Assimilation

Depending on their position in a word, some sounds noticeably change their pronunciation.

Assimilation is called the qualitative assimilation of one sound to another. Assimilation exists to make it more convenient to pronounce sounds at the junction of words and in the middle of a word. In the Russian language, assimilation is mainly manifested by the loss of sounds, for example, in the words “hello” and “ladder” the highlighted sounds are not pronounced.

In English, assimilation is manifested by moving the place of formation of the barrier, i.e. consonants that are pronounced on the alveoli [s, z, n, t] before the sounds [i, p] are moved to the gap between the teeth to make it more convenient to pronounce the interdental interdental [i, p] following the alveolar ones.

For example:

If we take the so-called unit of comparison. standard pronunciation A. Language. in England, the colonies and the USA, without taking into account the peculiarities of modern dialects and adverbs of the USA, we can note: 1. the almost complete absence of “soft”, i.e. palatalized consonants, 2. the absence of muting, with rare exceptions, of final consonants; so eg head is pronounced with a final d, not t, as this combination of sounds would sound in Russian, 3. assimilation and dissimilation in A. Language. much less often than in Russian, 4. the stress in a word, just like in the Russian language, is expiratory, but unlike Russian it does not move from one syllable to another, but is attached to a specific syllable. The difference in the articulatory base and a number of phonetic skills makes it difficult to master the sound form of the English language.

English Sound Chart II

Henry Sweet

G. Sweet (Henry Sweet, 1845-1912) began to be interested in Germanic philology in his youth, and then became acquainted with Bell's Visible Speech, which aroused his interest in phonetics. He studied at Oxford and, even before completing the course, began to study the historical phonetics of the English language, then studied English dialects and the pronunciation of living European languages. He owns a number of articles on the phonetics of Danish, Russian, Portuguese, Swedish and some other languages. Later, Sweet wrote several works on the historical phonetics of the English language, at the same time he did a lot of teaching and published a number of manuals for learning English, in which his pedagogical gift was revealed. However, Sweet had a difficult character (he served as the prototype for Professor Higgins from B. Shaw's Pygmalion); he was sincere and openly expressed his opinions, often negative, without caring about the impression his statements made. Sweet's character traits prevented him from making friends and did not allow him to take a position in the academic hierarchy that was appropriate to his knowledge: he did not consider it necessary to seek patronage from the right people, which is why his two attempts to obtain a chair at Oxford failed. At the same time, Sweet's scientific achievements were highly valued in England. He was the president of the English Philological Society, he is considered the founder of the English phonetic school, the founder of English dialectology and the creator of the best (at that time) description of English pronunciation.

Sweet's main phonetic work, in which he clearly outlined his views and developed Bell's ideas regarding the classification of vowels, was published in 1877. This is a “Textbook of Phonetics” (its full title is Handbook of phonetics, including a popular exposition of spelling reform. 1877). The book, in a revised form, entitled “A Primer of Phonetics,” was published three more times, the last time in 1906, and in 1908 a description of English phonetics was published, containing a lot of information of a general phonetic nature - “Sounds of English language" (The sounds of English. An introduction to phonetics). Sweet is also the author of the entry "Phonetics" in the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. Sweet's general approach to the basic problems of phonetics and his adherence to Bell's views on the articulatory classification of speech sounds remained constant; the changes concerned only some particulars, in connection with new information in the phonetic literature. Thus, in the latest edition of “Fundamentals of Phonetics” he took into account the data of Fietor, Sievers and Jespersen.

Sweet develops the theory of glides as transitional sounds in combinations vowel + consonant, consonant + vowel, rightly emphasizing (in the Fundamentals) that voiceless stops are acoustically pure glides, because they are heard only at the moment of transition to the vowel. According to Sweet, most consonants are essentially glides to one degree or another, and acoustically consonants are only modifiers of vowels - a thought that brings to mind the views of French authors of the 18th century.

Consonants, defined as friction sounds or a break in exhalation, are divided, as in Ellis and Bell, into voiceless and voiced, and the question of division according to strength - weakness (“hardness - softness”), discussed in the works of mainly German authors, is not even mentioned. Separate categories of consonants are defined, in the author's terms, by form (which corresponds to the method of formation) and by place (in fact, by the operating organ, see table 65); in “Fundamentals of Phonetics” the same table is presented with Bell’s transcription signs (see. table 66). Sweet has five forms of consonants: open, in which there is a passage of air (i.e. fricative), but fricative laterals constitute a special type of divided (since the air stream is divided into two parts), closed (stop non-nasal), nasal and trembling; the latter were not included in the table, perhaps because Sweet considered them intermediate between fricative and stop. Sweet's classification is generally similar to the modern one (except for the absence of tremors). The division by place (acting body) is more different from the currently accepted one and from those previously proposed by Lepsius, Brücke, and Merkel. Sweet had an inaccurate understanding of many frontal articulations and did not understand (like others) the formation of Arabic emphatic (velarized) consonants. But he correctly described the laryngeal occlusions, however, referring to Merkel and Sievers.

