn are divided into groups of anthropological types. In total, there are 28 groups of anthropological types, a significant part of which are transitional (mixed).

According to paleoanthropology, the areas of formation of the Eurasian race were Central and Western Asia and the Mediterranean, the Asian race - the dry steppes and semi-deserts of central and eastern Asia (Northern China, Mongolia, South Eastern Siberia), the equatorial - forests and savannas of Africa and South Asia. The general scheme of the geographical distribution of the races is given in the attached map (Fig. 246).

Eurasian race (in the old terminology “white”) covers almost half of humanity. The peoples of this race (Fig. 245) have light skin, straight or wavy soft hair of various shades (from blond to black), thin lips, a narrow and high nose, medium or abundant tertiary hair (that is, the hair that appears during sexual intercourse). maturity around the genitals, under the arms, on the face and torso).

Within the large race, two small races are distinguished: Indo-Mediterranean (or southern Caucasian)

and Baltic (or northern Caucasoid). People of the Eurasian race inhabit Europe, northern Africa, Western and Central Asia, and northern Hindustan. Since the great geographical discoveries, representatives of this race have spread throughout the globe. A particularly large concentration of them is observed in the United States of America, Canada, Australia and Siberia, where they now constitute the majority.

On Asian race (according to the old terminology “yellow”) accounts for about 40% of humanity. The peoples of this race (Fig. 247) are characterized by a yellowish skin color, dark straight and coarse hair, a wide face with strongly prominent cheekbones, a slightly protruding nose of medium width, moderately thick lips, and poorly developed tertiary hair. The race is divided into three minor races:

a) continental (or northern Mongoloid), widespread in central Asia and Siberia;

b) Pacific (or southern Mongoloid), inhabiting China, Indo-China, the Japanese Islands, the Polynesian islands and the islands adjacent to Southeast Asia;

c) American, common in South and North America.

Equatorial race (according to the old terminology - “black”) comprises less than 10% of the total population. The peoples of this race (Fig. 248) have dark brown skin, curly and dark hair, dark eyes, thick lips, a wide nose with a low bridge. The race is divided into two small races: African (or Negroid), inhabiting equatorial and southern Africa, and Oceanian, which differs from the African in its wavy hair shape and highly developed hair on the face and body. This race is common in Australia, South India, on the island. Ceylon, on the Melanesian and Kuril Islands.

There are many peoples on Earth that, based on some external characteristics, can be classified as one race, and based on others, as another. Such transitional anthropological types were formed as a result of the mixing of races or changes in conditions and lifestyles in historical times.

Racial differences do not coincide with linguistic, national and political differences. As a rule, representatives of the same race speak different languages, live in different states, and are part of different nations. And, conversely, the same linguistic group, the same nation usually includes representatives of different races.

Equality of races. Racial differences were and are widely used by the ruling classes for the purposes of racial oppression and propaganda of wars of conquest. For this purpose, false anti-scientific theories of the inequality of races are invented. Such theories began to spread intensively since the time of the initial accumulation of capital. With the discovery of India, America, Australia and other lands, European merchants, pirates and lovers of easy money poured into these countries in a wide wave. To justify the violence and robbery of the peoples of these countries, a theory was invented, according to

in which whites were declared the “superior” race, destined “by nature itself” to dominate the colored population of colonial countries. The Catholic Church began to preach that the existing races originate from Japhet, Shem and Ham - the sons of the biblical Noah: the pious and beloved by God Japhet is the progenitor of the white “master race”, Shem is the progenitor of the yellow race, and Ham, cursed by God, gave birth to people of dark skin, who “for the sins” of their ancestor must be in eternal enslavement to the whites.

When the religious explanation of the origin of races became unconvincing, the ruling classes came up with a new theory, asserting that “different human races descended from different species of monkeys and differ from each other not only in external signs, but also in their inner spiritual essence, mental abilities, and that the races of man are similar to subspecies of animals and are divided into “higher” and “lower.” “Higher” races are active, capable of progress and thus by their nature destined for dominance. “Lower” races are supposedly incapable of culture and progress, are passive and inferior and, therefore, by nature itself are doomed to slavery and subjugation, to serve the superior races.

