Highly learned medieval sages, such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, gave their lectures to university students. But the universities themselves were still new at that time - they began to emerge in Western Europe only in the 12th-13th centuries.

"Seven Liberal Arts"

In the monastic and church schools of the early Middle Ages, they studied primarily the “seven liberal arts.” This is a set of academic disciplines that emerged at the end of the Roman Empire. The “Seven Liberal Arts” were divided into two groups of subjects: trivium (can be translated from Latin approximately as “three-way” and quadrivium - “four-way”).

The student had to first master the trivium, that is, grammar, dialectics and rhetoric. Grammar, first of all, gave knowledge in reading Latin: students crammed the alphabet, then learned parts of speech and became acquainted with some (not too numerous) works of Latin authors. Dialectics was a discipline similar to modern logic. Here, students (schoolchildren) learned to build evidence and conduct a scientific argument - a debate. Rhetoric taught the art of versification, composing essays, introduced the basics of oratory, and the rudiments of law.

The trivium was a preparation for the more complex quadrivium. It began with arithmetic and geometry, and continued with music and astronomy. These subjects are not similar to modern academic disciplines with the same names. Thus, astronomy included a lot of information from astrology, which was very popular in the Middle Ages (astrology tried to trace the influence of planets and stars on the destinies of people). Music was a complex theoretical subject about the relationships of various intervals and durations and resembled the field of mathematics rather than ordinary music-making.

At the quadrivium, training, as a rule, ended, and only a few, thirsty for greater knowledge, went to study further in the schools of Paris, Salerno or Bologna, which have already been mentioned.

First universities

It was in Bologna and Paris in the 12th century. The first universities arose, providing an excellent education at that time. In the XIII-XV centuries. Almost all European countries acquired universities. They were founded by bishops and popes, kings and emperors, princes and cities. The oldest universities in England were Oxford and Cambridge. (It is known that the University of Cambridge began with an ordinary barn, in which four teachers from France opened their school.) In Italy, in addition to Bologna, the University of Naples, founded by Emperor Frederick II, was famous. In Christian Spain, the university in Salamanca enjoyed the greatest honor. In the Holy Roman Empire, the first universities appeared in the Czech Republic - in Prague (1348), then in Austria - in Vienna (1365) and only after that in Germany itself - in Heidelberg, Cologne and Erfurt. The first Polish university arose in Krakow in 1364.

Community of masters and students

The word "university" comes from the Latin "universitas" - community. A university is a community of teachers and students. It was in many ways reminiscent of a craft workshop. Just as the workshop was headed by masters, the university was headed by teachers - masters. The university received various privileges from its founders and then sacredly guarded and defended them. Enjoying great independence, the university was often beyond the control of local authorities. And if serious disagreements suddenly arose with them, then both the masters and students went to another place as a sign of protest. Usually, after some time, they were asked to return back with apologies: after all, having your own university is an honor for any city.

Students from all over Europe gathered for lectures by famous teachers. In Paris there were sometimes up to 30 thousand students at a time. The entire life of students was determined by fraternities - communities of students of the same origin. Lucky students managed to get settled in colleges - a semblance of modern dormitories. The name of one of the oldest Parisian colleges, the Sorbonne, eventually passed on to the entire Parisian university. In England and France, colleges laid the foundation for special educational institutions - colleges (in England) and colleges (in France).

Teaching was carried out in faculties, each of which was headed by a dean, and the entire “community” was headed by an elected rector or a chancellor appointed by the authorities. The University of Paris had four faculties: one lower - preparatory and three higher. At the lower level, the “seven liberal arts” were studied. The Latin word for arts is "artes", so the faculty was often called artistic, and its students - artists. Of course, these artists had nothing to do with the theater. After studying for several years at the Faculty of Arts, a student could take the risk of taking the exam for the first academic degree - a bachelor's degree. The bachelor was somewhat reminiscent of an apprentice in a craft workshop: he continued to study, but little by little he began to teach himself. A bachelor who had fully completed his studies at the artistic faculty could take a more difficult exam - for the title of Master of Liberal Arts. Only masters of liberal arts were allowed to become students in one of the three higher faculties: theology (the most famous in Paris), law or medicine. At each of them, it was also possible to first become a bachelor, and in case of successful completion of education, receive the highest degree of doctor. The Doctor of Theology, the Doctor of Both Laws (canonical, i.e., ecclesiastical and civil) and the Doctor of Medicine were the most authoritative people in the scientific world of medieval Europe.

Schoolchildren. Vagantas

The life of the university was rich in magnificent ceremonies, solemn debates between learned men, and colorful processions on holidays.

Noisy feasts of rowdy groups of schoolchildren were also a characteristic feature of medieval universities. Among the students, especially at the senior faculties, there were enough respectable independent people. But the majority of “artists” are young people, and not always well-off. Many of them worked as best they could, but most often they begged for alms, or even robbed peaceful inhabitants at night. There were bloody clashes between students and townspeople. The reason for one of the most serious was that the schoolchildren “found the wine in the tavern excellent, but the bill presented to them for the wine they drank was too high.”

As a rule, all students - both brawlers and quiet ones - loved their university very much, which they called “affectionate mother” (in Latin - “alma mater”). Until now, students all over the world sing their anthem, composed by medieval schoolchildren. It begins with the words: “So let us rejoice!” (in Latin - “Gaudeamus igitur!”).

Many students moved from city to city to listen to lectures by various celebrities. The thirst for knowledge drove them from Salamanca to Paris, from Paris to Naples, from Naples to Oxford... With a couple of books and a crust of bread in their knapsack, they wandered along the roads of Europe. Such wandering students were called vagantes (in Latin - “wandering”). Some of the vagrants eventually achieved the highest academic titles, but there were so many losers among them who never even became bachelors!

Many of the semi-knowledgeable vagants turned out to be excellent poets. Many student songs and rhymes have come down to us from the times when Thomas Aquinas lectured at the Parisian pulpit. Among these works there are lyrics, evil satire, and even not quite decent verses. But the wit and talent of their authors, often anonymous, cannot be denied.

From the decree of the papal legate on students and masters of Parisian schools (1215)

Let no one give lectures on the liberal arts unless he has reached the age of twenty-one and has listened to all the basic books for at least six years.

Let everyone promise that he will study for at least two years, unless there is a serious reason to prevent this, which he must declare publicly or before the examiner. And he must not stain himself with any dishonorable act.

When someone has prepared to teach, he must be examined according to the form contained in the decision of the Bishop of Paris...

Those who have passed the examination must teach in ordinary schools Aristotle's books on the old and new dialectics... No one should read Aristotle's Metaphysics and Philosophy of Nature or read the Summa... from these books...

No one should give feasts... at meetings of masters and debates of boys and young men. But everyone can invite friends and associates to their place, so that there are not too many of them. We encourage donations of clothing or other things, as is customary, or even more, in every possible way, especially in relation to the poor.

No Master of Arts teaching in the Liberal Arts shall wear more than one robe, black in color and extending down to the heels... No one shall wear shoes with trim or long toes under the robe...

If a Master of Arts or Divinity dies, all Masters must stay awake all night. Each of them personally reads the Psalter or otherwise provides for its reading. Everyone should be present in church, where services are held until midnight or most of the night, unless there is a serious reason to prevent this. On the day of burial there should be no lectures or debates...

Every master must have the right of trial in relation to his students...

No one receives permission to teach from the chancellor or any other person for money, or by promise, or by any other agreement...

With regard to theologians, we command that no one in Paris can teach theology unless he has reached thirty-five years of age, studied for eight years, and listened to all the necessary books...

No one is allowed to teach or preach in Paris unless he is a person worthy of life and sufficiently knowledgeable in his science. No one in Paris can be considered a student unless he has a certain teacher.

From the poems of the vagants Beggar student I am a nomadic student... Fate has dealt its blow to me like your club. Not for vain vanity, not for entertainment - because of bitter poverty I gave up my studies. In the autumn cold, tormented by fever, in a tattered raincoat I wander through the prickly rain. A crowd poured into the church, and the mass lasted a long time. I just listen to pop music without interest. The abbot calls his flock to mercy, but his homeless brother is cold and languishing. Give me, Holy Father, your cassock, and then I will finally stop freezing. And I will light a candle for your darling, so that the Lord will find a place for you in heaven. * * * I am with you, you are with me, we will live one life. You are locked in my heart, I lost the key to the door, so remember: like it or not, you won’t go free! * * * Without my beloved bottle, I feel a heaviness in the back of my head. Without the kind wine I am sadder than a dead man. But when I’m dead drunk, I have a great time and, bawling in intoxication, I earnestly praise God! Good old days The pinnacle of knowledge, color of thought - This was the university. And now, by the will of fate, it is turning into a den. They walk, revel, eat, never pick up books; for a scoundrel schoolboy, studying is like a game. In the old days, such an idiot sweated over books all his life, And he studied - keep in mind - until he was almost ninety years old. Well, now, in ten years they graduate from university and go out into life without having learned anything! At the same time, they have the audacity to lecture others. No! Drive such blind guides away from the doors. Unfledged chicks are allowed to mentor the young! The lamb, having put on the mantle, decided that he was a learned lion!... Is Blessed Augustine really mired in the most vile of quagmires? Has the wisdom of all ages really been reduced to the debauchery of taverns?! The proud spirit of bygone times has been crucified, ridiculed, and distorted. Here nonsense is considered wisdom, but wisdom is called stupidity! Since when, explain, learning is a whim, diligence is nonsense. But if the above is decay, what do you offer in return? Eh, young gentlemen, be afraid of the Last Judgment! If you ask for forgiveness, who will want to forgive you?! 

The need for specialists, which monastery schools could no longer satisfy, led to the emergence of new institutions. Thus, urban schools (magistrate, guild, guild) appear in cities. Here, for the first time, they began to teach children in their native language, paying attention to the imparting of useful knowledge.

But institutions providing higher education were also necessary. Therefore, non-church unions of scientists are beginning to take shape. This is how the medical school in Salerno and law schools in Bologna and Padua arose.

The authorities also understood the need for new forms of education.

Starting from the 12th century, the first universities appeared. They were created as higher educational institutions. The name comes from the Latin word “universum”, i.e. community. To become a university, an institution had to receive a papal bull (decree) of its creation.

With his bull, the Pope removes these schools from the control of secular and, partly, local church authorities. The popes legitimized the existence of the university.

The most important privilege of the university was the right to confer academic degrees (linziata, doctor, etc.). Of course, other institutions also issued diplomas to their graduates: academies, various schools, etc. But they were recognized only where there was power that legitimized these institutions, for example in their hometown. And university diplomas were recognized by the entire Catholic world. A person who received a diploma could teach and work in any Catholic country.

