Pioneer of quantitative color theory. James Clerk Maxwell - biography

MAXWELL, James Clerk

English physicist James Clerk Maxwell was born in Edinburgh into the family of a Scottish nobleman from the noble Clerk family. He studied first at Edinburgh (1847–1850), then at Cambridge (1850–1854) universities. In 1855, Maxwell became a member of the council of Trinity College, in 1856–1860. was a professor at Marischal College, University of Aberdeen, and from 1860 headed the department of physics and astronomy at King's College, University of London. In 1865, due to a serious illness, Maxwell resigned from the department and settled on his family estate of Glenlare near Edinburgh. There he continued to study science and wrote several essays on physics and mathematics. In 1871 he took the chair of experimental physics at the University of Cambridge. Maxwell organized a research laboratory, which opened on June 16, 1874 and was named Cavendish in honor of Henry Cavendish.

Maxwell completed his first scientific work while still at school, inventing a simple way to draw oval shapes. This work was reported at a meeting of the Royal Society and even published in its Proceedings. While a member of the Council of Trinity College, he was engaged in experiments on color theory, acting as a continuator of Jung's theory and Helmholtz's theory of three primary colors. In experiments on color mixing, Maxwell used a special top, the disk of which was divided into sectors painted in different colors (Maxwell disk). When the top rotated quickly, the colors merged: if the disk was painted in the same way as the colors of the spectrum, it appeared white; if one half of it was painted red and the other half yellow, it appeared orange; mixing blue and yellow created the impression of green. In 1860, Maxwell was awarded the Rumford Medal for his work on color perception and optics.

In 1857, the University of Cambridge announced a competition for the best paper on the stability of Saturn's rings. These formations were discovered by Galileo at the beginning of the 17th century. and presented an amazing mystery of nature: the planet seemed surrounded by three continuous concentric rings, consisting of a substance of an unknown nature. Laplace proved that they cannot be solid. After conducting a mathematical analysis, Maxwell became convinced that they could not be liquid, and came to the conclusion that such a structure could only be stable if it consisted of a swarm of unrelated meteorites. The stability of the rings is ensured by their attraction to Saturn and the mutual movement of the planet and meteorites. For this work, Maxwell received the J. Adams Prize.

One of Maxwell's first works was his kinetic theory of gases. In 1859, the scientist gave a report at a meeting of the British Association in which he presented the distribution of molecules by speed (Maxwellian distribution). Maxwell developed the ideas of his predecessor in the development of the kinetic theory of gases by Rudolf Clausius, who introduced the concept of "mean free path". Maxwell proceeded from the idea of a gas as an ensemble of many ideally elastic balls moving chaotically in a closed space. Balls (molecules) can be divided into groups according to speed, while in a stationary state the number of molecules in each group remains constant, although they can leave and enter groups. From this consideration it followed that “particles are distributed by speed according to the same law as observational errors are distributed in the theory of the least squares method, i.e. according to Gaussian statistics." As part of his theory, Maxwell explained Avogadro's law, diffusion, thermal conductivity, internal friction (transfer theory). In 1867 he showed the statistical nature of the second law of thermodynamics.

In 1831, the year Maxwell was born, Michael Faraday carried out the classic experiments that led him to the discovery of electromagnetic induction. Maxwell began to study electricity and magnetism about 20 years later, when there were two views on the nature of electric and magnetic effects. Scientists such as A. M. Ampere and F. Neumann adhered to the concept of long-range action, viewing electromagnetic forces as analogous to the gravitational attraction between two masses. Faraday was an advocate of the idea of lines of force that connect positive and negative electric charges or the north and south poles of a magnet. Lines of force fill the entire surrounding space (field, in Faraday's terminology) and determine electrical and magnetic interactions. Following Faraday, Maxwell developed a hydrodynamic model of lines of force and expressed the then known relations of electrodynamics in a mathematical language corresponding to Faraday's mechanical models. The main results of this research are reflected in the work “Faraday's Lines of Force” (1857). In 1860–1865 Maxwell created the theory of the electromagnetic field, which he formulated in the form of a system of equations (Maxwell's equations) describing the basic laws of electromagnetic phenomena: the 1st equation expressed Faraday's electromagnetic induction; 2nd – magnetoelectric induction, discovered by Maxwell and based on ideas about displacement currents; 3rd – the law of conservation of electricity; 4th – vortex nature of the magnetic field.