Ideas about the inequality of races are especially widely propagated by fascists to cover their aggressive goals. The German fascists declared the Germans to be the “superior” race and, under this slogan, during the Second World War they waged a predatory war against many peoples of Europe, until they were finally defeated by the Soviet Army. Currently, Anglo-American racists consider their Anglo-Saxon race to be the bearer of culture, the “superior” race, and are pursuing an aggressive policy towards the peoples of small and dependent countries, towards the countries of the socialist camp.” They exalt the American way of life in every possible way and try to impose it to other peoples:. In the USA, Indians and blacks are still considered “inferior” and are inhumanly exploited.

Bourgeois theories about the inequality of races are refuted by science as false and far-fetched. The human races are equal; Peoples of all races are equally capable of progress and cultural development. This is proven by the following points:

1) According to anthropological data, all human races descend from the same species of monkeys and are consanguineously related to each other.” Races were formed historically in the process of settlement of primitive man over vast territories, under the influence of a certain geographical environment and a specific way of life of people in different countries. The long life of people in a hot tropical climate has led to the emergence of such

racial characteristics such as dark skin color, curly, coarse hair, wide nose, thick lips. Dark skin serves as protection from the harmful effects of sunlight (in particular ultraviolet), a thick head of hair protects the head from sunstroke, and the maximum surface of the mucous membranes (nose, lips) facilitates evaporation. In cool climates, where there are few sunny days, light skin color is a better adaptation than dark skin, which interferes with the beneficial effects of the same ultraviolet rays, which are necessary in a certain dose for normal development. A narrow nose, which slows down the inhalation of air, is a good adaptation in dry and cold climates. The narrow, slit-like eye, characteristic of Mongoloids, indicates the long life of people in open spaces with strong winds and sandstorms. Thus, gradually, racial differences arose among people living in different territories and in different geographical conditions. Large races appeared, within which small races became isolated, and as a result of the complex mixing of individual groups of races, transitional races and numerous anthropological types arose.

2) The equivalence of races is also due to the fact that they are not analogous to subspecies of animals and do not have a tendency to transform into species. Human races lack the biological barriers to mixing inherent in subspecies, as a result of which all races have constantly mixed throughout history. Currently, there are no “pure” races; There is no state where people of only one race live. With the development of economic ties and migration movements, the process of mixing of races intensifies. The boundaries between races are gradually erased and races as such will disappear over time, and only general external differences between people will remain. Race is a historical concept.

3) External signs that indicate similarity with certain characteristics of monkeys are approximately equally characteristic of all races, and not of any individual “lower” races. Eurasians are characterized by a narrow and high nose and at the same time highly developed hair. Asians have poorly developed body hair and at the same time have a large skull and face. Africans are characterized by prognathism (protrusion of the upper jaw forward) and at the same time a straight forehead. German bourgeois anthropologists, proving the “superiority” of the Germanic race, point out that the Germans have a larger frontal angle (about 90°) than a number of other peoples. But among the blacks this angle is greater (100°) than among the Germans.

4) Despite the external differences of the races, the races are united in all essential and vital characteristics. In the structure of the brain, the structure of the vocal cords, the visual and auditory apparatus, the structure of the arms, legs and other vital organs, there are no racial differences, as a result of which all races are equally capable of culture and progress. Differences in weight and brain size do occur among representatives of different races, but these differences are no less observed within the same race. For example, the great writers A. France and I. S. Turgenev had dramatically different brain weights - the first 1017 G, second 2012. In bourgeois racist theories it is compared that the Germans have skull sizes ranging from 1360 to 1460 cm 3 and among the Indians it is only 1275 cm 3. But they silently ignore the fact that the greatest volume of the skull and weight of the brain is observed in the Mongols, and not in Europeans. The size of the male skull of the Eskimos, for example, reaches more than 1560 cm 3. Thus, the shape and size of the skull and brain cannot serve as a criterion for assessing the talent of individuals and races.

5) Historical facts confirm that all races are capable of culture and progress. Ancient centers of culture arose among peoples belonging to the “yellow” (China) and “white” (Mesopotamia) races, as well as in areas of intense mixing of “white” and “black” (India, Egypt).

With the establishment of Soviet power in the USSR after the October Revolution and the equality of nations and races among all peoples of our country, regardless of race, there was a rapid development of the economy, culture and science. Many Soviet peoples, previously backward, joined Soviet culture and achieved great success in the development of their national culture. The peoples of the countries of people's democracy, with the establishment of people's democratic power, also received the opportunity to rapidly develop their economy and culture. The level of culture of individual peoples is thus associated not with any racial characteristics, but with socio-economic and historical conditions.

I have questions about why there are only 4 races on Earth? Why are they so different from each other? How do different races have skin colors that correspond to their area of ​​residence?