It should be taken into account that the Middle Ages did not know the importance of the university that we use today. For our time of the century, as a rule, a university is the totality of all sciences, as opposed to special higher educational institutions. In the Middle Ages, the term "universitas" did not mean the universality of learning, but any organized union, any corporation. The words corpus, collegium were also used to designate them. These associations thus included people with common interests and independent legal status. In Bologna, Padua, Montpellier there were actually several universities, but they considered themselves parts of one “universitas”. Only in the 14th-15th centuries. the university will become a separate academic institution.

The medieval university was undoubtedly a product of Western European medieval civilization. In a certain sense, its predecessors were some educational institutions of classical antiquity: the philosophical school in Athens (4th century BC), the law school in Beirut (3rd-6th centuries), the imperial university in Constantinople (424 - 1453). Their organization and program of individual courses are reminiscent of the Middle Ages. For example, in Beirut there was a compulsory five-year academic course with certain cycles; in Constantinople, teachers of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy and law were gathered in one center. Quadrium and trimium were also studied here. Greek was naturally used as the main language. There was a whole system of schools. But these schools were quite strictly subordinated to the state. There was no talk of any autonomy, and, consequently, freedom of thought.

The practice of receiving education from individual secular scientists was widely developed.

But only in Western Europe did the university emerge as a special organization for education.

Its specificity was determined by three important points - autonomy, election of authorities and discussion as the basis of learning and science. The most important difference of the university was its significant independence from various authorities, be they ecclesiastical or secular.

The authorities at the university were chosen, and here the authority gained in discussions played a big role.

The university had a number of rights and privileges:

the right to study not only the seven liberal arts, but also law (civil and canon), theology, and medicine.

the right to receive a portion of beneficial church income for education.

the right of a degree holder from one school to teach at any other university without additional examinations (ius ubique docendi).

special jurisdiction for schoolchildren - at their choice or before teachers or the local bishop instead of general jurisdiction to city judges. So in Paris they were subject to the court of the rector or the Parisian provost (royal governor of Paris), but not to the local court of the townspeople.

the right to issue their own laws, statutes and orders regulating the remuneration of teachers, teaching techniques and methods, disciplinary norms, examination procedures, etc.

Among the total mass of medieval universities, the so-called “mother” universities stand out. These are the universities of Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Salamanca. These were the largest and most prestigious universities of that time. They were considered the most important in their country. Moreover, they enjoyed great authority throughout the “Christian world” (the Catholic world, of course).

Thus, the University of Bologna was considered the most famous and prestigious law school. And the Parisian Faculty of Theology had a huge influence on the policies of the church and the French state. It was his representatives who achieved an end to the Great Schism, managing to force the contenders for the papal throne to agree among themselves. They also put forward the ideas of conciliarity and galicanism of the church.

Oxford was famous for the fact that theological problems were represented here to a lesser extent, but more attention was paid to the natural sciences.

In Salamanca, the literature of Arabs and Jews was most actively studied. It was believed that black magic was also actively studied here.

Other universities imitated them in many ways. The University of Paris was especially imitated, which was even nicknamed “Sinai of Learning” in the Middle Ages.

The University of Bologna, which arose from the Bologna Law School, is traditionally considered the first European university. The year of its foundation is called 1088. The founder is considered to be the famous jurist of that time, Irnerius, who for the first time began to read Roman law to a wide audience.

It is believed that it was he who introduced into the practice of lawyers the Code of Justinian, a set of laws where much attention was paid to various types of property.

Irnerius's lectures turned out to be very popular, and students from all over Europe began to flock to him.

But the real growth in the importance of the Bologna School begins in the middle of the 12th century. In 1158, the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa captured one of the richest cities of Lombardy - Milan and convened a Diet on the Roncal Field (on the Po River, between Piacenza and Parma) with the aim of imposing a new order of government on the northern Italian cities. In gratitude for the help of the Bolognese professors, in the same year he issued a law according to which he took under his protection those who “travel for the sake of scientific studies, especially teachers of divine and sacred law”; Bologna schoolchildren were exempted from mutual responsibility for paying taxes and from subordination to the city courts of Bologna.

These privileges increased the influx of listeners. According to contemporaries, by the beginning of the 13th century, up to 10 thousand people from all over Europe were studying in Bologna. The famous Bolognese professor Azo seemed to have so many listeners that he had to give lectures in the square. Almost all European languages ​​were represented here. The school began to be called general. It was in Bologna that the so-called nations (community communities) first began to appear.

A different type of association is represented by the University of Paris. Here the unification was started not by students, but by teachers. But these were not ordinary teachers, but students of senior faculties who had managed to graduate from the preparatory faculty. They were both masters of the seven liberal arts and students. Naturally, they began to oppose themselves to other teachers, preparatory students and townspeople, and demand that their status be determined. The new university developed rapidly, merging with other faculties occurred gradually. The power of the university grew in a fierce struggle with spiritual and secular authorities. The founding of the university dates back to 1200, when a decree of the French king and a bull of Pope Innocent III were issued, freeing the university from subordination to secular power. The autonomy of the university was secured by bulls of the popes in 1209, 1212, 1231.

In the 13th century, Oxford University emerged. Like the University of Paris, it arose after a mass of conflicts with city and church authorities. After one of these skirmishes in 1209, students went to Cambridge in protest and a new university arose there. These two universities are so closely related to each other that they are often combined under the common name "Oxbridge". A special feature of Oxbridge is the presence of so-called colleges (from the word “college”), where students not only studied, but also lived. Education in dormitories led to the emergence of this phenomenon of a decentralized university.

The pride of Spain is the University of Salamanca (1227). Its foundation was finally announced in a charter from King Alfonso X in 1243.

In the 13th century, a lot of other universities appeared:

1220 - University in Montpellier (received university privileges, however, only at the end of the 13th century).

1222 - Padua (as a result of the departure of schoolchildren from Bologna).

1224 - Neapolitan, because The Sicilian king Frederick II needed experienced administrators.

1229 - Orleans, Toulouse (local authorities seduced students with the idea that they could listen to the forbidden Aristotle and count on stable prices for wine and food).

Many universities appeared in the 14th and 15th centuries:

1347 - Prague.

1364 - Krakowsky.

1365 - Viennese.

1386 - Heidelberg.

1409 - Leipzig.

By 1500, there were already 80 universities in Europe, the numbers of which varied greatly. In the middle of the 14th century, about three thousand people studied at the University of Paris, 4 thousand at the Prague University by the end of the 14th century, and 904 people at the Krakow University.

• How were faith, reason and experience related in medieval science and philosophy?

§ 18.1. Medieval universities

The development of cities and other changes in the life of society were accompanied by changes in school education. If in the early Middle Ages education could be obtained mainly in monasteries, then later the best schools began to operate in cities.

In large cities, schools arose at the cathedrals in which they studied law, philosophy, medicine, and read the works of Latin, Greek and Arabic authors. One of the best was considered a school in the city of Chartres. Its leader is credited with saying: “We are dwarfs sitting on the shoulders of giants. We owe it to them that we can see beyond them.” Reliance on tradition and respect for it are an important feature of medieval culture.

Students at a lecture. Relief from the 14th century. Bologna

Over time, the first universities grew out of some city schools. A university (from the Latin word “universitas” - totality, association) is a community of teachers and students, organized for the purpose of giving and receiving higher education and living according to certain rules. Only universities could confer academic degrees and give their graduates the right to teach throughout Christian Europe. Universities received this right from those who founded them: popes, emperors, kings, that is, those who had the highest power. Universities were proud of their traditions and privileges.

The founding of universities was attributed to the most famous monarchs. It was said that the University of Paris was founded by Charlemagne, and the University of Oxford by Alfred the Great. In fact, biographies of the oldest universities begin in the 12th century (Bologna in Italy, Paris in France). In the 13th century, the universities of Oxford and Cambridge in England, Montpellier and Toulouse in France, Naples in Italy, and Salamanca in Spain emerged. In the 14th century, the first universities appeared in the Czech Republic, Germany, Avaria, and Poland. By the end of the 15th century there were about one hundred universities in Europe.

The university was usually headed by an elected rector. The university was divided into faculties, each of which was headed by a dean. At first they studied at the Faculty of Liberal Arts (in Latin art is “artes”, which is why the faculty was called artistic). After attending a certain number of courses here, the student became a bachelor, and then a master of arts. The master received the right to teach, but could continue his studies at one of the “higher” faculties: medicine, law or theology.

University education was open to every free person. Among the students, the majority came from wealthy families, but there were also children of poor people. True, the path from the moment of admission to the highest degree of doctor sometimes stretched for many years and few people completed it to the end. But an academic degree provided honor and career opportunities.

Many students, in search of the best lecturers, moved from city to city and even from country to country. Ignorance of the language did not hinder them, because everywhere in Europe they taught in Latin - the language of the church and science. They led the life of wanderers and received the nickname "vaganta" (meaning "wanderers"). Among them were excellent poets, whose poems still arouse keen interest.

The student's daily routine was simple: lectures in the morning, repetition and deepening of the material covered in the evening. Along with memory training, great attention was paid to the ability to argue, which was practiced in debates. However, the life of students consisted of more than just classes. There was a place for both solemn ceremonies and noisy feasts. The students loved their university very much, where they spent the best years of their lives, gained knowledge and found protection from strangers. He was called the nursing mother (in Latin, “alma mater”).

NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

EASTERN ECONOMIC-LEGAL HUMANITIES ACADEMY (VEGU Academy)

INSTITUTE OF MODERN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES

COURSE WORK

First medieval universities

Abdrakhmanova Liliya Markovna

UFA 2013

Introduction

The emergence of universities

1 General trends in intellectual life of the 12th-13th centuries

2 Spanish universities

3 Italian universities

4 University of Paris

1 Structure of university education

2 University curricula

The role of philosophy and the legacy of Aristotle in university education Conclusion

Introduction

Relevance of the research topic : Higher education begins to take shape in the Middle Ages, mainly in the 11th-12th centuries in Europe. The main form of such education was universities, which in turn became a logical continuation of previously existing city and monastery schools. It is necessary to note the significant influence that universities had on the subsequent intellectual life of Western Europe. It was the university environment that gave the world a huge number of outstanding scientists, poets, and philosophers. Many original, bold and advanced ideas for their time were born within the walls of universities.

A university in the Middle Ages was a unique organization with its own internal structure, hierarchy and operating procedures. But the establishment of a particular university was invariably complicated by a number of obstacles and problems.

Of significant interest is the study of many features of the higher education system in medieval Europe. Let us turn our attention to the coverage of issues of the history of universities in domestic historiography.

Scientific development of the problem: in domestic historiography, interest in the history of Western European education emerged in the second half of the 19th century. These are the works of V.V. Ignatovich, P.N. Voyekova, L.N. Modzalevsky, N.S. Suvorova, V.S. Ivanovsky 1. These researchers turned their attention to the problems of the relationship between the school and the Catholic Church, the emergence of humanistic education in Italy, France and other countries of Western Europe. These works are full of specific historical material and can still serve as a valuable aid in the study of issues of education, culture and life in the Middle Ages.