Continuing to develop these ideas, Maxwell came to the conclusion that any changes in the electric and magnetic fields should cause changes in the lines of force that penetrate the surrounding space, i.e. there must be pulses (or waves) propagating in the medium. The speed of propagation of these waves (electromagnetic disturbance) depends on the dielectric and magnetic permeability of the medium and is equal to the ratio of the electromagnetic unit to the electrostatic one. According to Maxwell and other researchers, this ratio is 3·10 10 cm/s, which is close to the speed of light measured seven years earlier by the French physicist A. Fizeau. In October 1861, Maxwell informed Faraday about his discovery: light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagating in a non-conducting medium, i.e. a type of electromagnetic wave. This final stage of research is outlined in Maxwell’s work “The Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field” (1864), and the result of his work on electrodynamics was summed up in the famous “Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism” (1873).

James Maxwell's brief biography of the English physicist, creator of classical electrodynamics, one of the founders of statistical physics, is presented in this article.

James Clerk Maxwell biography briefly

Maxwell James Clerk was born on June 13, 1831 in Edinburgh into the family of a Scottish nobleman. At the age of 10 he entered the Edinburgh Academy, where he became the first student.

From 1847 to 1850 he studied at the University of Edinburgh. Here I became interested in experiments in chemistry, optics, magnetism, and studied mathematics, physics, and mechanics. Three years later, to continue his education, James transferred to Trinity College Cambridge and began studying electricity from the book of M. Faraday. Then he began experimental research on electricity.
After successfully graduating from college (1854), the young scientist was invited to teach. Two years later he wrote an article “On Faraday lines of force.”

At the same time, Maxwell was developing the kinetic theory of gases. He derived a law according to which gas molecules are distributed according to their velocities (Maxwell's distribution).

In 1856-1860 Maxwell is a professor at the University of Aberdeen; in 1860-1865 he taught at King's College London, where he first met Faraday. It was during this period that his main work, “Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field” (1864-1865), was created, in which the patterns he discovered were expressed in the form of systems of four differential equations (Maxwell’s equations). The scientist argued that a changing magnetic field forms a vortex electric field in surrounding bodies and in vacuum, and this, in turn, causes the appearance of a magnetic field.
This discovery became a new stage in the knowledge of the world. A. Poincaré considered Maxwell's theory to be the pinnacle of mathematical thought. Maxwell proposed that electromagnetic waves must exist and that their speed of propagation is equal to the speed of light. This means that light is a type of electromagnetic waves. He theoretically substantiated the phenomenon of light pressure.

The most important factor in changing the face of the world is the expansion of the horizons of scientific knowledge. A key feature in the development of science of this period of time is the widespread use of electricity in all branches of production. And people could no longer refuse to use electricity, having felt its significant benefits. At this time, scientists began to closely study electromagnetic waves and their effect on various materials.

A great achievement of science in the 19th century. was the electromagnetic theory of light put forward by the English scientist D. Maxwell (1865), which summarized the research and theoretical conclusions of many physicists from different countries in the fields of electromagnetism, thermodynamics and optics.

Maxwell is well known for formulating four equations that were an expression of the fundamental laws of electricity and magnetism. These two areas had been widely researched before Maxwell for many years, and it was well known that they were interrelated. However, although various laws of electricity had already been discovered and they were true for specific conditions, there was not a single general and uniform theory before Maxwell.

D. Maxwell came to the idea of the unity and interrelation of electric and magnetic fields, and on this basis created the theory of the electromagnetic field, according to which, having arisen at any point in space, the electromagnetic field propagates in it at a speed equal to the speed of light. Thus, he established the connection between light phenomena and electromagnetism.