*********************

First of all, we will examine the settlement map of the “Modern Races of the World”. In this analysis we will not deliberately accept the position of either monogenism or polygenism. The purpose of our analysis and the entire study as a whole is precisely to understand exactly how the emergence of humanity occurred and its development, including the development of writing. Therefore, we cannot and will not rely in advance on any dogma - be it scientific or religious.

Why are there four different races on Earth? Naturally, four types of different races could not have come from Adam and Eve....

So, under the letter “A” on the map are races that, according to modern research, are ancient. These races include four:
Equatorial Negroid races (hereinafter referred to as “Negroid race” or “Negroids”);
Equatorial Australoid races (hereinafter referred to as the “Australoid race” or “Australoids”);
Caucasoid races (hereinafter referred to as “Caucasoids”);
Mongoloid races (hereinafter referred to as “Mongoloids”).

2. Analysis of modern mutual settlement of races.

The modern mutual settlement of the four main races is extremely interesting.

The Negroid races are settled exclusively in a limited area, located from the center of Africa to its southern part. There is no Negroid race anywhere outside of Africa. In addition, it is precisely the areas of settlement of the Negroid race that are currently the “suppliers” of Stone Age culture - in South Africa there are still areas within which the population still exists in a primitive communal way of life.

We are talking about the archaeological culture of Wilton (Wilton) of the late Stone Age, widespread in South and East Africa. In some areas it was replaced by the Neolithic with polished axes, but in most areas it existed until modern times: arrowheads made of stone and bone, pottery, beads made from ostrich egg shells; people of the Wilton culture lived in grottoes and in the open air, and hunted; agriculture and domestic animals were absent.

It is also interesting that on other continents there are no centers of settlement of the Negroid race. This, naturally, points to the fact that the birthplace of the Negroid race was originally precisely in that part of Africa that is located south of the center of the continent. It is worth noting that here we are not considering the later “migration” of Negroids to the American continent and their modern entry through the regions of France into the territory of Eurasia, since this is a completely insignificant effect in the long historical process.

Australoid races are settled exclusively in a limited area, located entirely in the north of Australia, as well as in extremely small fluctuations in India and on some isolated islands. The islands are so insignificantly populated by the Australoid race that they can be neglected when making estimates of the entire center of distribution of the Australoid race. The northern part of Australia can quite reasonably be considered this hotspot. It should be noted here that Australoids, like Negroids, for a reason unknown to today’s science, are located exclusively within one general area. Stone Age cultures are also found among the Australoid race. More precisely, those Australoid cultures that have not experienced the influence of Caucasians are predominantly in the Stone Age.

Caucasoid races are settled in the territory located in the European part of Eurasia, including the Kola Peninsula, as well as in Siberia, the Urals, along the Yenisei, along the Amur, in the upper reaches of the Lena, in Asia, around the Caspian, Black, Red and Mediterranean seas, in northern Africa , on the Arabian Peninsula, in India, on two American continents, in southern Australia.

In this part of the analysis, we should look at the area of ​​settlement of Caucasians in more detail.

Firstly, for obvious reasons, we will exclude from historical estimates the territory of distribution of Caucasians in the Americas, since these territories were occupied by them in not so distant historical times. The latest “experience” of Caucasians does not affect the history of the original settlement of peoples. The history of the settlement of humanity in general took place long before the American conquests of the Caucasians and without taking them into account.

Secondly, like the two previous races in the description, the territory of distribution of Caucasians (from this point onwards, by “territory of distribution of Caucasians” we will understand only its Eurasian part and the northern part of Africa) is also clearly marked by the area of ​​their settlement. However, unlike the Negroid and Australoid races, the Caucasian race has achieved the highest flowering of culture, science, art, etc. among existing races. The Stone Age within the habitat of the Caucasian race was completed in the vast majority of areas between 30 and 40 thousand years BC. All modern scientific achievements of the most advanced nature were accomplished by the Caucasian race. One can, of course, mention and argue with this statement, referring to the achievements of China, Japan and Korea, but let’s be honest, all their achievements are purely secondary and use, we must give credit, successfully, but still use the primary achievements of Caucasians.