Following Bell, Sweet identifies mixed consonants modified by changes in the position of the tongue or lips; in essence, we are talking about consonants with additional articulations of palatalization - etc. or rounding - etc.; in “Fundamentals” such sounds are called complex. Sweet considers the concept of a syllable in connection with the division of the flow of speech, which, in his opinion, is naturally divided only into respiratory groups; syllable boundaries are less defined and can be drawn differently in different languages. The beginning of a syllable, according to Sweet, is marked by a force-impulse and is partially indicated by division into words, for example, in a name - an aim, a tall (man) - at all (times) `at all (times)". In connection with syllable division, doubled consonants are also described, during the articulation of which there is a weakening in the middle and a new dynamic impulse, while in simply long consonants the sound strength changes gradually; The author sees the same difference between the combination of a stop with a fricative and an affricate: cut short - achieve 'to achieve'.

Sweet(Sweet) Henry (15.9.1845, London - 30.4.1912, Oxford), English linguist. He studied at Heidelberg (1864) and Oxford (since 1869) universities, and taught phonetics at Oxford University (since 1901). Member of the Philological Society (1869-85). The founder of the English school of phoneticians. Main works in the field of phonetics, English and Germanic philology, Old English dialectology. S. made a major contribution to the development of the theory of phonology; He also worked on the typology of phonological systems of the world's languages.

Works: A history of English sounds from the earliest period, 2 ed., Oxf., 1888; A handbook of phonetics, Oxf., 1877; A short historical English grammar, Oxf., 1892; Collected papers, Oxf., 1913.

Lit.: Wrenn S. L., Henry Sweet, in the book: Portraits of linguists, v. I, Bloomington - L., Estonian poet and literary critic. He graduated from the University of Helsinki in 1910. In 1917-19 active...

Suk Vyacheslav Ivanovich
Suk Vyacheslav Ivanovich, Soviet conductor, People's Artist of the Republic (1925). In 1879 he graduated from the Prague Conservatory (class...

The direct method arose on the basis of the natural. It received this name because its supporters sought to associate words of a foreign language and its grammatical forms directly (immediately) with their meaning, bypassing the students’ native language. Psychologists and linguists took part in the development of the direct method - V. Fietor, P. Passi, G. Sweet, and others. Representatives of the direct method set themselves the goal of teaching students practical knowledge of a foreign language. Since translation methods, the antipode of which was the direct method, highlighted educational goals, linking them with the need to teach how to read text, practical knowledge of a foreign language was first identified with the opposite task - to teach students oral speech.

The methodological principles of teaching using the direct method are as follows:

• 1. The basis of learning is oral speech, since any language is by its nature auditory.
• 2. Exclusion of the native language and translation.
• 3. Particular importance was attached to phonetics and pronunciation, since mastering the sound side of speech is an indispensable condition for oral communication.
• 4. Studying words only in context, i.e. as part of sentences.
• 5. Learning grammar based on induction.

A somewhat different position was taken by the prominent linguist G. Sweet. Sharing the view of other representatives of the direct method about the practical purpose of learning, he believed that the path to this in a school setting lies through the study of texts that reflect living spoken language - the basis for teaching oral speech. This author owns the requirements for texts. These included the following:

• 1) texts must be varied and contain significant repetition of language material, which promotes memorization;
• 2) Texts should be on a wide variety of topics;
• 3) At the beginning, descriptive texts are recommended - easier on the grammatical side, and then students should be given stories interspersed with dialogues;
• 4) texts should be selected taking into account the gradual complication of difficulties.

The lesson using the direct method was structured as follows: the teacher named the objects in the picture and repeated them by the students, then questions and answers, descriptions of the pictures and lexical exercises. Everything ends with a retelling, a dialogue based on the material studied. If the text was taken as a basis, then first it was read three times by the teacher and the words were explained, then exercises were done, and only after that, the text was read in transcription and traditional writing.

Analysis of the materials shows that the direct method was not a homogeneous methodological direction in the West. We find different techniques in different authors. At the same time, there are common features: rejection of the native language, attention to the sound image, inductive study of grammar, study of vocabulary in a sentence, and finally, ignoring students’ thinking when learning and relying solely on memory and sensory perception.

In contrast to the direct orthodox method common in the West, in our country it has acquired a slightly different form. The direct method began to spread more widely in Russia in the early 90s of the 19th century. However, even before World War I there were many teachers who accepted the old text-translation method.

The spread of the direct method in Russia collided with the tradition of considering the positive impact of learning a foreign language on proficiency in one’s native language. In this regard, even among ardent supporters of the direct method we find the assumption of the native language, which is absolutely excluded in the Western version of the direct method. A number of methodologists criticized the direct method for eliminating the native language at the initial stage of education.

If in pre-revolutionary Russia there were still adherents of the direct orthodox method, then in the 20s of the 20th century all methodologists professing the direct method, and it was then dominant, finally determined the features of using the direct method in Russia. Firstly, methodologists of this period were characterized by a significantly greater use of the native language as a means of semantization and control of understanding. Secondly, in Russian conditions comparison with the native language was allowed. Thirdly, methodologists noted that the use of the native language when learning a foreign language is used more at the initial stage, and then it is increasingly reduced.