Since the 1980s the history of education in Europe becomes the subject of study in collections of the Academy of Sciences, in which articles on the history of European schools and universities appear. Some of these collections were used to prepare this work. 1. From the same time, the publication of a number of collections devoted to problems of culture and education began in Ivanovo. We also involved some of them in the preparation of this work. 2. Also interesting research on the topic of medieval universities can be found in general works on the history of the city 3, urban culture 4and other topics.

Source base: we can find a fairly wide range of documents on the history of universities in the following collections: “Anthology of Pedagogical Thought of the Christian Middle Ages” 5, where we can find such medieval treatises on the education system and its content as “On the Praise of the Clergy”, “On School Science” and others. "Documents on the history of European universities in the XII-XV centuries." 6contain a number of sources concerning the emergence of universities, their relationship with the Catholic Church and secular authorities. Also in this collection there is a wide range of material illustrating the educational process, the life of masters and students. Poetry of the Vagants 7carries an ironic description of the difficult life of a schoolchild in conditions of poverty, deprivation and other inevitable difficulties of learning.

Goals and objectives of the study: based on the scientific development of the problem, the main goal of this study can be identified as the development of the topic of higher education in the Middle Ages in domestic historiography, which involves the following tasks: to trace the socio-political, cultural and ideological features of the emergence of universities, to study the content of university education, determine the disciplines included in it, establish the role of philosophy in the higher education system of Western Europe and show the place of Aristotle’s heritage in it.

Chronological framework of the study: XII-XIV centuries. The territorial framework covers the territory of Western Europe.

The object of the study is the works of domestic scientists on the history of higher education in medieval Europe.

The subject of the study was the development of scientific thought in the field of the history of higher education, which is associated with an increase in interest in this problem.

The methodological basis of the work is chronological, synchronous, comparative historical and structural-systemic methods of historical research.

Practical significance: the conclusions drawn from this work can be used in further research as a starting point for a more detailed study of the problem of interest to us, in secondary schools as material for lessons on history and world culture. Structure of the work: this work consists of an introduction, three chapters and a conclusion, a list of references.

1. The emergence of universities

1.1 General trends in intellectual life of the 12th-13th centuries

Universities, which arose at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries, became a logical continuation of the previously existing city and monastery schools and represented a new organizational form of the phenomenon of higher education. The name "universitas" meant a political corporation of teachers and students (masters and scholars), which, by receiving various privileges, took the position of a public corporation. Medieval corporations were formed for the purpose of mutual assistance, resolving internal conflicts, resisting external pressure, and protecting their rights in any “aggressive environment.”

Let us consider the main trends in intellectual life of the 12th-13th centuries. The collections "Western European Medieval School and Pedagogical Thought" will help us here. 1and "Humanistic thought, school and pedagogy of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times" 2. The thirteenth century saw the rise of the Catholic Church and the papacy. This predetermined great attention to the issues of educating the flock and training clergy. On the other hand, the development of education was driven by practical needs. At this time, there was an economic boom, a complication of commodity-money relations, and, as a consequence, the growth of medieval cities. The urban population felt a practical need for education focused on their needs 3.

The peculiarity of early urban rationalism, which had not yet freed itself from the shackles of religious thinking, is the desire to rely not so much on experienced knowledge as on new authorities. The XII-XIII centuries is the era of numerous advances from Arabic, and as a result of the IV Crusade, from Greek into Latin 1. Europe is finally gaining access to the works of Aristotle in full, albeit in Arabic presentation. Very valuable works from the fields of zoology, botany, astronomy and natural history in general are also translated.

The social composition of students is expanding. In addition to the growing number of citizens interested in specific knowledge, more representatives of the old classes began to attend educational institutions. There is a secularization of education. By the period under study, school centers had moved from the walls of monasteries to cathedrals, and the further development of universities led to an even greater isolation of the education sector. The main feature of this process was the transition of education from the hands of monks to the hands of the white clergy, learned clerics - townspeople 2.

At universities, specialization in the subject of study is clearly visible. Here is the testimony of Trouver Gelinand (XIII century): “In Paris, students are looking for art, in Orleans - ancient authors, in Bologna - codes (law), in Salerno - pharmaceutical jars (medicine), in Toledo - demons (sorcery), and nowhere - good morals" 3.

This era gave the world many outstanding scientists, philosophers, and poets. Here are just a few of them - Thomas Aquinas, Hugh of Saint-Victor, John of Salisbury, Raymond Lully, Roger Bacon, Pierre Abelard and many others. The period of the XII-XIII centuries became a time of development of intellectual life, the accumulation of new knowledge and the revival of old ones. A powerful impulse appears, giving impetus to the development of the education system - schools are developing, universities are appearing.

1.2 Spanish universities

The problem of the emergence of universities is widely covered in domestic historiography. However, the starting point of our study of medieval universities will be the topic of higher education in Spain, which is the least covered in scientific works. At the beginning of the 13th century, universities were founded in Palencia (1208-1212) and Salamanca (1218), or rather proto-university formations, which initially relied on local cathedrals and had a limited number of faculties. The golden age of “general schools”, their flourishing and transformation into universities proper, according to researcher N.P. Denisenko 1, falls on the second half of the 13th century and the first decades of the 14th century. During this period, 6 new universities emerged, and the “old” ones received further development - in Salamanca and Palencia. The initiative to establish universities belonged in most cases to kings and, less often, to church hierarchs. Thus, the orders of Ferdinand III and Alfonso X played a huge role in the formation of the University of Salamanca, during whose reign teachers and students received special privileges, the crown also took upon itself the financing of universities, enshrining all this in royal legislation 2.

The next step in the history of Spanish universities is approval, or rather recognition by the Pope. This happened through special bulls. Only such a decision transferred the university to the category of “legal”, that is, it ensured the recognition of diplomas, degrees and titles awarded by the university, and gave university graduates the right to teach both in their own and in other educational institutions (licentia ubique docendi). Along with papal recognition, universities were also awarded some privileges. This is confirmed, for example, by the message of Pope Alexander IV to the University of Salamanca: “We consider it absolutely right and worthy that those who cultivate the field of knowledge with daily studies in search of the pearl of science should receive joy from finding favor with us and gracious attention to their requests. And since they will feel the support of the apostolic disposition, their activities will more freely follow the intended path." 1.

One of the most pressing issues for any “general school” was the question of its financing. Formally, funds for the maintenance of Spanish universities were allocated from tax revenues to the royal treasury, but it was almost always a matter of thirds - part of the church tithes received by the crown by agreement with the popes. There were constant difficulties in collecting these amounts, which caused conflicts between the universities and the city church authorities and the tax department. Such situations allowed popes and the local church to act as arbiters, appoint their own guardians - "guardians", suspend funding and apply other emergency measures 2.

The relationship between Spanish universities and the cities in which they operated was strained, as was the case in other European countries. Constant internal strife on a variety of issues, conflicts and armed strikes between students and townspeople, interference of city authorities in the election of officials at the university - this is not a complete list of problems that universities faced every day. The main reason for this confrontation lies in the mutual repulsion of the city and universities as a corporation, and its certain alienness in the social and political organization of the city. Spanish cities were often not interested in founding universities and in this matter took at best a passive, but more often negative, position 1.

.3 Italian universities

The situation was completely different in the Italian commune cities. When researching the history of Italian universities, the works of historian V.I. will provide us with invaluable help. Rutenburg 2, which studies the university in interaction and close connection with the cities in which they operate. The specifics of Italian universities, according to the researcher, stem from the characteristics of Italian feudalism 3. The growth and strengthening of urban communes, the formation of city-states, widespread Mediterranean and pan-European trade, the development of manufactories, the transfer of land into the ownership of citizens and urban communes - all this required legal justification. This dynamic socio-economic and political situation led to the emergence of municipal city schools along with monasteries, and then the creation of universities. Italian universities, like foreign ones, were also taken under papal and royal patronage. In 1361, the University of Perugia received rights from Charles VI, taking advantage of his stay in Italy. The commune of Perugia sent an embassy headed by Bartolo da Sassoferrato to Charles VI in Pisa. The university received all studium generale rights 4. And the University of Bologna received its privileges from Frederick Barbarossa. Here is a quote from his letter to students and teachers of Bologna schools: “... we decided... that no one should dare to detain schoolchildren with the aim of causing them any offense and that no one would cause them a loss because of the debt of another person. wishes to initiate an action in any matter, the proceedings must take place at the free choice of the student." 1.

The creation of universities on the initiative of the commune was quite common in Italy. This is how the Higher School of Siena was founded. On June 18, 1275, the General Council of the Siena Commune decided to open a higher school for teaching the humanities in the city. Soon the municipal authorities announced a recruitment of students (scolari, studenti) and invited lecturers (dottori, maestri). In 1275, municipal authorities set fees for teaching and developed training conditions. Similar practices occur in other communities. 2. The city exempted masters and students from any taxes and provided them with accommodation in city houses on preferential terms. At the same time, both teachers and students could practically enjoy many of the rights of citizens of this city, up to the participation of university representatives in the councils of the commune 3. The main reason for all of the above actions was the city's economic interest in higher schools. The consequences of such cooperation were beneficial for each party. Let's look at the example of Bologna. Here is the testimony of a contemporary: “A huge number of schoolchildren, quite rich... changed the face of the city, the whole tone of its life, introduced a kind of economic revolution. The city was full of money and received benefits from the sale of goods to these strangers. New forms of urban culture appeared, not without the presence of luxury "The city transformed from a Roman settlement into a major center in less than two centuries." 4. The decision of the Great Council of the Bolognese commune emphasized that the presence of a university increases its political prestige.

The municipal authorities systematically considered issues related to the affairs of universities in the Big and Small Councils, the creed of the rectors of the workshops, since the university in the statutes of the commune was considered as one of the corporations in the system of city workshops. All councils of the commune included representatives of universities, and the council of priors included representatives for higher schools - the wise (savii). But contradictions invariably arose, which led to aggravation of relations. As a result of conflicts, Bolognese professors and students went to Vicenza, Arezzo and other cities. But leaving Bologna was only a measure to restore normalcy. These clashes did not have any fundamental anti-communal direction, but rather concerned issues of prestige.

The universities of the Italian communes trained lawyers, doctors, official secular and church readers, and officials for government institutions in the cities of Italy and other countries.