In his four equations, short but quite complex, Maxwell was able to accurately describe the behavior and interaction of electric and magnetic fields. Thus, he transformed this complex phenomenon into a single, understandable theory. Maxwell's equations were widely used in the last century in both theoretical and applied sciences. The main advantage of Maxwell's equations was that they are general equations applicable under all circumstances. All previously known laws of electricity and magnetism can be derived from Maxwell's equations, as well as many other previously unknown results.

The most important of these results were derived by Maxwell himself. From his equations we can conclude that there is a periodic oscillation of the electromagnetic field. Once started, such vibrations, called electromagnetic waves, will spread in space. From his equations, Maxwell was able to deduce that the speed of such electromagnetic waves would be approximately 300,000 kilometers (186,000 miles) per second. Maxwell saw that this speed was equal to the speed of light. From this he correctly concluded that light itself consists of electromagnetic waves. Thus, Maxwell's equations are not only the basic laws of electricity and magnetism, they are the basic laws of optics. Indeed, all previously known laws of optics can be deduced from his equations, just like previously unknown results and relationships. Visible light is not the only possible form of electromagnetic radiation.

Maxwell's equations showed that there could be other electromagnetic waves that differ from visible light in wavelength and frequency. These theoretical conclusions were subsequently clearly confirmed by Heinrich Hertz, who was able to both create and rectify invisible waves, the existence of which had been predicted by Maxwell.

For the first time in practice, the German physicist G. Hertz managed to observe the propagation of electromagnetic waves (1883). He also determined that their propagation speed is 300 thousand km/sec. Paradoxically, he believed that electromagnetic waves would have no practical application. And a few years later, on the basis of this discovery by A.S. Popov used them to transmit the world's first radiogram. It consisted of only two words: “Heinrich Hertz.”

Today we successfully use them for television. X-rays, gamma rays, infrared rays, ultraviolet rays are other examples of electromagnetic radiation. All this can be studied through Maxwell's equations. Although Maxwell achieved recognition primarily for his spectacular contributions to electromagnetism and optics, he also made contributions to other fields of science, including astronomical theory and thermodynamics (the study of heat). The subject of his special interest was the kinetic theory of gases. Maxwell realized that not all gas molecules move at the same speed. Some molecules move slower, some move faster, and some move at very high speeds. Maxwell derived a formula that determines which particle of a given gas molecule will move at any given speed. This formula, called the Maxwell distribution, is widely used in scientific equations and has significant applications in many areas of physics.

This invention became the basis for modern technologies for wireless information transmission, radio and television, including all types of mobile communications, the operation of which is based on the principle of data transmission via electromagnetic waves. After experimental confirmation of the reality of the electromagnetic field, a fundamental scientific discovery was made: there are different types of matter, and each of them has its own laws, which are not reducible to Newton’s laws of mechanics.

The American physicist R. Feynman excellently spoke about Maxwell’s role in the development of science: “In the history of mankind (if you look at it, say, ten thousand years later), the most significant event of the nineteenth century will undoubtedly be Maxwell’s discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. Against the backdrop of this important scientific discovery, the American Civil War in the same decade will look like a provincial incident.

Maxwell, James Clerk - English mathematician and physicist of Scottish origin. Founder of modern classical electrodynamics, kinetic theory of gases. Conducted a number of important studies in thermodynamics and molecular physics. The creator of the quantitative theory of colors, laid the foundations of the principles of color photography.

Biography

James Clerk Maxwell was born on June 13, 1831 in the Scottish capital of Edinburgh. Father, John Clerk Maxwell. He was a member of the bar and owned an estate in South Scotland. Mother, Frances Kay, was the daughter of a judge of the Admiralty Court.

James's mother died when he was eight years old. My father had to raise him on his own. Throughout his life, James retained very warm feelings for his father, who really always took care of him.

When the time came for James to receive an education, teachers were initially invited to his home. However, these teachers were ignorant and rude, and others could not be found. Therefore, the father decided to send his son to Edinburgh Academy.