The emergence of the “Russian version” of the direct method is due to two reasons. Firstly, differences in Russian and Western European languages ​​played a major role. The proximity of the latter to each other made it possible to build students' education without resorting to their native language. Let's compare: This is a book (a hand) and Das ist ein Вuch (eine Hand). This is impossible in a Russian audience. Secondly, pedagogical traditions, starting with K.D., also had a special influence. Ushinsky. These features in the tradition of teaching foreign languages ​​also affected the further development of the methodology.

Basic principles for selecting a dictionary according to Palmer:

1. Frequency (how often words occur in spoken and written speech, and different meanings of a word should be considered separately)

2. Structural compatibility - the ability of ergons to be combined with other units. Moreover, when the student is already able to use them with other lexical units.

3. Specificity

4. Proportionality

5. Expediency - considering this requirement as secondary, he believed that they could be violated for the sake of words belonging to the same semantic group (for example, learning the words “million”, “billion” and/or “thousand” simultaneously with “one”, “two”, “three”, etc.)

21. Stages of learning according to Palmer

Palmer set purely practical goals for learning a foreign language - to teach students to be fluent in the language (understand oral speech, speak, be able to read and write), and the degree of language proficiency should be as close as possible to the degree of proficiency of the native speaker.
This goal setting, in his opinion, forms the basis of the standard high school curriculum.
Palmer determined the entire course for a period of 2.5-6.5 years, depending on the volume of the language studied. material. According to his method, it is divided into three main stages: original (elementary stage) six months long, intermediate (untermediatestage) 1-3 years long and advanced (advancedstage) also lasts 1-3 years.
Task first – teach to understand a foreign language by ear with the help of subconscious perception and recognize individual sounds and sound combinations. Also teaching articulation, as well as students mastering a minimum of theoretical knowledge in the field of phonetics, grammar, etymology and semantics.

Intermediate assumes the following:
a) understanding most of what is read and heard
b) relative error-free reproduction in speech or writing. form 75% of the material contained in the everyday speech of an ordinary person. Students must also master traditional writing

Advanced characterized by the fact that the importance of the teacher-methodologist decreases. She, according to Palmer, “will take care of herself.” Upon completion, students should be able to read various books and write short essays, as well as conduct a conversation with a foreigner.

However, in “ThisLanguage-LearningBusiness!” Palmer clarifies the intended stages. He thinks there should be six. Also, each of them is faced with the task of mastering one aspect of the language.

1) First and second, for example, have as their goal training pronunciation And oral skills speech. Teaching is carried out exclusively orally, with limited use of recordings in transcription. Application at the second stage of training is especially important question and answer exercises. Indications regarding the duration of this period vary. In early works, he believes that one should linger as long as possible on phonetic writing for about 2 years.
In his later works he limits each degree to approximately 36 hours, and the duration of the second can be increased if the traditional writing of the language being studied sharply diverges from the phonetic one.
2) Problem third steps - mastery by reading And by letter based on material studied in the two previous degrees.
3) Problem fourth and fifth degrees – mastery all major grammatical language constructs and selected dictionary. The main focus here is on oral work, which is based on the material of carefully graded textbook texts. At the fifth stage, in addition, the so-called extensive reading.
4) Sixth step – independent work students above the tongue. It is carried out either under the guidance of a teacher or completely independently. It is not limited in time

At all levels of education, oral speech takes the leading place, reading is given a secondary role, it always follows oral speech. Although the tasks of the last two stages also include the systematic study of texts.

22. Palmer's attitude towards error

One of Palmer’s main methodological principles is the requirement for the gradual introduction of difficulties (gradation) and their isolation.

Errors in students' speech in a foreign language are the result of a violation of this principle, according to Palmer. Compliance with the principle of gradation of difficulties does not imply distortion of the lexical, grammatical or phonetic norms of the language being studied. Language material should be given in such a form that the student is accustomed to correct speech at a normal pace from the very beginning. Compliance with this principle also does not imply studying the easier aspect of the language first (for example, its written form). This principle consists of a strict selection of material for study and its arrangement according to the degree of use, as well as a careful selection of exercises in order of increasing difficulty.
In accordance with this, Palmer developed his system of substitution tables and a graduated series of question-and-answer exercises, which occupy a leading place in his teaching system.

23. Main characteristics of the Sweet method

Sweet differentiates practical And theoretical language learning, referring to the first mastery of skills understand spoken language, read, speak and write in a foreign language. And to the second - study of language history and etymology. A complete course should cover, in his opinion, both practical and theoretical study of the language.
Based on his work, one could conclude that the ultimate goal of education is mastery of oral speech in a foreign language. However, according to Sweet, in a school setting this is a very difficult task, and there is only one way to achieve it - text study. Good linguists, he said, must admit that they learned almost everything from books, especially in the early stages of learning a language, and very little from conversations.

The texts on which language learning is based should, according to Sweet, reflect lively conversational language and thus serve as a basis for oral speech. The topics of the texts that Sweet offers for learning English can be judged by their titles: The Sun, The Moon, Rain, and so on. The texts are predominantly descriptive in nature, with only a small number of dialogues included. The subject matter proposed by Sweet differs sharply from the “tourist” one found in the vast majority of other textbooks of that time, written using the direct method. Sweet considers the selection of texts to be one of the most important issues of methodology. He believes that the first texts to read should be descriptive character, because should be easiest in ram. respect, and then stories, which are gradually included dialogues. Dialogues are not recommended as independent texts. The same type of material should appear repeatedly in the same text, but provided that the naturalness of the language is preserved.