1.4 University of Paris

The history of the University of Paris is very extensively covered in Russian historical science thanks to numerous studies by Pavel Yuryevich Uvarov. The University of Paris developed from church schools into Europe's first secular university in 1215. And almost immediately he began to actively interact with the city. The pope and monarchs, both French and English, did not leave him unattended. A number of letters and bulls followed - from Pope Gregory IX in 1231, a letter from the English king Henry III in 1229 with an offer to move to England and continue his studies here. The king guarantees excellent conditions: “for this purpose we will assign you cities, burgs, towns that you wish to choose. In every appropriate case, you will be able to enjoy freedoms and tranquility here that will fully satisfy your needs and will be pleasing to God.” 1.

P. Yu Uvarov in the work "The University of Paris and the social life of a medieval city" 1aims to explore the place and role of the university environment in the medieval city, their connection and mutual influence. As a result of a detailed study of intra-university and other urban narrative sources, the author comes to the conclusion that the views of representatives of the university environment (value system, behavioral stereotypes, formation of ideals) bear the stamp of the same duality as the entire medieval city as a whole. Along with the tendency to reject aristocratic, essentially feudal moral and behavioral norms and the adoption of ideas characteristic of the burghers, they embody the borrowing of many aristocratic traditions, thus being an organic part of feudal culture.

In other works by P.Yu. Uvarov traces the connection between the University of Paris and local interests 2. The connection between the university and the province was mutual: on the one hand, provincial prelates and officials could maintain membership in it, and on the other, students and masters in Paris did not break off relations with their families and territorial communities. Students at universities were divided into “nations” based on their place of residence. Perhaps, in everyday life, schoolchildren of one “nation” did not feel like something united. However, in the event of conflicts, representatives of one nation were distinguished by great cohesion. Here is the vivid testimony of Jacob of Vitria: “... even the differences between countries aroused disagreement, hatred, strong quarrels among them, and they shamelessly persecuted each other with all kinds of abuse and insults. They called the English drunkards and buffoons, the children of France - proud, pampered and adorned like women ; they said that the Germans behaved indecently and bestially at their holidays, the Normans were called vain self-praisers, the inhabitants of Poitou treacherous and flatterers, the Burgundians - rude and stupid, the Bretons - frivolous and fickle. As a result of such insults, the matter often passed from words to a brawl " 1. Although clashes between people from different provinces were characteristic not only of the university environment 2.

The university served as a kind of “school of representation.” He periodically sent delegations to the pope with rotules - lists of masters to receive benefits. The university also had a set of means to protect its rights and maintain its authority: appeals to the solidarity of all former students, the imposition of church condemnation on opponents, going to court, the threat of secession - a study strike and the possibility of transferring classes to another city, which damaged the political prestige of the kingdom and economic interests of citizens.

The first universities - unions of masters and students - formed spontaneously, they themselves wrested charters and privileges from church and secular authorities. Since the 13th century, the initiators of their creation were popes and kings. Universities were an important element of the medieval city; they acted as carriers of both the cultural, spiritual, and ideological values ​​of medieval society.

.1 Structure of university education

The structure of universities as corporations resembles the structure of craft workshops. Scientific production was clothed in the same forms regulated by statutes as craft production. The gradations of schoolchildren, bachelors, masters or doctors corresponded to the guild gradations of apprentices, journeymen and masters. It was the strictest regulation and standardization of the activities of universities that ensured the highest level of quality and reliability of modern science of medieval science as a way of thinking that became the foundation of modern science.

The university corporation in Paris can be called typical. It consisted of four faculties: artistic (where the liberal arts were taught), law, medicine and theology. The higher faculties - medicine, law and theology - were governed by titled regents headed by deans. The Faculty of Arts, as the most numerous, was divided into nations according to the place of birth of the students. There were four such nations in Paris: French, Picardy, Norman and English 1.

Things were completely different at the University of Bologna. Here the students were quite old people, they entered into agreements with mentors and controlled the quality of training 2. There were two rectors - heads of the faculties of civil and canon law. The nations were divided into two federations - the Citramontans and the Ultramontans.

The training was organized as follows. The study of the liberal arts lasted about six years, and was completed at about fourteen and twenty years. Then there was training in medicine and law - approximately between twenty and twenty-five years. Studying theology required more time; we studied for fifteen to sixteen years. Each period was divided into stages. During this time, the degrees of “cursor” (bachelor-tutor), “biblicus” (commenting on the Bible), “sententiary” (allowed to teach from the book “Sentences” of Peter of Lombardy, which agreed on the opinions of authorities on controversial issues of theology), and bachelor’s degrees were successively acquired. formati" (participating in all disputes), licentiate (holder of the "right to teach everywhere"), and, finally, the degree of Doctor of Theology, which meant the highest competence 1. Studying mainly came down to commenting on texts. University statutes indicate the works that must be included in the program. Programs are undergoing changes. The inclusion in the system of authorities of pagan and Muslim philosophers, Latin poets, medieval masters and at the same time the almost complete absence in university sources of references to the Fathers of the Church and even the Holy Scripture itself indicate an emerging process of desacralization and orientation of universities to a greater extent towards secular urban culture 2.

.2 University curricula

There were many differences between universities. There were two “families” of university statutes - Bologna, characteristic of Italian and part of southern French universities, and Paris, more widespread and later replaced the southern version 3. In some universities, teaching at the Faculty of Arts focused on the study of logic, in others - rhetoric and grammar. Many universities did not have a medical faculty, they often did without a theological faculty, and in Paris there was no faculty of Roman law - the most widespread in Europe. In Montpellier, unlike other medical centers, medical theorists did not show the usual arrogance towards surgeons and pharmacists 4. In Toulouse and Salamanca, theology was dominated by Thomism and a moderately realistic trend, as opposed to Oxford and Parisian nominalism, and in Padua in the 14th century, Averroism, expelled from Paris, found refuge 1.

From the documents that have reached us on the history of universities, we can judge the programs of various universities. For example, in Bologna in the 14th century, at the Faculty of Arts, it was prescribed to study the natural sciences of Aristotle: “Physics”, “On Creation and Destruction” - in the first year, “On the Sky”, “Meteorology” - the second, “On the Soul”, “Metaphysics” " - in the third year of study 2. And at extraordinary lectures they studied Averroes and his work “On the Substance of the World.” This is interesting evidence that the University of Bologna was one of the centers of Averroism. And medical students carefully studied the treatises of Hippocrates, Galen and Hippocrates.

Despite the variety of statutes, the basic principles of teaching were similar in many respects. In the morning, so-called cursor or ordinary lectures were read. The teacher read the text of the book, then identified the main problem and divided it into sub-questions. At evening, extraordinary lectures, other teachers (they could be bachelors) explained, repeated the morning topic, or dwelled on special issues 3. The ability to identify issues was considered the main and most important. No less attention was paid to the ability to conduct polemics. Ordinary, ordinary disputes were held weekly. An event that attracted a lot of public were debates “about anything” (quadlibets). The topics covered were often frivolous in nature, but sometimes touched on topical political issues. The Bologna Statutes described the procedure for conducting disputes. To begin with, "one of the members should be elected, who will be called the Master of Students" 4. His duties included preparing questions for disputes, which he had to communicate to the respondent and opponent at least two weeks before the dispute. He also had to monitor discipline and direct the course of the discussion. 1.

Considerable attention was paid to the content of university education in treatises concerning all levels of education. An example of such a work is the treatise “De disciplina scolarum” (On school science), which is a mystery to scientists. Neither the author, nor the date, nor the place of its writing is known. The author of this work narrates the story on behalf of Boethius, “the last Roman philosopher.” This essay consists of six chapters. The specificity of the treatise is its recommendatory nature. The first and third chapters deal with the curriculum. After studying grammar, the author of the treatise recommends studying and memorizing ancient writers - Seneca, Virgil, Horace and others. However, these authors were not studied at universities. According to researcher N.D. Mitkova, such a recommendation was made either in imitation of Boethius, or out of a desire to preserve classics in universities 2. The next step is the study of logic. First, they get acquainted with concepts and logical operations, then move on to more difficult and special things - to Porphyry’s “Isagoge”, which introduces Aristotle in the “Categories”, Boethius’s comments on Aristotle’s logical works, and then to Aristotle himself in Boethius’ translations. Logic is called in the treatise “the researcher of true and false”, “the science of sciences”, “the school mistress” 3. In parallel with the study of logic, the study of grammar, with the help of which art is mastered, is recommended, as well as the beauties of rhetoric and quadrivia, but this is mentioned very briefly. In reality, everything was somewhat different. In the "liberal arts" courses at universities, logic actually occupies a central place. Grammar is practically being squeezed out of the university curriculum; it is studied in preparatory “grammar schools”. Rhetoric comes down to the study of collections of letters. Geometry, astronomy, music, and mathematics were not represented at all universities. As a rule, in universities of the XIII-XIV centuries. The greatest attention was paid to the study of law - canonical and secular. Only the universities of Paris, Salamanca, Oxford, Toulouse, and Cologne were considered authoritative in matters of theology. The most popular medical faculties were in Montpellier, Paris, Bologna, Lleida 1.

In the anonymous treatise “On School Science,” the author proposes for discussion “Crato’s questions” - most likely theses for a scholastic debate, having a diverse natural-scientific and philosophical character: are there several heavens or is it one, in accordance with Aristotle? EIf there are several of them, then what are their boundaries? If there is one, as Aristotle thinks, then while the parts of the whole move, why does the totality not move? 2

Other questions are related to astronomy and astrology. The next group of questions concerns finding out the causes of natural phenomena - earthquakes, sea waves, and so on; here they also ask about birds, stones, vision, color. But the meaning of these questions is not always clear. The author of the treatise formulates Aristotelian-Averroist ideas in the form of theses used in scholastic debates.

If we turn to the universities of England, we see that for most of the 13th century the academic life of Oxford and Cambridge was not particularly lively, especially in theology and jurisprudence. Many English students studied in France and Italy, as there was still limited demand for higher level education in England, making teaching here a dubious venture for continental teachers. In the last quarter of a century the situation has changed significantly 1. The earliest evidence of the presence of several faculties and a sufficient number of teachers and students at Oxford is researcher M.N. Panyutina finds in the report of Gerald of Wales about his reading of “Topographia Hibernica” here 2. The academic population increased from Paris in 1167 and from Northampton in 1192. This proves that theology and jurisprudence were systematically taught in the last decade of the 13th century.

The problem of the content of university education is not sufficiently covered in domestic historiography. Most often, we can learn about the disciplines included in the course of a particular university from general works devoted to the education and development of a university. But we can identify commonalities in the disciplines taught throughout Europe. This is the widespread recognition of ancient authorities - Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates and others. Studying the cycle of the “seven liberal arts” is an indispensable attribute of any higher school. The existing differences only emphasized the pan-European idea of ​​universities and were explained by the local specifics of the development of scientific thought.

