Antique cameos, these miniature creations of human hands, combine subtle grace and beauty. And although their age is estimated at more than a dozen centuries, looking at them, every viewer has the feeling that these images are about to come to life! Indeed, in ancient times in Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece and the Hellenistic states, this art reached the heights of perfection.
It’s not for nothing that it’s said about them: “ Gems are small, but they conquer centuries"(S. Reinak). The art of miniature carving on precious and semi-precious stones, glyptic, has been known since ancient times. At the same time, carved miniatures, called gems, can be of two types - with convex images (these are cameos) or with carved ones (intaglios).
Intaglios as stamps
Intaglios are a more ancient type of carving, and they experienced their heyday a very long time ago. Intaglios were usually carved on single-color stones for a practical purpose - for use as seals. Impressions were made on soft clay or wax, thus sealing the premises, sealing letters and documents. They also stamped some things, thereby marking their belonging to the owner of the intaglio.
Carving miniature intaglios is not an easy task; the carver must have a good idea of what the inverted print will look like. The most commonly used materials for intaglios are varieties of quartz: carnelian and reddish chalcedony, as well as rock crystal.
Cameos - luxury items in Ancient Greece
In the era of antiquity, at the end of the 4th century BC. e., the masters of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece, continuing to work with intaglios, began to work with another material - multi-colored and multi-layered sardonyx or agate, from which they cut out convex relief gems - cameos. With a skillful approach, carvers managed to achieve interesting color and lighting effects.When working on double or triple portraits, they tried to maintain each of them in a different color. And if you managed to successfully get the color right, which was not at all easy, the cameos seemed to come to life.
While intaglios were used for practical purposes, cameos became a luxury item. They were inserted into rings and tiaras for beauty, and they were used to decorate their clothes... But not everyone could afford to buy them.
Gems of Alexandria
The first to work with cameos based on polychrome sardonyx were anonymous Greek stone carvers who served at the Ptolemaic court in Alexandria. In terms of glyptics, they were great masters; even their earliest works with cameos were performed masterfully.
A number of works they created have become famous masterpieces. These include the unique “Gonzaga Cameo”, “Farnese Cup”, “Ptolemy Cup” and others.
Their most brilliant work, recognized as an all-time masterpiece, was the “Cameo Gonzaga,” kept in the Hermitage.
A most beautiful cameo, one of the largest. There are two profiles carved on it - male and female. Most likely, this is Ptolemy II and his wife Arsinoe, who is also his sister.
This cameo did not escape the fate of many historical relics: it passed from one owner to another seven times until it ended up in St. Petersburg. Josephine gave it to Russian Emperor Alexander I in 1814 after France’s defeat in the war with Russia.
Glyptics in Ancient Rome
After the fall of the Ptolemaic kingdom (30 BC), the Hellenistic era ended, and Greek craftsmen began to work for the benefit of the Roman Empire, which successfully absorbed the culture of Ancient Hellas, including glyptics. But reproducing its best examples, Roman carvers began to create numerous portrait and multi-figure cameos with mythical and allegorical heroes.Gradually, a new period began in the history of glyptics, in which a new style took shape. Now the main storyline was the triumph of the emperor, and in technology preference began to be given to more strict and graphic two-color compositions - white silhouettes on a dark background.
"August's Cameo"
This two-color cameo depicts Emperor Augustus surrounded by real historical figures and Roman gods.
"Gem of Tiberius"
This cameo is the largest cameo in the world. Napoleon I called it the "Great Cameo of France." The cameo was made during the reign of Emperor Tiberius in his honor on the basis of a five-layer sardonyx. There are more than 20 figures on it in three rows. Emperor Tiberius and his wife Livia are depicted surrounded by their relatives and gods, carved with jewelry precision, and under their feet are the defeated Germans and Dacians with their women and children.
It is clear that miniature stone carving is not at all a simple matter, requiring great skill and patience. In addition, the master must be able to discern the beauty in the stone and predict how the layers are located inside it. The carving process itself is very long. Creating one cameo can take not even months, but years of hard work. Experts compare the process of making one large cameo with the construction of an entire cathedral. Apparently, you have to love your job very much to do it.
But, despite all these difficulties, many beautiful specimens, real works of art, emerged from the chisels of ancient masters. And all subsequent years they remain the ideal of beauty and perfection, to which many glyptic masters strive.
Intaglio
Cameos
In the center of the cross there is a rather large cameo depicting Emperor Augustus. This cross was donated to the ancient and famous Aachen Cathedral by the German Emperor Otto III.
Cameo of Emperor Constantine, sardonyx, 4th century AD. e., Constantine and Tyche. Sardonyx. Roman work. IV century St. Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum.
The best collections of cameos are in the museums of Vienna, Paris and St. Petersburg. Largely thanks to the efforts of Catherine II, who adored cameos and collected them, the Hermitage’s collection of antique cameos is one of the largest in the world. And today they impress the most sophisticated connoisseurs.
Today another intellectual game “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?” took place. In this article you can see answers to all questions in "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" for May 13, 2017 . Two pairs of players participated in the game today with host Dmitry Dibrov. Below are the questions and answers themselves, I decided not to write answer options, so as not to distract readers, because you only need the necessary information.
The first couple of players in the game "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" for 05/13/2017
1. What do you call a person who performs small, simple tasks?
- errand boy
2.How should a Soviet pioneer respond to the call “Be ready!”?
- "Always ready!"
3. Where is the heroine of the song performed by Lyubov Uspenskaya going to sit?
- in a convertible
4.What can you earn in many games?
5. Who sang ditties in the cartoon “The Flying Ship”?
- Granny hedgehogs
6. What predator lives high in the mountains?
- Snow Leopard
7.In addition to horsepower, what is the power of a car measured in?