Sweet demands diversify texts, graduate them according to degree of difficulty, subordinate content to form. Diversity of original texts is important because, according to Sweet, it provides Possibility of comprehensive display of the use of different grams. phenomena. The degree of difficulty of the texts and their sequence is determined by Sweet based on the grams they contain. material. The same type of material should appear repeatedly in the same text, but provided that the naturalness of the language is preserved.

Other requirements for texts include:

1. Educational texts should be coherent whole to make it easier to memorize the language they contain. material.
2. They must have clear context, then it is easier to understand the meaning of unfamiliar words and learn them.
3. Texts must be written within limited vocabulary.
4. They must be accessible by content, they should not contain concepts unknown to students.

Unlike other representatives of the Reform, Sweet proposes to base teaching on texts that serve as a source of new material for students and around which all language work is built after they have mastered pronunciation.

Sweet divides the entire course into five stages: 1) mechanical (pre-grammatical), 2) grammatical, 3) idiomatic and lexical, 4) literary, 5) archaic

At the first stage, the main thing is the students’ mastery of pronunciation. Gram. phenomena are assimilated as forms of words, without any explanations or generalizations; at this stage, grams accumulate. facts that must be comprehended only at the next stage. The meaning of linguistic material is revealed through translation. As soon as the sounds are mastered, you should move on to reading coherent texts in transcription writing. Reading the text should not be accompanied by a gram. analysis.

At the second stage, the teacher’s focus is on an elementary course in the grammar of the spoken language, of which only the basics are taught. Texts should be selected in such a way as to illustrate various grammatical phenomena, which are introduced gradually, in order of complexity.

At the third stage, the focus is on the study of vocabulary and idioms. The students' vocabulary should increase to 3000 words and expressions (including previously learned ones) and be systematized on a thematic basis. The study of grammar also continues at this degree.

The fourth stage serves to master the modern literary language, and here no special selection of texts is required. At this stage of learning, students master traditional spelling, for which Sweet recommends using texts already known in transcription.

The fifth stage is devoted to the study of the history of language (for English, this is the language of Shakespeare and Anglo-Saxon).

Sweet believes that the practical study of language is no less scientific than the theoretical one.

24. Sweet's use of etymology

To study a foreign language using a natural (natural) method in a school setting, there is neither the time nor the opportunity to provide the necessary practice. Using this method, a language can only be studied in the country of the language being studied or with the help of a governess. However, in both cases, there is a danger that the child will not learn his native language well, and even though he will learn a foreign language quickly, he will also forget just as quickly if he does not subsequently have the necessary practice.

Why is it important? Sweet sees the significant advantages of learning a foreign language using a non-natural method in the possibility of studying grammar, in the analysis and generalization of linguistic facts. In order to determine the place that Sweet gives to grammar, it is necessary to briefly familiarize himself with his view of the nature of language in general and of grammar in particular.
Sweet believes that language is partly rational and partly irrational when viewed in its present state (in historical terms, many of the “irregularities” can be easily explained). The plural of tree – trees – is a fact of general meaning. However, the fact that the combination of sounds in total (tri:) constitutes the concept of “tree”, the sound (z) in certain positions will always correspond to the concept of multiplicity. This is the main difference between vocabulary and grammar. From this Sweet concludes that everything that subject to generalization into rules (grammar), must be studied with the help theories, the facts are not generalizable(vocabulary) – mechanically.

Sweet does not agree with the theses of other representatives of the Reform that “we learn to speak by models, not by rules” or “we learn living languages ​​more by imitation than by rules.” In his opinion, you need to start not with learning the rules, and from the creation of grammatical associations. “The psychological foundation of language learning is law of associations” (Sweet)

When we learn our native language, we associate words and phrases with thoughts, ideas, actions and incidents.
When creating associations, according to Sweet, the following should be considered:
1) teach first only frequent and characteristic linguistic phenomena
2) report first similar phenomena and then contrasting ones, working on them until they are fully understood
3) it is possible to create clearer and more direct associations
4) avoid cross counters associations, that is, when communicating, for example, a rule, one should not simultaneously give exceptions to it, since in this case students often remember only the exceptions due to the fact that they are sometimes involuntarily given more attention.
Preliminary accumulation facts and then following them comprehension with the help of rules and paradigms - this is how Sweet understands the inductive learning of grammar.

In order to make it easier for students to master vocabulary, it is necessary to rationalize the dictionary. Since there are many related words in the Germanic and Romance languages, they, according to Sweet, should form the basis around which other words should be grouped.
When explaining the meaning of words, Sweet recommends using translation first as the most reliable means, and only at a more advanced stage does he allow for definitions and context. Historical excursions, in his opinion, are useful only when they help reveal the semantics of a word in its modern use.

25. Historical conditions for the implementation of the army method.

Based on Bloomfield's ideas.

It was developed in the USA during World War II, when the computer entered teaching methods.

26. Goals of the army method.

In a short time (6-9 months) teach communication in a foreign language orally within a limited set of everyday topics, i.e. achieve automatic verbal responses to appropriate stimuli through repeated repetition.