Mongoloid races are settled exclusively in a limited area, located entirely in the northeast and east of Eurasia and on both American continents. Among the Mongoloid race, as well as among the Negroid and Australoid races, Stone Age cultures are still found to this day.
3. On the application of Organism laws

The first thing that catches the eye of an inquisitive researcher looking at a map of the distribution of races is that the distribution areas of the races do not intersect each other in such a way that this concerns any noticeable territories. And, although at mutual borders the contacting races produce a product of their intersection, called “transitional races,” the formation of such mixtures is classified by time and is purely secondary and much later than the formation of the ancient races themselves.

In large part, this process of mutual penetration of ancient races resembles diffusion in the physics of materials. We apply the laws of Organism to the description of races and peoples, which are more unified and give us the right and opportunity to operate with the same ease and accuracy, both materials and peoples, and races. Therefore, the mutual penetration of peoples - the diffusion of peoples and races - is completely subject to Law 3.8. (numbering of laws, as is customary in) Organisms, which says: “Everything moves.”

Namely, not a single race (now we will not talk about the originality of one or the other) under any circumstances will remain motionless in any “frozen” state. We will not be able, following this law, to find at least one race or people that would arise in a certain territory at the moment of “minus infinity” and would remain within this territory until “plus infinity”.

And from this it follows that it is possible to develop laws of movement of populations of organisms (peoples).
4. Laws of movement of populations of organisms
Any people, any race, as, incidentally, not only real, but also mythical (vanished civilizations), always has a point of its origin that is different from the one under consideration and as earlier;
Any nation, any race is represented not by the absolute values ​​of its numbers and its certain area, but by a system (matrix) of n-dimensional vectors describing:
directions of settlement on the Earth's surface (two dimensions);
time intervals of such settlement (one dimension);
… n. values ​​of mass transfer of information about a people (one complex dimension; this includes both numerical composition and national, cultural, educational, religious and other parameters).
5. Interesting observations

From the first law of population movement and taking into account a careful examination of the map of modern distribution of races, we can deduce the following observations.

Firstly, even at present historical times, all four ancient races are extremely isolated in their areas of distribution. Let us recall that we do not consider hereinafter the colonization of the Americas by Negroids, Caucasians and Mongoloids. These four races have the so-called cores of their ranges, which in no case coincide, that is, none of the races in the center of their range coincides with the similar parameters of any other race.

Secondly, the central “points” (areas) of ancient racial regions even today remain quite “pure” in composition. Moreover, mixing of races occurs exclusively at the borders of neighboring races. Never - by mixing races that were not historically located in the same neighborhood. That is, we do not observe any mixtures of the Mongoloid and Negroid races, since between them is the Caucasoid race, which, in turn, mixes with both the Negroids and the Mongoloids precisely in the places of contact with them.

Thirdly, if the central points of settlement of races are determined by a simple geometric calculation, then it turns out that these points are located at the same distance from each other, equal to 6000 (plus or minus 500) kilometers:

Negroid point - 5° S, 20° E;

Caucasoid point – p. Batumi, the easternmost point of the Black Sea (41°N, 42°E);

Mongoloid point – ss. Aldan and Tomkot in the upper reaches of the Aldan River, a tributary of the Lena (58° N, 126° E);

Australoid point - 5° S, 122° E.

Moreover, the points of the central areas of settlement of the Mongoloid race on both American continents are also equidistant (and at approximately the same distance).

An interesting fact: if all four central points of settlement of races, as well as three points located in South, Central and North America, are connected, you will get a line resembling the bucket of the Ursa Major constellation, but inverted relative to its current position.
6. Conclusions

An assessment of the distribution areas of races allows us to draw a number of conclusions and assumptions.
6.1. Conclusion 1:

A possible theory suggesting the birth and settlement of modern races from one common point does not seem legitimate and justified.

We are currently observing precisely the process that leads to the mutual homogenization of races. Like, for example, the experiment with water, when a certain amount of hot water is poured into cold water. We understand that after some finite and quite calculated time, hot water will mix with cold water, and temperature averaging will occur. After which the water, in general, will become somewhat warmer than the cold water before mixing, and somewhat colder than the hot water before mixing.

The situation is the same now with the four old races - we are currently observing precisely the process of their mixing, when the races mutually penetrate each other, like cold and hot water, forming mestizo races in the places of their contact.

If the four races had formed from one center, then we would not now be observing mixing. Because in order for four to be formed from one entity, a process of separation and mutual dispersion, isolation, and accumulation of differences must occur. And the mutual cross-breeding that is now occurring serves as clear evidence of the reverse process - the mutual diffusion of the four races. The inflection point that would separate the earlier process of separation of races from the later process of their mixing has not yet been found. Convincing evidence of the objective existence of some moment in history from which the process of separation of races would be replaced by their unification has not been found. Therefore, the process of historical mixing of races should be considered a completely objective and normal process.