3. The role of philosophy and the legacy of Aristotle in university education

Despite the apparent immutability of the content and methods of teaching at universities, the pulsation of scientific thought was felt. Here there was a struggle for the legacy of Aristotle. The form of combination of Aristotelianism with Christianity that Thomas Aquinas proposed was, with difficulty, but still maintained in most universities. The features of a special university culture are formed quite quickly. The constants of this culture were not only rationalism, a commitment to quoting authorities and dissecting problems, but also unusually high self-esteem. Philosophers were declared the most worthy of people, since it was believed that education imparted to a person not only knowledge, but also virtues, making the educated truly noble, superior to nobles by birth 1.

Since the 12th century, university thought, and after it the entire Middle Ages, intensively read Aristotle's Politics. Since the 14th century, there has been a nominalist trend in universities, shifting the emphasis to the primacy of the individual.

We can trace the course of the long and persistent struggle between various philosophical trends in the university environment with the help of the monograph by G.V. Shevkina "Siger of Brabant and the Parisian Averroists of the 13th century" 2. This book is dedicated to a thinker whose life and creativity, philosophical position and tireless struggle reflected the complexity of the situation at the University of Paris, one of the main centers of European science in the 13th century. The University of Paris was not only the oldest university in Europe, but also the most influential. The struggle of trends, different interpretations of the works of Aristotle in the 13th century, the claims of the mendicant orders to guide education - all this led to clashes no less acute than in the time of Abelard and the expulsion or exodus of students and masters. The exiles continued the ideological struggle in Oxford, Cambridge, and Italian universities, and thus everything that happened in Paris acquired truly European significance 3.

The University of Paris in the 13th century was the focus of the struggle to master the philosophical heritage of Aristotle. Thomas Aquinas came here from Italy to give lectures and conduct debates. Albert of Bolshtedt also sent his writings against the Averroists and philosophical letters here. In a study by G.V. Shevkina sets out the philosophical teachings of Seeger of Brabant, showing the figure of the thinker as if in the focus of all complex collisions at the university. The book shows the creative attitude of the Parisian Averroist to the legacy of Aristotle, his desire to overcome the dualistic gap between the concepts of matter and form. The influence on Seeger and his doctrine of the eternity of the world by the Arab commentator Aristotle, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), is no less fully outlined.

Of the student body, which numbered in the thousands in the university centers and was especially large in Paris, the bulk of the student population consisted of the poor (scholares pauperes). In most goliardics, the life of schoolchildren is depicted in harsh colors. Also, in the poetry of the vagantes, a partial similarity of plots can be traced: light ridicule of prelates, feast and love lyrics 1. To the displeasure of the traveling students, there were also philosophical disputes between various interpreters of Aristotle, because they inevitably found themselves drawn into socio-political confrontations - a consequence of intra-university struggle.

A comparison of the points of view of different philosophers allows us to highlight the thirteenth century as a certain stage in the struggle for the liberation of the human mind from dogma, when both supporters and opponents of Averroism recognized that theology and philosophy have one truth, but it is proven in different ways.

As already mentioned, in the 13th century, the works of Aristotle, with which European scientists had previously been familiar only fragmentarily and indirectly, as well as the works of his Arab and Jewish commentators, became known in Europe in the 13th century. According to various researchers, by 1246 all the main works of Averroes were already known in Europe 1.

The works of Aristotle are actively studied by students of the Faculty of Arts. The dissemination of the works of Aristotle and his commentators in Paris was met with resistance from the church. When the teachings of Amalric of Ben and David of Dinan were condemned in 1210, the study of the natural science works of Aristotle and commentaries on them was prohibited under threat of excommunication. But the university is fighting for the right of free education, not subordinate to the church 2. The Church sought to maintain intellectual dominance and bring universities under its influence, as did the entire scientific movement of the time. The largest scholastics - Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure - came from the mendicant orders. In 1229, taking advantage of another dispute with the city authorities, the university demanded the abolition of episcopal control. The study of Aristotle in universities continues.

In 1231, a new decree of Gregory IX repeated the ban on the study of the natural science works of Aristotle and his Eastern interpreters. However, the pope mentions that harmful books may also contain useful information - “we learned that prohibited books on the study of nature contain both useful and harmful provisions, we want the useful in these works not to be spoiled by contact with the harmful and dangerous " 3. Such categorical measures in relation to the works of Aristotle led to the burning of his books in Paris. Here is the testimony of a contemporary: “In those days... they read in Paris certain books, compiled, as they said, by Aristotle, expounding metaphysics, recently brought from Constantinople and translated from Greek into Latin. Because they not only gave the reason for the mentioned heresy with cunning ideas, but and could arouse new ones that had not yet appeared, they were all sentenced to burning, and at the same council it was decided that henceforth no one would dare, under pain of excommunication, to copy, read or store them in any way." 1. However, not all contemporaries were categorical in relation to the ancient heritage. As Roger Bacon wrote in his writings: “Let [Christians] read the 10 books of Aristotelian ethics, the numerous treatises of Seneca, Tullius Cicero and many others, and then see that we are mired in the abyss of vices and that the grace of God alone can save us. How betrayed we were these philosophers of virtue, how they loved it! And everyone, of course, would get behind their shortcomings if they read their works." 2.

In 1255, the statute of the University of Paris included in the curriculum all the then known books of Aristotle. This statute was a direct challenge to papal authority. He infuriated the Augustinian theologians, who considered Aristotle's books harmful and completely incompatible with the Christian faith. This fact testified to the existence of a conflict between theologians and members of the Faculty of Arts, which arose due to the desire of the latter to transform their faculty from a lower, preparatory faculty into an independent, equal faculty, where philosophy would be taught, including the rudiments of natural science.

Acquaintance with the work of Aristotle raises with new urgency the question of the contradiction between science and religion. The Augustinian-Neoplatonic school turns out to be unable to cope with the enormous natural scientific material that was put into circulation along with the works of Aristotle.

In the middle of the thirteenth century, a deep contradiction emerged between the desire to study philosophy, the development of science and the interests of the church. The artistic department is becoming a subject of constant concern for churchmen.

The Averroist school of philosophy arose at the University of Paris in the second half of the 13th century. On December 10, 1270, 13 Averroist provisions were condemned by the Bishop of Paris, Etienne Tampier. Here are just a few of them:

· 2. False and cannot be proven: what a person understands;

· 3. That the will of man is determined by necessity;

· 5. That the world is eternal;

· 6. That the first (created) man never existed;

· 10. That God knows nothing about things in their particular (individual) manifestations 1.

Nevertheless, after his conviction, Siger of Brabant did not stop his activities. 1271-1273 - a time of high scientific activity of the Parisian master. In 1271, Thomas Aquinas was invited to Paris for the second time and he took an active part in the debates. The disputes do not stop even after his departure. The fact that Seager of Brabant dared to answer the challenge of Thomas Aquinas with his treatise On the Rational Soul suggests that the struggle between them continued 2.

Let us turn our attention to Averroes, an Arab commentator on Aristotle, whose teaching had a significant influence on Siger of Brabant and the entire intellectual life of university Europe. Averroes separated philosophy and theology, delimited their spheres of influence, and thereby ensured philosophy's independence from theology. All this could not but cause discontent in the church. There follows a number of prohibitions on the study of natural sciences under the threat of excommunication: 1210, 1215, 1219, 1225, the condemnation of some scientists, the Inquisition. Perhaps that is why the author of the anonymous treatise “On School Science” writes on behalf of Boethius, a distinguished and authoritative philosopher, whose commentaries on the logical works of Aristotle and the treatise “On the Consolation of Philosophy” have long been studied in medieval schools. The questions for debate proposed in this treatise could stem from the natural science works of Aristotle - “Physics”, “Metaphysics”, “On Heaven”, “On Origin and Destruction”. These works, translated back in the 12th century, despite a number of prohibitions, were becoming increasingly widespread at the University of Paris; in 1231 they were read and commented on everywhere 1. In these same issues, the Averroist influence is clearly visible. Firstly, philosophy is considered as an independent science separate from theology. Secondly, a number of natural science and philosophical questions were the subject of discussion by Averroes (questions about the movement and relationship of the planets, about the qualities and accidents of matter, about heredity, etc.) 2.

Siger of Brabant is trying to get rid of the dualistic gap in Aristotle's teaching between the concepts of matter and form. According to Siger of Brabant, matter and form differ in the representation of people, but are united in their existence. Thomas Aquinas views the essence of things as something different from their real existence. Recognizing the coincidence of being and essence only in God, Thomas Aquinas solves this problem idealistically. For Siger of Brabant, the existence of things is inseparable from their essence 3.

The most original and most dangerous for the church was the Averroist theory of eternity and the unity of the “rational soul,” that is, the human intellect. 1. Aristotle's reasoning about time is very interesting: any given moment of time is finite, but time, composed of an infinite number of finite moments, is infinite. Eternity as a property of the human species is combined with the mortality of each individual.

Persecuted and condemned, the Averroists were expelled from the University of Paris, and their works were destroyed. Despite all the efforts of the church to suppress Averroism, it spread again at the beginning of the 14th century. A prominent representative is Jean Zhendensky. His scientific activity was devoted to commenting on the works of Aristotle and Averroes. Although he rejected every scientific position incompatible with dogma as contrary to the truth and spoke of the truth of dogma, he just as loudly declared the impossibility of proving these truths with reason. Jean Gendinsky rejects the theory of the duality of truth 2.

If acquaintance with the logical works of Aristotle in the 12th century brought to the fore dialectics as the ability to apply logical conclusions in a dispute and gave rise to such a thinker as Abelard, then the reception of the natural science and philosophical works of Aristotle expanded scientific horizons and increased interest in secular knowledge. Philosophy for the first time becomes not only the art of reasoning, but also the science of the nature of things.

intellectual university aristotle education

Conclusion

From this work the following conclusions can be drawn:

· The problem of the emergence of universities, their formation and development is covered in the works of domestic scientists quite fully. The researchers describe in detail the problems that inevitably arose during the emergence of the university, their relationship with secular and ecclesiastical authorities.

· Despite all the diversity of universities, their geographical location and scientific direction, the disciplines studied at universities were approximately the same. The differences were explained by the specifics of the current of scientific thought in various university centers.

· philosophical science was the most important and integral part of university education. It was a universal method for almost any branch of science. At the same time, she tried to free herself from her stigma as “the handmaiden of theology” and turned her attention to more specialized issues, especially of a natural science nature.

The education system that arose in the Middle Ages in Western Europe largely predetermined the development of the modern educational system. Modern universities are direct descendants of medieval ones. We can say that the problem of education was one of the most pressing social problems, both in the Middle Ages and in our days. Therefore, the study of this aspect of the spiritual life of medieval society will never cease to be relevant.

List of sources and literature

Sources

1.Anthology of pedagogical thought of the Christian Middle Ages. In 2 volumes./ Ed. V.G. Bezrogova and O.I. Varyash M., 1994.

2.Documents on the history of European universities in the 12th-15th centuries / Ed. G.I. Lipatnikova. Voronezh. 1973.