27. Why is it impossible to transfer the army method to a secondary school?

The method pursued special military objectives

The method did not provide for mastery of writing and reading the target language

In a regular school there are no conditions for learning a language at such a pace and volume

Students are deprived of initiative, i.e. they must quickly and clearly repeat after the teacher and give correct answers, respond to commands, etc.

However, some elements of the army method were reflected in Stack's "direct method in a new way" and the audio-lingual method of Friz-Lado

28. Basic principles of the army method.

High concentration on learning (25 hours per week)

There are no more than 5-7 people in the group and constant selection into groups according to language proficiency level

Education is based on dialogues on everyday topics, which students first listen to, then reproduce and memorize.

The main type of exercise is drills, or mechanical training - a large number of questions and answers to a learned dialogue under the supervision of a teacher

Classes in the language laboratory

Creating a language environment during extracurricular time

The hard work of the students themselves in wartime

Ticket No. 29 “The concept of a language laboratory”

A language laboratory is a multifunctional unit within the structure of a university or faculty that optimizes a student’s academic work offline and the teaching and methodological work of a teacher using ICT.

The language laboratory is also a means of optimizing the teaching and methodological activities of the teacher, his language and professional development.

The language laboratory is not only an educational, but also a public language and cultural center for both teachers and students of a particular university, and for everyone who wants to study a foreign language.

(The first language laboratory devices appeared more than 40 years ago, and their spread was due to the growing popularity of audiovisual teaching methods. Although these devices were called language laboratories, most of them already at that time included both audio equipment (tape recorders, electric players) and projection: dia - and film projectors, epidiascopes. As the importance of screen aids in the process of teaching foreign languages ​​increased, the nature of the equipment changed, and in the early 60s the concept of “language laboratory” firmly came into use. Not only language laboratories found a place in language laboratories , but also a developed system of projection equipment. Thus, two concepts began to take shape in the methodology - a general one (language laboratory) and a narrower one (linguistic device). and all other educational equipment necessary for conducting lessons, preparing for them and organizing extracurricular activities.)

Ticket No. 30 “The influence of new technologies on the development of methods in the second half of the 20th century”

With the advent of such new technologies as the tape recorder, computer, television, according to some scientists (for example E. Stack), they could compensate for the lack of a language environment.

Ticket No. 31 “Basic principles of the audiolingual method”

The creators of the audiolingual method are the American linguist-structuralist Charles Freese and methodologist R. Lado. This is a method of teaching a foreign language, which involves the use of the auditory channel of perception and repeated listening and reproduction after the speaker of strictly selected structures (sample sentences), which leads to their automation. The concept of the method affirms the priority of oral speech over written speech (hence the oral advance in work and the organization of classes in the sequence listening - speaking - reading - writing), the focus of classes on the formation of speech skills as a result of performing exercises such as "drill" (multiple repetition of samples), the predominance of speech practice over explanations and comments, widespread use of regional information. In the process of mastering the structures of language, four stages were identified: learning by imitation, conscious choice of a new model when contrasting it with already known ones, training in speech implementation of the model, free use of the model. The merit of the creators of the method is the careful development of teaching methods, leading to the automation of models, and the organic inclusion of language technology in the training process. A.m.o. refers to the situational type of learning.

The essence of the method is expressed in several principles:

1. The basis of language acquisition is mastery of oral speech skills → oral speech is primary, and writing is secondary;

2. The formation of oral speech skills should take place as learning speech reactions to presented stimuli;

3. Skills must be automated to such an extent that speech actions are carried out without the participation of consciousness;

4. Automation of skills occurs through repeated repetition of speech patterns.

5. Training of structures should take place in a system of observing a gradual increase in difficulties.

6. Most of the learning process (85%) is practice.

Ticket No. 32 “Basic principles of the audiovisual method”

The audiovisual method, or as it is otherwise called, high-speed or global-structural, arose on the basis of the “army method”. Using some provisions of the “army method” - the intensity of training, the creation of an artificial environment, etc. - the founders of the audiovisual method significantly modified it and tried to substantiate it with data from linguistics and psychology.

Basic principles:

1. The material for teaching is spoken language in a dialogical form, and not literary texts.

2.The basis of language learning is oral speech.

3. The perception of new material in the form of integral structures occurs only by ear. Much attention is paid to the unity of the sound image (sounds, intonation, rhythm).

4.The meaning of new language material (vocabulary and grammar) is revealed using Images objects, actions, etc. And context, i.e., the situation being demonstrated.

5.Language material is learned on the basis of imitation, memorization and education by analogy.

33. Development of domestic methods before the 1917 revolution.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the general educational task of teaching foreign languages ​​was put forward as the main one. Studying foreign language in secondary school is considered as a means of developing logical thinking. The main object of learning is therefore grammar, which is identified with logic. Foreign language vocabulary serves only as an illustration of the grammatical phenomena being studied. Since dead languages ​​serve as prototypes for the study of living languages, the sound structure of the language is not studied. Students are introduced only to reading letters and their combinations. The provision about the commonality of languages ​​and the complete coincidence of concepts in content and method of expression gave representatives of translation methods the basis to consider literal (and sometimes word-for-word) translation one of the basic principles of teaching foreign languages.