At first, young Maxwell was quite wary of studying at the academy, but gradually became involved. The lessons aroused genuine interest in him, and geometry attracted special attention. It was this science that became the basis on which all of Maxwell’s future scientific achievements grew.

Maxwell gave the academy a parting anthem, which was subsequently sung with pleasure by more than one generation of students. James then enters the University of Edinburgh. Here he studies the theory of elasticity, the results of this work are highly appreciated by specialists.

In 1850, Maxwell left for Cambridge, despite his father's dissatisfaction with this decision. First he studies at St. College. Peter's, then moves to Trinity College. He simply amazed the teachers with his knowledge and took second place at graduation. After receiving his bachelor's degree, Maxwell remained at Trinity College to work as a teacher. During this period, he studied the problem of colors, geometry, and electricity. In 1854, in a letter to one of his friends

James announced his intention to "attack electricity." This was successful - soon the work “On Faraday Lines of Force” was published, one of Maxwell’s three largest works. The main work of this period of the scientist’s life was the creation of color theory. He experimentally proved how colors mix. These studies subsequently formed the basis of color photography.

In 1856, Maxwell became professor of natural philosophy at Aberdeen Marischal College. He, in fact, created the physics department here from scratch. In 1858, Maxwell married Catherine Mary Dewar, who was the daughter of the head of Marischal College.

During this period, the scientist was engaged in calculating the movement of the rings of Saturn, publishing a treatise “On the stability of the movement of the rings of Saturn.” This work later became a classic.

At the same time, Maxwell focused on the kinetic theory of gases. In June 1860, he gave a report on this topic at the meeting of the British Association in Oxford.

Also in 1860, Maxwell had to say goodbye to his professorship at Marischal College. Soon after this, he was invited to King's College to the position of professor in the department of natural philosophy.

On May 17, 1861, the scientist demonstrated the world's first color photograph. A hundred years later, the Kodak company proved that Maxwell was simply lucky at that time - it was impossible to obtain green and red images using his method; these colors were formed by chance. However, the principles were still correct, albeit with minor errors.

After this, Maxwell focuses on the study of electromagnetism. The works “On Physical Lines of Force” and “Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field” are published. From that time until the end of his life, the scientist worked on problems of electrical measurements.

In 1865, Maxwell's health deteriorated, and the following year he left London for his Glenlar estate. In 1867 he went to Italy to improve his health. During this period, the books “Theory of Heat” and “Theory of Heat” were published.

In 1871, Maxwell became a professor at Cambridge University. Two years later, the scientist finishes the work of his whole life - the two-volume Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Then the books “Matter and Motion” were published,

From 1874 to 1879, Maxwell processed the works of Henry Cavendish, which were solemnly presented to him by the Duke of Devonshire.

By this time, his health was deteriorating greatly. Soon a diagnosis of cancer was made. On November 5, 1879, James Clerk Maxwell died. His body was buried in the village of Parton, next to his parents.

Maxwell's main achievements

During Maxwell's lifetime, many of his works were not properly appreciated, but later his work took its rightful place in the history of science.
Research in the field of electromagnetic field theory became the basis of the idea of the field in physics of the 20th century. This was pointed out by many scientists, including Leopold Infeld, Albert Einstein, and Rudolf Peierls.
Contribution to molecular kinetic theory.
Development of statistical methods that contributed to the development of statistical mechanics. Coined the term “statistical mechanics”.
Creation of color theory. Electromagnetic theory of light.
Development of the dynamic theory of gases.