- in kilowatts
8. What was the nickname of Sir Lancelot, the Knight of the Round Table?
- Ozerny
9. The melody of which song by the bard Sergei Nikitin was recorded by the Paul Mauriat Orchestra?
- "To the music of Vivaldi"
10. What decorated the hats of postal couriers in Ancient Rome?
- wings
11.Which artist's house is one of the most famous museums in Amsterdam?
- Rembrandt
The players of the first pair did not win anything and left without a penny of the money they won.
The second pair of players in the program “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?” for 05/13/2017
1. What are animal and plant organisms made of?
- from cells
2. How did Ershov describe the Little Humpbacked Horse: “On his back with two humps and...”?
- with arshin ears
3. What is used in acupuncture?
- needles
4.Which Shakespeare play is the basis for the musical Kiss Me, Kate?
- "The Taming of the Shrew"
5.What do koalas eat?
- eucalyptus leaves
6. Which country's martial arts are known as wushu?
- China
7. From which poem by Pushkin did Vladimir Motyl take the title for his film “Star of Captivating Happiness”?
- "To Chaadaev"
8. What letter does a rugby goal resemble?
9. What musical instrument is depicted on the coat of arms of Ireland?
10. On which lake did Tsar Peter I build the Amusement Flotilla?
- Pleshcheyevo
The players answered incorrectly and left without a penny of the money they won.
In ancient times, and even in the Middle Ages, a messenger (as couriers were called in those days) who delivered a message with bad news was often threatened with death. Such messengers were often executed - remember from Pushkin in “The Tale of Tsar Saltan”: “In anger, he began to perform miracles / And he ordered the messenger to be hanged.” Just 150-200 years ago, delivery times for letters and parcels, even within one country like Russia, could be measured in years. If the letter was in transit for less than 6 months, it was considered that it arrived very quickly. 
Today, the courier service in Russia is established at the highest level and among all others, the delivery of parcels in St. Petersburg “Express Tochka Ru” stands out - this company has proven itself at the highest level - saving time and money.
Organization of the postal service in the Inca country
Before its death as a result of the conquistador invasion, the Inca civilization occupied a vast territory in South America. One of the main achievements of this civilization is considered to be an excellently organized courier service at an accessible technical level. The Inca country had an extensive road network, and the roads were well equipped. Every 7.2 km there was always a sign with information about the distance to the nearest city; after 19-29 km there were special stations intended for travelers to relax. Specialized courier stations were located very often: at intervals of 2.5 km. Inca couriers (“chaskis”) delivered their cargo (sometimes these were oral messages) by relay race: upon arriving at the station, the tired courier handed over his burden to the rested one, who immediately continued on his way. This process lasted around the clock. Thus, dispatches were delivered over distances of up to 2 thousand km. for a period of less than 5 days. 
The relay principle was borrowed and implemented in many countries. Thus, in the developed part of Russia in the 17th-20th centuries, there was an extensive network of postal stations, where government couriers, as well as other persons traveling on government business, could rest and/or exchange tired horses for fresh ones.
Ancient courier services
In Ancient Rome, courier delivery was very high quality. It was thanks to her that residents of remote provinces could learn about the news relatively quickly. The position of state (during the Republic) and later, imperial courier was very prestigious and highly paid.
Even in ancient times, China was a centralized state with a developed governance structure. Naturally, he also could not do without an organized courier service. It was in China that they first began to produce special sheets of paper with summaries of important news, which were delivered by couriers to all parts of the Celestial Empire.
Perhaps the most famous courier of the ancient world is the Greek Phillipides, who delivered news of the victory over the Persian army in the Battle of Marathon to Athens. Having run 42 km, 195 m, without rest, from the battlefield to the central square of Athens, he shouted “Rejoice! We whitewashed it!” and fell dead. It was in his honor that competitions in the discipline “Marathon running” were introduced into the program of the Olympic Games, which are still held today.
Organization of postal and courier services in Russia
The first specialized service for the delivery of written correspondence was organized in Rus' back in the 13th century. It was called “Yamskaya persecution” and was a very original purely Russian institution, which, not without changes, continued to exist almost until the end of the 19th century. The coachman profession was one of the most widespread. 
From the 16th century In order to improve accounting and introduce the personal responsibility of the messenger for the safety and timely delivery of correspondence, special “marks” began to be placed on the packaging of documents, which became prototypes of a postmark. Since the 17th century Such notes indicated the personal details of the messenger and the date of delivery of the document.
In 1665, the Moscow-Riga postal and courier route was laid, and 4 years later a similar route to Vilnius. This is how regular postal communication with Europe was organized for the first time.
On November 17, 1710, Peter I signed a decree on the organization of a specialized courier route Moscow - St. Petersburg. And 6 years later, 30.03. In 1716, the same Peter I approved the All-Russian Military Field Courier Service.
Since 1783, uniform postal delivery rates began to operate in Russia. The price was determined taking into account the weight of the item and the distance to the recipient.
Since 1837, railways began to be used to transport mail in Russia. Moreover, Russia was one of the first states where rail postal transportation was put on a regular basis.
At the beginning of the 19th century. The Russian postal and courier service consisted of approximately 460 institutions, and the total number of couriers serving in them was 5 thousand people.
IN THE USA
The first regular delivery services for small cargo (including flowers), as well as mail in the United States, began to be provided by UPS in 1907.
Since 1946, the TNT company, created by K. Thomas, began to provide its services. It was this company that established regular intercity mail service. Among Thomas's innovations was the introduction of return delivery services, where the sender received from the company a certificate of delivery of his item, signed by the recipient.
Since 1969, airplanes have been regularly used for courier deliveries. It was from this moment that courier delivery companies could begin to cover the entire world with their activities, rather than individual regions.