Since the systems of the foreign and native languages ​​did not coincide, methodologists had to literally convey the lexical and grammatical structures of the foreign language being studied using the means of their native language.

It can be argued that by the beginning of the First World War, an understanding of the general educational significance of studying foreign languages ​​had taken shape in Russian methodology. At this moment, Russian teacher N.N. Stromilov argued that this subject does not contribute anything to the student’s formal education, it overloads the memory, which harms thinking.

At the middle and senior levels, the textual-translation method was used, since the center of the work was reading and translation.

The choice of textbooks was quite large; a characteristic feature of all textbooks is the strong influence of traditions. In textbooks one can see the emergence of a tendency towards a comparative approach.

34. L.V. Shcherba and his influence on the development of domestic methods.

Academician Shcherba played the greatest role in the creation of the conscious-comparative method; he found practical application for it. In 1947, Shcherba’s book was created, which systematizes his views on general issues of methodology. He put forward the principle of consciousness as the main principle, and he considered grammar-translation to be the leading method. One of the important methodological ideas that influenced the development of the methodology was his idea about the possibility of productive and receptive language acquisition. In the first case, the formation of speaking skills is assumed, in the second, we are talking about mastering the ability to read and extract information from the text. Shcherba’s thoughts on the general educational significance of foreign languages ​​have not lost their significance either. He considered a foreign language as a general educational subject in high school, the study of which not only introduces the student to a foreign language culture, but allows the student to better understand their native language and culture. Subsequently, Shcherba’s ideas were developed by his numerous students and followers (Mirolyubov and Barsuk).

35. The concept of a grammatical minimum. Passive and active grammar

The grammatical minimum is a certain set of grammatical phenomena (grammatical forms, structures, rules for changing words and combining them into sentences), intended for the correct formatting of speech, both from the point of view of morphology and from the point of view of syntax.

The active grammatical minimum refers to those grammatical phenomena that are intended for use in speaking and writing.

The passive grammatical minimum refers to those phenomena that students can recognize and understand in the text.

The active grammatical minimum is selected based on the following principles: a) the principle of prevalence in oral speech; b) the principle of exemplarity; c) the principle of excluding synonymous grammatical phenomena.

The passive grammatical minimum is selected taking into account: a) the principle of prevalence in the bookish and written style of speech; b) the principle of multiple meaning of grammatical phenomena.

The comparative method is learning based on comparing the target language with the native one.

The comparative method is currently used in different countries, but it is most widespread in our country.

1) the desire of the Soviet school to provide a thorough general education

2) – philological education, since knowledge of foreign languages ​​is important

3) foreign language - belongs to a different group of languages ​​compared to Russian, therefore the comparative method is suitable

4) a foreign language in schools is taught by a teacher who speaks his native language, this allows the teacher to take into account the difficulties that a student experiences when learning a foreign language and systematically overcome them with the help of exercises

Academician L.V. SHCHERBA played the greatest role in the creation - he found the practical application of the method

The educational task is to, by comparing the linguistic phenomena of our native and foreign languages, become better aware of the thoughts we express and better separate form from content.

The educational task is the formation of a communist worldview, in general, the moral development

The comparative method assumes:

Awareness of linguistic phenomena

Awareness of the ways of using linguistic phenomena in speech activity

Reliance on native language

Ticket 37. The problem of implementing the conscious-comparative method in the Soviet school

Source of information: “Teaching foreign languages ​​in secondary schools” by L.V. Shcherba

Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba points out the significant shortcomings of teaching a foreign language in the Soviet, contemporary school. He sees the main problem in teachers.

“It is necessary for our teachers to get rid of the prejudice that learning to read books in any language is possible only to the extent of practical knowledge of this language.” In his opinion, a significant problem is that most of his contemporary teachers were taught the language by the direct method. Or they know it as a second native language since childhood, as they grew up in a once noble family. Shcherba proposes to overcome this prejudice by requiring teachers to read books in an unfamiliar language, using a dictionary and a grammar reference book. Only in this way will they be able to overcome the psychological barrier.

Teachers must not only teach spoken language, but must also teach understanding of texts not intuitively, but in a conscious way, which, despite programs, they very often do not do. And they should not only teach this, but also achieve concrete results in this direction. In other words, teachers should, on the one hand, show in lessons how, by looking at the dictionary and grammar, one can achieve understanding of the most difficult text, and on the other hand, require students to do independent homework on a text that has not previously been “chewed” in class. In addition to increasing the number of texts read, care must also be taken to expand students' vocabulary. To do this, for each lesson, students must memorize a certain number of words selected from the texts that are assigned at home.

Another big drawback is few hours allocated for foreign language teaching. To successfully master a language using the conscious-comparative method, you need to devote at least 6 hours a day to classes. The largest number of hours allocated to a foreign language at school is 5-6 per week.

Many high school teachers force students to expand their vocabulary by copying out all unfamiliar words from texts and memorizing them. According to L.V. Shcherba, this method is irrational and erroneous. He suggests learning first those words that are most often found in the language or are actively used by speakers. On the other hand, it is necessary to learn words that, although themselves relatively rare, provide the key to understanding many derived words.