Important dates in Maxwell's biography

June 13, 1831 - in Edinburgh.
1841 – admission to the Edinburgh Academy.
1846 - the first scientific work “On the properties of ovals and curves with many foci.”
1847 – admission to the University of Edinburgh.
1850 – report “On the equilibrium of elastic bodies.” Admission to Cambridge University.
1854 – graduation from university. Beginning of professorial activity.
1856 - father's death. Maxwell becomes a member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
1857 - work “On Faraday’s lines of force.”
1858 - married Katherine Mary Dewar.
1859 - the first article on the kinetic theory of gases.
1860 – Professor of Physics at the University of London.
1860 - Receives the Rumford Medal for research in optics and colors.
1861 – the world's first color photograph.
1861-1864 – publication of the works “Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field”, “On Physical Lines of Forces”.
1865 – move to Glenlare.
1867 - trip to Italy.
1871 – Professor of Experimental Physics at Cambridge University.
1873 – publication of the works “Matter and Motion”, “Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism”.
1874 - the Cavendish Laboratory began its work.
1878-1879 – publication of articles “On stresses arising in rarefied gases due to temperature inequality”, “Harmonic analysis”.
November 5, 1879 - James Clerk Maxwell died at his Cambridge home.

The only feature of the Venus relief named after a man is the James Maxwell mountain range.
At school, Maxwell knew very little arithmetic.
After receiving a message about compulsory attendance at a service at Cambridge University, he said: “I’m just going to bed at this time.”
He loved to perform Scottish songs, accompanying himself on the guitar.
At the age of eight, he could quote almost any verse from the Book of Psalms.

(13.06.1831 - 05.11.1879)

((1831-1879), English physicist, creator of classical electrodynamics, one of the founders of statistical physics. Born on June 13, 1831 in Edinburgh in the family of a Scottish nobleman from the noble family of Clerks. He studied first at Edinburgh (1847-1850), then at Cambridge (1850-1854) University. In 1855 he became a member of the council of Trinity College, in 1856-1860 he was professor of natural philosophy at Marischal College, University of Aberdeen, and from 1860 he headed the department of physics and astronomy at King's College, University of London. In 1865, due to a serious illness, Maxwell resigned from the chair and settled on his family estate of Glenlare near Edinburgh. Here he continued to study science and wrote several essays on physics and mathematics.

In 1871, a chair of experimental physics was established at the University of Cambridge, which Maxwell agreed to occupy. Here he took on the burden of organizing a research laboratory at the department, the first physical laboratory in England. Funds for its creation were donated by the Duke of Devonshire, Lord Chancellor of the University, but all organizational work was carried out under the supervision and instructions of Maxwell (in addition, he invested a lot of personal funds in it). The laboratory opened on June 16, 1874 and was named Cavendish - in honor of the remarkable English scientist of the late 18th century. G. Cavendish, to whom the Duke was a great-nephew. The laboratory was adapted for both scientific work and lecture demonstrations. Subsequently, it became one of the most famous physics laboratories in the world.

In the last years of his life, Maxwell spent a lot of time preparing for printing and publishing Cavendish's enormous handwritten legacy - his theoretical and experimental works on electricity. Two large volumes were published in October 1879. Maxwell died in Cambridge on November 5, 1879. After a funeral service in the chapel of Trinity College, he was buried in the family cemetery in Scotland.

Maxwell completed his first scientific work while still at school: at the age of 15, he came up with a simple way to draw oval shapes. This work was reported at a meeting of the Royal Society and even published in its Proceedings. While a fellow at Trinity College, he experimented with color theory, acting as a continuator of Jung's theory and Helmholtz's theory of the three primary colors. In his experiments on color mixing, Maxwell used a special top, the disk of which was divided into sectors painted in different colors (the “Maxwell disk”). When the top rotated quickly, the colors merged: if the disk was painted in the same way as the colors of the spectrum, it appeared white; if one half of it was painted red and the other half yellow, it appeared orange; mixing blue and yellow created the impression of green. Different combinations of colors produced different shades. Somewhat later, Maxwell successfully demonstrated this device at his lectures at the Royal Society. In 1860 he was awarded the Rumford Medal for his work on color perception and optics.

In 1857, Cambridge University announced a competition for the best work on the stability of Saturn's rings, in which Maxwell decided to take part. These formations were discovered by Galileo at the beginning of the 17th century. and presented an amazing mystery of nature: the planet seemed surrounded by three continuous concentric rings, consisting of a substance of an unknown nature. Laplace proved that they cannot be solid. After conducting a mathematical analysis, Maxwell was convinced that they could not be liquid, and came to the conclusion that such a structure is stable only if it consists of a swarm of unrelated meteorites. The stability of the rings is ensured by their attraction to Saturn and the mutual movement of the planet and meteorites. For this work, Maxwell received the J. Adams Prize and immediately became a leader in mathematical physics.