.Poetry of the Vagants. M., 1975.

.Reader on the history of the Middle Ages. / Ed. N.P. Gratsiansky and S.D. Skazkina. M., T. II, part I. 1938.

.Reader on the history of the Middle Ages. / Ed. N.P. Gratsiansky and S.D. Skazkina. T. 2. M., 1950.

Literature

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.Uvarov P.Yu. University of Paris and local interests (late XIV - first half of the XV centuries) // Middle Ages. No. 54.

.Uvarov P.Yu. The University of Paris and the social life of a medieval city (based on French-language works of the 13th-early 14th centuries). M., 1982.

.Uvarov P.Yu. University of Paris: European universalism, local interests and the idea of ​​representation. // City in the medieval civilization of Western Europe. T.4.

.Uvarov P.Yu. University. // Dictionary of medieval culture. / ed. AND I. Gurevich M., 2007

.Uvarov P.Yu. The university and the idea of ​​European community. // European almanac. Story. Tradition. Culture. M., 1993.

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NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

EASTERN ECONOMIC-LEGAL HUMANITIES ACADEMY (VEGU Academy)

INSTITUTE OF MODERN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES

COURSE WORK

First medieval universities

Abdrakhmanova Liliya Markovna

Introduction

The emergence of universities

1 General trends in intellectual life of the 12th-13th centuries

2 Spanish universities

3 Italian universities

4 University of Paris

1 Structure of university education

2 University curricula

The role of philosophy and the legacy of Aristotle in university education Conclusion

List of sources and literature

Introduction

Relevance of the research topic : Higher education begins to take shape in the Middle Ages, mainly in the 11th-12th centuries in Europe. The main form of such education was universities, which in turn became a logical continuation of previously existing city and monastery schools. It is necessary to note the significant influence that universities had on the subsequent intellectual life of Western Europe. It was the university environment that gave the world a huge number of outstanding scientists, poets, and philosophers. Many original, bold and advanced ideas for their time were born within the walls of universities.

A university in the Middle Ages was a unique organization with its own internal structure, hierarchy and operating procedures. But the establishment of a particular university was invariably complicated by a number of obstacles and problems.

Of significant interest is the study of many features of the higher education system in medieval Europe. Let us turn our attention to the coverage of issues of the history of universities in domestic historiography.

Scientific development of the problem: in domestic historiography, interest in the history of Western European education emerged in the second half of the 19th century. These are the works of V.V. Ignatovich, P.N. Voyekova, L.N. Modzalevsky, N.S. Suvorova, V.S. Ivanovsky 1. These researchers turned their attention to the problems of the relationship between the school and the Catholic Church, the emergence of humanistic education in Italy, France and other countries of Western Europe. These works are full of specific historical material and can still serve as a valuable aid in the study of issues of education, culture and life in the Middle Ages.

Since the 1980s the history of education in Europe becomes the subject of study in collections of the Academy of Sciences, in which articles on the history of European schools and universities appear. Some of these collections were used to prepare this work. 1. From the same time, the publication of a number of collections devoted to problems of culture and education began in Ivanovo. We also involved some of them in the preparation of this work. 2. Also interesting research on the topic of medieval universities can be found in general works on the history of the city 3, urban culture 4 and other topics.

Source base: we can find a fairly wide range of documents on the history of universities in the following collections: “Anthology of Pedagogical Thought of the Christian Middle Ages” 5, where we can find such medieval treatises on the education system and its content as “On the Praise of the Clergy”, “On School Science” and others. "Documents on the history of European universities in the XII-XV centuries." 6contain a number of sources concerning the emergence of universities, their relationship with the Catholic Church and secular authorities. Also in this collection there is a wide range of material illustrating the educational process, the life of masters and students. Poetry of the Vagants 7carries an ironic description of the difficult life of a schoolchild in conditions of poverty, deprivation and other inevitable difficulties of learning.

Goals and objectives of the study: based on the scientific development of the problem, the main goal of this study can be identified as the development of the topic of higher education in the Middle Ages in domestic historiography, which involves the following tasks: to trace the socio-political, cultural and ideological features of the emergence of universities, to study the content of university education, determine the disciplines included in it, establish the role of philosophy in the higher education system of Western Europe and show the place of Aristotle’s heritage in it.

Chronological framework of the study: XII-XIV centuries. The territorial framework covers the territory of Western Europe.

The object of the study is the works of domestic scientists on the history of higher education in medieval Europe.

The subject of the study was the development of scientific thought in the field of the history of higher education, which is associated with an increase in interest in this problem.

The methodological basis of the work is chronological, synchronous, comparative historical and structural-systemic methods of historical research.

Practical significance: the conclusions drawn from this work can be used in further research as a starting point for a more detailed study of the problem of interest to us, in secondary schools as material for lessons on history and world culture. Structure of the work: this work consists of an introduction, three chapters and a conclusion, a list of references.

1. The emergence of universities

1.1 General trends in intellectual life of the 12th-13th centuries

Universities, which arose at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries, became a logical continuation of the previously existing city and monastery schools and represented a new organizational form of the phenomenon of higher education. The name "universitas" meant a political corporation of teachers and students (masters and scholars), which, by receiving various privileges, took the position of a public corporation. Medieval corporations were formed for the purpose of mutual assistance, resolving internal conflicts, resisting external pressure, and protecting their rights in any “aggressive environment.”

Let us consider the main trends in intellectual life of the 12th-13th centuries. The collections "Western European Medieval School and Pedagogical Thought" will help us here. 1and "Humanistic thought, school and pedagogy of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times" 2. The thirteenth century saw the rise of the Catholic Church and the papacy. This predetermined great attention to the issues of educating the flock and training clergy. On the other hand, the development of education was driven by practical needs. At this time, there was an economic boom, a complication of commodity-money relations, and, as a consequence, the growth of medieval cities. The urban population felt a practical need for education focused on their needs3 .

The peculiarity of early urban rationalism, which had not yet freed itself from the shackles of religious thinking, is the desire to rely not so much on experienced knowledge as on new authorities. The XII-XIII centuries is the era of numerous advances from Arabic, and as a result of the IV Crusade, from Greek into Latin 1. Europe is finally gaining access to the works of Aristotle in full, albeit in Arabic presentation. Very valuable works from the fields of zoology, botany, astronomy and natural history in general are also translated.

The social composition of students is expanding. In addition to the growing number of citizens interested in specific knowledge, more representatives of the old classes began to attend educational institutions. There is a secularization of education. By the period under study, school centers had moved from the walls of monasteries to cathedrals, and the further development of universities led to an even greater isolation of the education sector. The main feature of this process was the transition of education from the hands of monks to the hands of the white clergy, learned clerics - townspeople2 .

At universities, specialization in the subject of study is clearly visible. Here is the testimony of Trouver Gelinand (XIII century): “In Paris, students are looking for art, in Orleans - ancient authors, in Bologna - codes (law), in Salerno - pharmaceutical jars (medicine), in Toledo - demons (sorcery), and nowhere - good morals"3 .

This era gave the world many outstanding scientists, philosophers, and poets. Here are just a few of them - Thomas Aquinas, Hugh of Saint-Victor, John of Salisbury, Raymond Lully, Roger Bacon, Pierre Abelard and many others. The period of the XII-XIII centuries became a time of development of intellectual life, the accumulation of new knowledge and the revival of old ones. A powerful impulse appears, giving impetus to the development of the education system - schools are developing, universities are appearing.

1.2 Spanish universities

The problem of the emergence of universities is widely covered in domestic historiography. However, the starting point of our study of medieval universities will be the topic of higher education in Spain, which is the least covered in scientific works. At the beginning of the 13th century, universities were founded in Palencia (1208-1212) and Salamanca (1218), or rather proto-university formations, which initially relied on local cathedrals and had a limited number of faculties. The golden age of “general schools”, their flourishing and transformation into universities proper, according to researcher N.P. Denisenko 1, falls on the second half of the 13th century and the first decades of the 14th century. During this period, 6 new universities emerged, and the “old” ones received further development - in Salamanca and Palencia. The initiative to establish universities belonged in most cases to kings and, less often, to church hierarchs. Thus, the orders of Ferdinand III and Alfonso X played a huge role in the formation of the University of Salamanca, during whose reign teachers and students received special privileges, the crown also took upon itself the financing of universities, enshrining all this in royal legislation2 .

The next step in the history of Spanish universities is approval, or rather recognition by the Pope. This happened through special bulls. Only such a decision transferred the university to the category of “legal”, that is, it ensured the recognition of diplomas, degrees and titles awarded by the university, and gave university graduates the right to teach both in their own and in other educational institutions (licentia ubique docendi). Along with papal recognition, universities were also awarded some privileges. This is confirmed, for example, by the message of Pope Alexander IV to the University of Salamanca: “We consider it absolutely right and worthy that those who cultivate the field of knowledge with daily studies in search of the pearl of science should receive joy from finding favor with us and gracious attention to their requests. And since they will feel the support of the apostolic disposition, their activities will more freely follow the intended path." .

One of the most pressing issues for any “general school” was the question of its financing. Formally, funds for the maintenance of Spanish universities were allocated from tax revenues to the royal treasury, but it was almost always a matter of thirds - part of the church tithes received by the crown by agreement with the popes. There were constant difficulties in collecting these amounts, which caused conflicts between the universities and the city church authorities and the tax department. Such situations allowed the popes and the local church to act as arbiters, appoint their own guardians - “guardians”, suspend funding and apply other emergency measures2 .

The relationship between Spanish universities and the cities in which they operated was strained, as was the case in other European countries. Constant internal strife on a variety of issues, conflicts and armed strikes between students and townspeople, interference of city authorities in the election of officials at the university - this is not a complete list of problems that universities faced every day. The main reason for this confrontation lies in the mutual repulsion of the city and universities as a corporation, and its certain alienness in the social and political organization of the city. Spanish cities were often not interested in founding universities and took at best a passive, but more often negative, position on this issue1 .

.3 Italian universities

The situation was completely different in the Italian commune cities. When researching the history of Italian universities, the works of historian V.I. will provide us with invaluable help. Rutenburg 2, which studies the university in interaction and close connection with the cities in which they operate. The specifics of Italian universities, according to the researcher, stem from the characteristics of Italian feudalism 3. The growth and strengthening of urban communes, the formation of city-states, widespread Mediterranean and pan-European trade, the development of manufactories, the transfer of land into the ownership of citizens and urban communes - all this required legal justification. This dynamic socio-economic and political situation led to the emergence of municipal city schools along with monasteries, and then the creation of universities. Italian universities, like foreign ones, were also taken under papal and royal patronage. In 1361, the University of Perugia received rights from Charles VI, taking advantage of his stay in Italy. The commune of Perugia sent an embassy headed by Bartolo da Sassoferrato to Charles VI in Pisa. The university received all studium generale rights 4. And the University of Bologna received its privileges from Frederick Barbarossa. Here is a quote from his letter to students and teachers of Bologna schools: “... we decided... that no one should dare to detain schoolchildren with the aim of causing them any offense and that no one would cause them a loss because of the debt of another person. wishes to initiate a lawsuit in any case, the proceedings must take place at the free choice of the student"1 .