At the same time, teachers are obliged to ensure that students write out and memorize words with their grammatical control and in all their basic meanings, and not only in the often more or less accidental one in which they are used in a given context.

Another significant problem is lack of motivation for students to learn a foreign language. Firstly, The prospect of going abroad is very small. Secondly, The foreign language course program often does not take into account the age of students and students aged 12-15 years are forced to learn basic grammar rules several lessons in a row. This makes them less interested in learning the subject.

And finally there is lack of authentic oral material, which is very important for teaching listening comprehension and pronunciation.

Linear Skinner algorithm

American professor Burres Skinner first introduced the concept of linear programmed learning in 1954.

The basis is the following principles:

Dividing the curriculum into “small portions/steps” - to prevent possible errors by students in their perception;

The level of difficulty of each piece of educational material should be low enough to ensure that the student answers the majority of questions correctly (According to B. Skinner, to organize successful learning, the proportion of students’ incorrect answers should not exceed 5%);

A uniform course of learning for all - since no attempt is made to organize learning according to the abilities and inclinations of the students. The entire difference between students will be expressed only in the duration of completion of the same program;

The student gives answers by filling in the corresponding gaps in the educational text;

Immediate confirmation and encouragement of the correctness of the student’s answer to develop a sense of confidence and interest in learning;

If the answer is incorrect, the student receives help and additional explanations;

The transition to the next step of the program is possible only when the student masters the content of the previous step;

Individualization of the pace of learning - each student works at an optimal pace for himself;

Differentiated consolidation of knowledge - each generalization is repeated in different contexts and illustrated with carefully selected examples.

"In this issue (AIF) we will talk about the “direct” method, which arose on the basis of the natural method. Its difference from the latter was that its principles were justified by the then data of linguistics and psychology. It is not for nothing that among its creators were such major linguistic scientists such as V. Fiester, P. Passy, ​​G. Sweet, O. Espersen and others. The influence of these sciences, in particular psychology, is evidenced by the work of B. Eggert (1). “that its supporters demanded to directly and directly connect a word of a foreign language with a concept, bypassing the word of the native language.”

Representatives of this direction considered the main goal of teaching foreign languages ​​to be teaching practical proficiency in the target language. Initially, such “practical” mastery was identified with mastery of oral speech, which is often found today. However, representatives of the direct method also understood learning to read by it (for example, G. Sweet).

The methodological principles of teaching using the direct method were as follows.

1. The basis of learning is oral speech, since any language is by its nature sound and the leading place is occupied by sound and kinesthetic sensations (sensations of the speech apparatus), which has been proven by psychology.

2. Exclusion of the native language and translation. This position was based on the research of neogrammarians that the words of the native language do not coincide with the words of the meaning being studied, they express different concepts, etc., since each people has its own worldview, a system of concepts reflected in the language.

3. Particular importance was attached to phonetics and pronunciation, since mastering the sound side of speech is an indispensable condition for oral communication. This conclusion was made on the basis of research into the sound side of language, begun by neogrammarians. As a result, methods for staging pronunciation were developed.

4. Based on the position of Gestalt psychology that the whole is not the sum of its components, and the linguistic position on the polysemy of words, representatives of the direct method recommended studying words only in context, that is, as part of sentences.

5. This method proposed to learn grammar through induction. Based on a well-studied text, students made observations of the text and extracted rules. O. Jespersen called this “observational grammar” (2). Subsequently, these rules were brought into the system.

A somewhat different position was taken by the prominent linguist G. Sweet (3). Sharing the view of other representatives of the direct method about the practical purpose of teaching, he believed that the path to this in a school setting lies through the study of texts that reflect living spoken language - the basis for teaching oral speech.

1) texts must be varied and contain significant repetition of linguistic material, which promotes memorization;

2) G. Sweet refuses the “tourist theme” characteristic of the direct method and offers texts on a wide variety of topics;

3) at the beginning, descriptive texts are recommended - easier from the grammatical point of view, and then students should be given stories interspersed with dialogues;

4) finally, texts should be selected taking into account the gradual complication of difficulties.

The lesson using the direct method was structured as follows: the teacher named the objects in the picture and repeated them by the students, then questions and answers, descriptions of the pictures and lexical exercises. Everything ends with a retelling, a dialogue based on the material studied. If a text was used as the basis, then first the text was read three times by the teacher and the words were explained, then exercises were done, and only after that the text was read in transcription and traditional writing.

Analysis of the materials indicates that the direct method was not a homogeneous methodological direction in the West. In different authors we find techniques that differ from each other. At the same time, there are common features: rejection of the native language, attention to the sound image, inductive study of grammar, study of vocabulary in a sentence, and finally, ignoring the thinking of students during learning and relying exclusively on memory and sensory perception.

It is impossible not to mention the meritsrepresentatives of the direct method who contributed significant contribution to the methodology of teaching foreign languages.

First of all, it should be noted the attention to the sound side of the language and the development of methods for teaching pronunciation, since this was done for the first time.

The absolute merit of the representatives of the directmethod was the development of an inductive approach to teaching grammar.

First it was shown that words of different languages ​​reflect different worldviews of peoples, although the not entirely correct conclusion was made about the use of only untranslatable means of semantization.