One of Maxwell's first works that made the most significant contribution to science was his kinetic theory of gases. In 1859, he delivered a report at a meeting of the British Association in which he deduced the distribution of molecules by speed (Maxwellian distribution). Maxwell developed the ideas of his predecessor in the development of the kinetic theory of gases by R. Clausius, who introduced the concept of “mean free path” (the average distance traveled by a gas molecule between its collision with another molecule). Maxwell proceeded from the idea of a gas as an ensemble of many ideally elastic balls moving chaotically in a closed space and undergoing only elastic collisions. Balls (molecules) can be divided into groups according to speed, while in a stationary state the number of molecules in each group remains constant, although they can leave and enter groups. From this consideration it followed that “particles are distributed by speed according to the same law according to which observational errors are distributed in the theory of the least squares method, i.e. in accordance with Gaussian statistics.” This is how statistics entered the description of physical phenomena for the first time. As part of his theory, Maxwell explained Avogadro's law, diffusion, thermal conductivity, internal friction (transfer theory).

In 1867 he showed the statistical nature of the second law of thermodynamics (“Maxwell’s demon”). In 1831, the year Maxwell was born, M. Faraday conducted classical experiments that led him to the discovery of electromagnetic induction. Maxwell began to study electricity and magnetism about 20 years later, when there were two views on the nature of electric and magnetic effects. Scientists such as A.M. Ampere and F. Neumann adhered to the concept of long-range action, considering electromagnetic forces as an analogue of gravitational attraction between two masses. Faraday was an advocate of the idea of lines of force that connect positive and negative electric charges or the north and south poles of a magnet. They fill the entire surrounding space (field, in Faraday's terminology) and determine electrical and magnetic interactions. Maxwell studied Faraday's work most carefully and developed field ideas for almost his entire creative life.

Following Faraday, he developed a hydrodynamic model of lines of force and expressed the then known relations of electrodynamics in a mathematical language corresponding to Faraday's mechanical models. The main results of this research are reflected in the work Faraday's Lines of Force, directed to Faraday in 1857. In 1860-1865, Maxwell created the theory of the electromagnetic field, which he formulated in the form of a system of equations (Maxwell's equations) describing all the basic laws electromagnetic phenomena: 1st equation expressed Faraday's electromagnetic induction; 2nd - magnetoelectric induction, discovered by Maxwell and based on the concepts of displacement currents; 3rd - the law of conservation of the amount of electricity; 4th - the vortex nature of the magnetic field. ideas, Maxwell came to the conclusion that any changes in the electric and magnetic fields should cause changes in the lines of force penetrating the surrounding space, i.e. there should be pulses (or waves) propagating in the medium. The speed of propagation of these waves (electromagnetic disturbances) depends. on the dielectric and magnetic permeability of the medium and is equal to the ratio of the electromagnetic unit of electricity to the electrostatic one. According to Maxwell and other researchers, this ratio is 3x1010 cm/s, which is very close to the speed of light measured seven years earlier by the French physicist A. Fizeau.

In October 1861, Maxwell informed Faraday of his discovery: light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagating in a non-conducting medium, i.e. a type of electromagnetic wave. This final stage was reflected in Maxwell's work Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field (Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 1864), and the result of his work on electrodynamics was summed up by the famous Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873). The experimental and technical problem of obtaining and using electromagnetic waves in a wide spectral range, in which visible light accounts for only a small part, was successfully solved by subsequent generations of scientists and engineers. Applications of Maxwell's theory gave the world all types of radio communications, including radio and television broadcasting, radar and navigation aids, and the means to control rockets and satellites. 1831-1879), English physicist, creator of classical electrodynamics, one of the founders of statistical physics.