The creation of universities on the initiative of the commune was quite common in Italy. This is how the Higher School of Siena was founded. On June 18, 1275, the General Council of the Siena Commune decided to open a higher school for teaching the humanities in the city. Soon the municipal authorities announced a recruitment of students (scolari, studenti) and invited lecturers (dottori, maestri). In 1275, municipal authorities set fees for teaching and developed training conditions. Similar practices occur in other communities. 2. The city exempted masters and students from any taxes and provided them with accommodation in city houses on preferential terms. At the same time, both teachers and students could practically enjoy many of the rights of citizens of this city, up to the participation of university representatives in the councils of the commune 3. The main reason for all of the above actions was the city's economic interest in higher schools. The consequences of such cooperation were beneficial for each party. Let's look at the example of Bologna. Here is the testimony of a contemporary: “A huge number of schoolchildren, quite rich... changed the face of the city, the whole tone of its life, introduced a kind of economic revolution. The city was full of money and received benefits from the sale of goods to these strangers. New forms of urban culture appeared, not without the presence of luxury "The city transformed from a Roman settlement into a major center in less than two centuries." 4. The decision of the Great Council of the Bolognese commune emphasized that the presence of a university increases its political prestige.

The municipal authorities systematically considered issues related to the affairs of universities in the Big and Small Councils, the creed of the rectors of the workshops, since the university in the statutes of the commune was considered as one of the corporations in the system of city workshops. All councils of the commune included representatives of universities, and the council of priors included representatives for higher schools - the wise (savii). But contradictions invariably arose, which led to aggravation of relations. As a result of conflicts, Bolognese professors and students went to Vicenza, Arezzo and other cities. But leaving Bologna was only a measure to restore normalcy. These clashes did not have any fundamental anti-communal direction, but rather concerned issues of prestige.

The universities of the Italian communes trained lawyers, doctors, official secular and church readers, and officials for government institutions in the cities of Italy and other countries.

1.4 University of Paris

The history of the University of Paris is very extensively covered in Russian historical science thanks to numerous studies by Pavel Yuryevich Uvarov. The University of Paris developed from church schools into Europe's first secular university in 1215. And almost immediately he began to actively interact with the city. The pope and monarchs, both French and English, did not leave him unattended. A number of letters and bulls followed - from Pope Gregory IX in 1231, a letter from the English king Henry III in 1229 with an offer to move to England and continue his studies here. The king guarantees excellent conditions: “for this purpose we will assign you cities, burgs, towns that you wish to choose. In every appropriate case, you will be able to enjoy freedoms and tranquility here that will fully satisfy your needs and will be pleasing to God”1 .

P. Yu Uvarov in the work "The University of Paris and the social life of a medieval city" 1aims to explore the place and role of the university environment in the medieval city, their connection and mutual influence. As a result of a detailed study of intra-university and other urban narrative sources, the author comes to the conclusion that the views of representatives of the university environment (value system, behavioral stereotypes, formation of ideals) bear the stamp of the same duality as the entire medieval city as a whole. Along with the tendency to reject aristocratic, essentially feudal moral and behavioral norms and the adoption of ideas characteristic of the burghers, they embody the borrowing of many aristocratic traditions, thus being an organic part of feudal culture.

In other works by P.Yu. Uvarov traces the connection between the University of Paris and local interests 2. The connection between the university and the province was mutual: on the one hand, provincial prelates and officials could maintain membership in it, and on the other, students and masters in Paris did not break off relations with their families and territorial communities. Students at universities were divided into “nations” based on their place of residence. Perhaps, in everyday life, schoolchildren of one “nation” did not feel like something united. However, in the event of conflicts, representatives of one nation were distinguished by great cohesion. Here is the vivid testimony of Jacob of Vitria: “... even the differences between countries aroused disagreement, hatred, strong quarrels among them, and they shamelessly persecuted each other with all kinds of abuse and insults. They called the English drunkards and buffoons, the children of France - proud, pampered and adorned like women ; they said that the Germans behaved indecently and bestially at their holidays, the Normans were called vain self-praisers, the inhabitants of Poitou treacherous and flatterers, the Burgundians - rude and stupid, the Bretons - frivolous and fickle. As a result of such insults, the matter often passed from words to a brawl " 1. Although clashes between people from different provinces were characteristic not only of the university environment2 .

The university served as a kind of “school of representation.” He periodically sent delegations to the pope with rotules - lists of masters to receive benefits. The university also had a set of means to protect its rights and maintain its authority: appeals to the solidarity of all former students, the imposition of church condemnation on opponents, going to court, the threat of secession - a study strike and the possibility of transferring classes to another city, which damaged the political prestige of the kingdom and economic interests of citizens.

The first universities - unions of masters and students - formed spontaneously, they themselves wrested charters and privileges from church and secular authorities. Since the 13th century, the initiators of their creation were popes and kings. Universities were an important element of the medieval city; they acted as carriers of both the cultural, spiritual, and ideological values ​​of medieval society.

.1 Structure of university education

The structure of universities as corporations resembles the structure of craft workshops. Scientific production was clothed in the same forms regulated by statutes as craft production. The gradations of schoolchildren, bachelors, masters or doctors corresponded to the guild gradations of apprentices, journeymen and masters. It was the strictest regulation and standardization of the activities of universities that ensured the highest level of quality and reliability of modern science of medieval science as a way of thinking that became the foundation of modern science.

The university corporation in Paris can be called typical. It consisted of four faculties: artistic (where the liberal arts were taught), law, medicine and theology. The higher faculties - medicine, law and theology - were governed by titled regents headed by deans. The Faculty of Arts, as the most numerous, was divided into nations according to the place of birth of the students. There were four such nations in Paris: French, Picardy, Norman and English1 .

Things were completely different at the University of Bologna. Here the students were quite old people, they entered into agreements with mentors and controlled the quality of training 2. There were two rectors - heads of the faculties of civil and canon law. The nations were divided into two federations - the Citramontans and the Ultramontans.

The training was organized as follows. The study of the liberal arts lasted about six years, and was completed at about fourteen and twenty years. Then there was training in medicine and law - approximately between twenty and twenty-five years. Studying theology required more time; we studied for fifteen to sixteen years. Each period was divided into stages. During this time, the degrees of “cursor” (bachelor-tutor), “biblicus” (commenting on the Bible), “sententiary” (allowed to teach from the book “Sentences” of Peter of Lombardy, which agreed on the opinions of authorities on controversial issues of theology), and bachelor’s degrees were successively acquired. formati" (participating in all disputes), licentiate (holder of the "right to teach everywhere"), and, finally, the degree of Doctor of Theology, which meant the highest competence 1. Studying mainly came down to commenting on texts. University statutes indicate the works that must be included in the program. Programs are undergoing changes. The inclusion of pagan and Muslim philosophers, Latin poets, medieval masters in the system of authorities and at the same time the almost complete absence of references to the Fathers of the Church and even the Holy Scripture itself in university sources indicate the emerging process of desacralization and orientation of universities to a greater extent towards secular urban culture2 .

.2 University curricula

There were many differences between universities. There were two “families” of university statutes - Bologna, characteristic of Italian and part of southern French universities, and Paris, more widespread and later replaced the southern version 3. In some universities, teaching at the Faculty of Arts focused on the study of logic, in others - rhetoric and grammar. Many universities did not have a medical faculty, they often did without a theological faculty, and in Paris there was no faculty of Roman law - the most widespread in Europe. In Montpellier, unlike other medical centers, medical theorists did not show the usual arrogance towards surgeons and pharmacists 4. In Toulouse and Salamanca, theology was dominated by Thomism and a moderately realistic trend, as opposed to Oxford and Parisian nominalism, and in Padua in the 14th century, Averroism, expelled from Paris, found refuge1 .

From the documents that have reached us on the history of universities, we can judge the programs of various universities. For example, in Bologna in the 14th century, at the Faculty of Arts, it was prescribed to study the natural sciences of Aristotle: “Physics”, “On Creation and Destruction” - in the first year, “On the Sky”, “Meteorology” - the second, “On the Soul”, “Metaphysics” " - in the third year of study 2. And at extraordinary lectures they studied Averroes and his work “On the Substance of the World.” This is interesting evidence that the University of Bologna was one of the centers of Averroism. And medical students carefully studied the treatises of Hippocrates, Galen and Hippocrates.

Despite the variety of statutes, the basic principles of teaching were similar in many respects. In the morning, so-called cursor or ordinary lectures were read. The teacher read the text of the book, then identified the main problem and divided it into sub-questions. At evening, extraordinary lectures, other teachers (they could be bachelors) explained, repeated the morning topic, or dwelled on special issues 3. The ability to identify issues was considered the main and most important. No less attention was paid to the ability to conduct polemics. Ordinary, ordinary disputes were held weekly. An event that attracted a lot of public were debates “about anything” (quadlibets). The topics covered were often frivolous in nature, but sometimes touched on topical political issues. The Bologna Statutes described the procedure for conducting disputes. To begin with, "one of the members should be elected, who will be called the Master of Students" 4. His duties included preparing questions for disputes, which he had to communicate to the respondent and opponent at least two weeks before the dispute. He also had to monitor discipline and direct the course of the discussion1 .

Considerable attention was paid to the content of university education in treatises concerning all levels of education. An example of such a work is the treatise “De disciplina scolarum” (On school science), which is a mystery to scientists. Neither the author, nor the date, nor the place of its writing is known. The author of this work narrates the story on behalf of Boethius, “the last Roman philosopher.” This essay consists of six chapters. The specificity of the treatise is its recommendatory nature. The first and third chapters deal with the curriculum. After studying grammar, the author of the treatise recommends studying and memorizing ancient writers - Seneca, Virgil, Horace and others. However, these authors were not studied at universities. According to researcher N.D. Mitkova, such a recommendation was made either in imitation of Boethius, or out of a desire to preserve classics in universities 2. The next step is the study of logic. First, they get acquainted with concepts and logical operations, then move on to more difficult and special things - to Porphyry’s “Isagoge”, which introduces Aristotle in the “Categories”, Boethius’s comments on Aristotle’s logical works, and then to Aristotle himself in Boethius’ translations. Logic is called in the treatise “the researcher of true and false”, “the science of sciences”, “the school mistress” 3. In parallel with the study of logic, the study of grammar, with the help of which art is mastered, is recommended, as well as the beauties of rhetoric and quadrivia, but this is mentioned very briefly. In reality, everything was somewhat different. In the "liberal arts" courses at universities, logic actually occupies a central place. Grammar is practically being squeezed out of the university curriculum; it is studied in preparatory “grammar schools”. Rhetoric comes down to the study of collections of letters. Geometry, astronomy, music, and mathematics were not represented at all universities. As a rule, in universities of the XIII-XIV centuries. The greatest attention was paid to the study of law - canonical and secular. Only the universities of Paris, Salamanca, Oxford, Toulouse, and Cologne were considered authoritative in matters of theology. The most popular medical faculties were in Montpellier, Paris, Bologna, Lleida1 .