The requirements for texts developed by G. Sweet also deserve attention. Finally, the means of semantizing vocabulary were systematized

In contrast to the direct orthodox method, widespread in the West, in our country it has acquired a slightly different form. To consider this issue we are moving on.

The direct method began more widelyspread in Russia in the early 90s XIX century. However And before I the world war was a lot ofsubmitters who recognize the old textual-translation method.

The spread of the direct method in Russia collided with the tradition of considering the positive impact of learning a foreign language on proficiency in one’s native language. Thus, K. D. Ushinsky wrote: “Here (when translating from a foreign language - A. M.) it is not only necessary to fully and deeply understand the thought being translated, not only to grasp all its shades, but also to find it in the corresponding expression in your native language. The mind, reason, imagination, memory, the gift of speech must be exercised at the same time” (4; p. 302).

F.N. Buslaev testified to the same influence: “But in order to improve their Russian syllable, students practice written translations from a foreign language” (5; p. 468).

In this regard, even among ardent supporters of the direct method we find the assumption of the native language, which is absolutely excluded in the Western version of the direct method. Thus, I. Sig, in his guide to teaching using the natural method, emphasizes the need to avoid the native language and immediately admits: “However, for educational institutions, especially crowded ones, it is necessary to write down words with Russian meaning and repeat them” ( 6; p. V).

A number of methodologists criticized the direct method for eliminating the native language at the initial stage of training. Thus, E. Bik asserted, criticizing the direct method: “I am far from rejecting the benefits of introducing students to live speech, but I cannot, however, agree with the elimination of the native language for Russians at the beginning of foreign classes language already because by conveying the meaning of a given phrase of the language being studied in our native language, we thereby develop the ability to spontaneously assimilate and thus contribute to understanding the spirit of the language, and especially turns of speech, which becomes noticeable only with the assistance of the native language" (7; p. 95).

We find similar thoughts in R. Orbinsky, A. Thomson and others. Finally, I. Baudouin-de-Courtenay advocated comparison of native and foreign languages: “Comparison of languages ​​seems to be a very beneficial means for developing students’ observation and scientific thinking by their structure" (8; p. 75).

If in pre-revolutionary Russia there were still adherents of the direct orthodox method, then in the 20s XX century, all methodists professing the direct method, and it was then dominant, finally determined the features of the use of the direct method in Russia.

Firstly, methodologists of this period are characterized by a significantly greater use of the native language as a means of semantization and control of understanding. Regarding the latter, K. A. Ganshina wrote: “Meanwhile, the benefits of translation, carried out thoughtfully, with care, after using and elaborating the text, can be very great” (9: p. 41). And such an ardent supporter of the natural method as E.I. Spendiarov recognized translations from the native language, although to a limited extent, as important for mastering grammatical structures.

Secondly, in Russian conditions comparisons with the native language were allowed. D. Shestakov, who also adhered to the direct method, insisted on this.

B Thirdly, methodologists noted that the use of the native language when studying a foreign language is used more at the initial stage, and then it is increasingly reduced.

Thus, E. A. Fechner wrote: “It is clear that the possibly limited use of the native language required by the direct method cannot begin directly with its absolute expulsion, but it must be approached gradually” (10; p. 48). Let us note that the exact opposite opinion prevailed among Western Methodists.

All the above considerations prompted the author of the article to consider this method used in Russia to be a “Russian version” of the direct method. How can we explain the appearance of such an option in our country? In our opinion, there were two reasons.

Firstly, differences in the native (Russian) and Western European languages ​​played a serious and, perhaps, the main role. The proximity of the latter to each other made it possible to build students' education without resorting to their native language. Let's compare: This is a book (a hand) and Das ist ein Buch (eine Hand ). This is impossible in a Russian audience.

Secondly, pedagogical traditions, starting with K. D. Ushinsky, also had a special influence. These features in the tradition of teaching foreign languages ​​also affected the further development of the methodology.

LITERATURE

1. Eggert V. Der psychologische Zusammenhang in der Didaktik des neusprachlichen Reformun-terricht. - Berlin, 1904.

2. Jespersen 0. How to Teach a Foreign Language. - London, 1904.

3.Sweet H. The Practical Study of Langua-ges. - Oxford, 1894.

4. Ushinsky K. D. Explanatory note to the draft training course programs in the educational society of noble maidens

and St. Petersburg Alexander School // Collection. op. - T. 6. - M.-L., 1948.

5. Buslaev F. I. General plan and programs for teaching languages ​​and literature in women's secondary educational institutions. Teaching the native language. - M.: Education, 1992.

6.Sig I. A guide to initial teaching of the German language in secondary schools using the natural method. - M., 1893.

7. Bak E. Analytical-synthetic method of teaching foreign languages ​​// Russian School. - 1890. - No. 5.

8. Baudouin-de-Courtenay I.The importance of language as a subject of study // Russian School. - 1906. - No. 7-9.

9. Ganshina K. A. Sat. materials on methods of teaching foreign languages. - M., 1924.

10. Fechner E. A. Methods of teaching German in Russian schools. - L., 1924.

A.A. MIROLYUBOV.Moscow

Back to teaching methods Let's have fun