This means that initially the four ancient races had to be inevitably divided and isolated from each other. We will leave the question of the force that could take over such a process open for now.

This assumption of ours is convincingly confirmed by the race distribution map itself. As we previously revealed, there are four conventional points of initial settlement of the four ancient races. These points, by strange chance, are located in a sequence that has a clearly defined series of patterns:

firstly, each border of mutual contact of races serves as a division of only two races and nowhere as a division of three or four;

secondly, the distances between such points, by a strange coincidence, are almost the same and equal to about 6000 kilometers.

The processes of development of territorial spaces by races can be compared to the formation of a pattern on frosty glass - from one point the pattern spreads in different directions.

Obviously, the races, each in its own way, but the general type of settlement of the races was quite the same - from the so-called point of distribution of each race, it spread in different directions, gradually developing new territories. After quite an estimated time, the races sown 6000 kilometers from each other met at the boundaries of their ranges. Thus began the process of their mixing and the emergence of various mestizo races.

The process of building and expanding the areas of races fully falls within the definition of the concept of “organismic center of organization” when there are patterns that describe such a distribution of races.

The natural and most objective conclusion suggests itself about the existence of four separate centers of origin of four different – ​​ancient – ​​races, located at an equal distance from each other. Moreover, the distances and points of “seeding” of the races were chosen in such a way that if we tried to repeat such “seeding”, we would end up with the same option. Consequently, the Earth was inhabited by someone or something from 4 different areas of our Galaxy or our Universe....
6.2. Conclusion 2:

Perhaps the original placement of races was artificial.

A number of random coincidences in distances and equidistance between races leads us to believe that this was not accidental. Law 3.10. Organisms says: ordered chaos acquires intelligence. It is interesting to trace the work of this law in the reverse cause-and-effect direction. The expression 1+1=2 and the expression 2=1+1 are equally true. And, therefore, the cause-and-effect relationship in their members works in both directions equally.

By analogy with this, law 3.10. we can reformulate this way: (3.10.-1) intelligence is an acquisition due to the ordering of chaos. The circumstance when out of three segments connecting four seemingly random points, all three segments are equal to the same value cannot be called anything other than a manifestation of intelligence. To ensure that the distances match, you need to measure them accordingly.

In addition, and this circumstance is no less interesting and mysterious, the “miraculous” distance we identified between the points of origin of races is, for some strange and inexplicable reason, equal to the radius of planet Earth. Why?

By connecting the four points of sowing races and the center of the Earth (and they are all located at the same distance), we get a quadrangular equilateral pyramid, with its apex directed towards the center of the Earth.

Why? Where do clear geometric shapes come from in a seemingly chaotic world?
6.3. Conclusion 3:

About the initial maximum isolation of races.

Let's begin our consideration of the mutually pairwise settlement of races with the Negroid-Caucasian pair. Firstly, Negroids no longer come into contact with any other race. Secondly, between the Negroids and Caucasians lies the region of central Africa, which is characterized by an abundant spread of lifeless deserts. That is, initially the arrangement of Negroids relative to Caucasians ensured that these two races would have the least amount of contact with each other. There is some intent here. And also an additional argument against the theory of monogenism - at least in terms of the Negroid-Caucasian couple.

Similar features also exist in the Caucasoid-Mongoloid pair. The same distance between the conditional centers of race formation is 6000 kilometers. The same natural barrier to the mutual penetration of races is the extremely frosty northern regions and the Mongolian deserts.

The Mongoloid-Australoid pair also provides for maximum use of terrain conditions, preventing the mutual penetration of these races, which are approximately the same 6,000 kilometers apart.

Only in recent decades, with the development of means of transport and communications, the mutual penetration of races has not only become possible, but has also become widespread.

Naturally, in the course of our research these conclusions may be revised.
Final conclusion:

It can be seen that there were four race seeding points. They are equidistant both from each other and from the center of planet Earth. Races have only mutual-pair contacts. The process of mixing races is a process of the last two centuries, before which the races were isolated. If there was an intention in the initial settlement of races, then it was this: to settle the races so that they would not come into contact with each other for as long as possible.

This was probably an experiment to solve the problem of which race would best adapt to earthly conditions. And also, which race will be more progressive in its development....

Source - razrusitelmifov.ucoz.ru