In the anonymous treatise “On School Science,” the author proposes for discussion “Crato’s questions” - most likely theses for a scholastic debate, having a diverse natural-scientific and philosophical character: are there several heavens or is it one, in accordance with Aristotle? EIf there are several of them, then what are their boundaries? If there is one, as Aristotle thinks, then while the parts of the whole move, why does the totality not move?2

Other questions are related to astronomy and astrology. The next group of questions concerns finding out the causes of natural phenomena - earthquakes, sea waves, and so on; here they also ask about birds, stones, vision, color. But the meaning of these questions is not always clear. The author of the treatise formulates Aristotelian-Averroist ideas in the form of theses used in scholastic debates.

If we turn to the universities of England, we see that for most of the 13th century the academic life of Oxford and Cambridge was not particularly lively, especially in theology and jurisprudence. Many English students studied in France and Italy, as there was still limited demand for higher level education in England, making teaching here a dubious venture for continental teachers. In the last quarter of a century the situation has changed significantly 1. The earliest evidence of the presence of several faculties and a sufficient number of teachers and students at Oxford is researcher M.N. Panyutina finds in the report of Gerald of Wales about his reading of “Topographia Hibernica” here 2. The academic population increased from Paris in 1167 and from Northampton in 1192. This proves that theology and jurisprudence were systematically taught in the last decade of the 13th century.

According to P.Yu. Uvarov universities were not functionally the center of science and education 3. The surgeon treated better than the doctor of medicine who knew Galen and Hippocrates. The judge, who had spent years as an apprentice with the prosecutor, knew all the intricacies of local laws, unlike the licentiate of rights. “Instructive examples” of preachers or speeches of humanists, free from scholastic cliches, were more convincing than the lengthy and cumbersome reasoning of doctors of theology. The prerogative of universities was to award degrees, which still did not indicate professional training or a thirst for new knowledge. In the eyes of the Middle Ages, all basic laws were finite: divine, social, natural, which had already been formulated by authorities and analyzed by commentators. The social function of the holder of a university degree was not the discovery of new truths, but the protection of the established order from damage that inevitably occurs when deviating from any kind of laws - natural, divine or legal4 .

The problem of the content of university education is not sufficiently covered in domestic historiography. Most often, we can learn about the disciplines included in the course of a particular university from general works devoted to the education and development of a university. But we can identify commonalities in the disciplines taught throughout Europe. This is the widespread recognition of ancient authorities - Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates and others. Studying the cycle of the “seven liberal arts” is an indispensable attribute of any higher school. The existing differences only emphasized the pan-European idea of ​​universities and were explained by the local specifics of the development of scientific thought.

3. The role of philosophy and the legacy of Aristotle in university education

Despite the apparent immutability of the content and methods of teaching at universities, the pulsation of scientific thought was felt. Here there was a struggle for the legacy of Aristotle. The form of combination of Aristotelianism with Christianity that Thomas Aquinas proposed was, with difficulty, but still maintained in most universities. The features of a special university culture are formed quite quickly. The constants of this culture were not only rationalism, a commitment to quoting authorities and dissecting problems, but also unusually high self-esteem. Philosophers were declared the most worthy of people, since it was believed that education imparted to a person not only knowledge, but also virtues, making the educated truly noble, superior to nobles by birth1 .

Since the 12th century, university thought, and after it the entire Middle Ages, intensively read Aristotle's Politics. Since the 14th century, there has been a nominalist trend in universities, shifting the emphasis to the primacy of the individual.

We can trace the course of the long and persistent struggle between various philosophical trends in the university environment with the help of the monograph by G.V. Shevkina "Siger of Brabant and the Parisian Averroists of the 13th century" 2. This book is dedicated to a thinker whose life and creativity, philosophical position and tireless struggle reflected the complexity of the situation at the University of Paris, one of the main centers of European science in the 13th century. The University of Paris was not only the oldest university in Europe, but also the most influential. The struggle of trends, different interpretations of the works of Aristotle in the 13th century, the claims of the mendicant orders to guide education - all this led to clashes no less acute than in the time of Abelard and the expulsion or exodus of students and masters. The exiles continued the ideological struggle in Oxford, Cambridge, and Italian universities, and thus everything that happened in Paris acquired truly European significance3 .

The University of Paris in the 13th century was the focus of the struggle to master the philosophical heritage of Aristotle. Thomas Aquinas came here from Italy to give lectures and conduct debates. Albert of Bolshtedt also sent his writings against the Averroists and philosophical letters here. In a study by G.V. Shevkina sets out the philosophical teachings of Seeger of Brabant, showing the figure of the thinker as if in the focus of all complex collisions at the university. The book shows the creative attitude of the Parisian Averroist to the legacy of Aristotle, his desire to overcome the dualistic gap between the concepts of matter and form. The influence on Seeger and his doctrine of the eternity of the world by the Arab commentator Aristotle, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), is no less fully outlined.

Of the student body, which numbered in the thousands in the university centers and was especially large in Paris, the bulk of the student population consisted of the poor (scholares pauperes). In most goliardics, the life of schoolchildren is depicted in harsh colors. Also, in the poetry of the vagantes, a partial similarity of plots can be traced: light ridicule of prelates, feast and love lyrics 1. To the displeasure of the traveling students, there were also philosophical disputes between various interpreters of Aristotle, because they inevitably found themselves drawn into socio-political confrontations - a consequence of intra-university struggle.

A comparison of the points of view of different philosophers allows us to highlight the thirteenth century as a certain stage in the struggle for the liberation of the human mind from dogma, when both supporters and opponents of Averroism recognized that theology and philosophy have one truth, but it is proven in different ways.

As already mentioned, in the 13th century, the works of Aristotle, with which European scientists had previously been familiar only fragmentarily and indirectly, as well as the works of his Arab and Jewish commentators, became known in Europe in the 13th century. According to various researchers, by 1246 all the main works of Averroes were already known in Europe1 .

The works of Aristotle are actively studied by students of the Faculty of Arts. The dissemination of the works of Aristotle and his commentators in Paris was met with resistance from the church. When the teachings of Amalric of Ben and David of Dinan were condemned in 1210, the study of the natural science works of Aristotle and commentaries on them was prohibited under threat of excommunication. But the university is fighting for the right of free education, not subordinate to the church 2. The Church sought to maintain intellectual dominance and bring universities under its influence, as did the entire scientific movement of the time. The largest scholastics - Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure - came from the mendicant orders. In 1229, taking advantage of another dispute with the city authorities, the university demanded the abolition of episcopal control. The study of Aristotle in universities continues.

In 1231, a new decree of Gregory IX repeated the ban on the study of the natural science works of Aristotle and his Eastern interpreters. However, the pope mentions that harmful books may also contain useful information - “we learned that prohibited books on the study of nature contain both useful and harmful provisions, we want the useful in these works not to be spoiled by contact with the harmful and dangerous " 3. Such categorical measures in relation to the works of Aristotle led to the burning of his books in Paris. Here is the testimony of a contemporary: “In those days... they read in Paris certain books, compiled, as they said, by Aristotle, expounding metaphysics, recently brought from Constantinople and translated from Greek into Latin. Because they not only gave the reason for the mentioned heresy with cunning ideas, but and could arouse new ones that had not yet appeared, they were all sentenced to burning, and at the same council it was decided that henceforth no one would dare, under pain of excommunication, to copy, read or store them in any way." 1. However, not all contemporaries were categorical in relation to the ancient heritage. As Roger Bacon wrote in his writings: “Let [Christians] read the 10 books of Aristotelian ethics, the numerous treatises of Seneca, Tullius Cicero and many others, and then see that we are mired in the abyss of vices and that the grace of God alone can save us. How betrayed we were these philosophers of virtue, how they loved it! And everyone, of course, would get behind their shortcomings if they read their works." .

In 1255, the statute of the University of Paris included in the curriculum all the then known books of Aristotle. This statute was a direct challenge to papal authority. He infuriated the Augustinian theologians, who considered Aristotle's books harmful and completely incompatible with the Christian faith. This fact testified to the existence of a conflict between theologians and members of the Faculty of Arts, which arose due to the desire of the latter to transform their faculty from a lower, preparatory faculty into an independent, equal faculty, where philosophy would be taught, including the rudiments of natural science.

Acquaintance with the work of Aristotle raises with new urgency the question of the contradiction between science and religion. The Augustinian-Neoplatonic school turns out to be unable to cope with the enormous natural scientific material that was put into circulation along with the works of Aristotle.

In the middle of the thirteenth century, a deep contradiction emerged between the desire to study philosophy, the development of science and the interests of the church. The artistic department is becoming a subject of constant concern for churchmen.

The Averroist school of philosophy arose at the University of Paris in the second half of the 13th century. On December 10, 1270, 13 Averroist provisions were condemned by the Bishop of Paris, Etienne Tampier. Here are just a few of them:

· 2. False and cannot be proven: what a person understands;

· 3. That the will of man is determined by necessity;

· 5. That the world is eternal;

· 6. That the first (created) man never existed;

· 10. That God knows nothing about things in their particular (individual) manifestations1 .

Nevertheless, after his conviction, Siger of Brabant did not stop his activities. 1271-1273 - a time of high scientific activity of the Parisian master. In 1271, Thomas Aquinas was invited to Paris for the second time and he took an active part in the debates. The disputes do not stop even after his departure. The fact that Seager of Brabant dared to answer the challenge of Thomas Aquinas with his treatise “On the Rational Soul” suggests that the struggle between them continued2 .

Let us turn our attention to Averroes, an Arab commentator on Aristotle, whose teaching had a significant influence on Siger of Brabant and the entire intellectual life of university Europe. Averroes separated philosophy and theology, delimited their spheres of influence, and thereby ensured philosophy's independence from theology. All this could not but cause discontent in the church. There follows a number of prohibitions on the study of natural sciences under the threat of excommunication: 1210, 1215, 1219, 1225, the condemnation of some scientists, the Inquisition. Perhaps that is why the author of the anonymous treatise “On School Science” writes on behalf of Boethius, a distinguished and authoritative philosopher, whose commentaries on the logical works of Aristotle and the treatise “On the Consolation of Philosophy” have long been studied in medieval schools. The questions for debate proposed in this treatise could stem from the natural science works of Aristotle - “Physics”, “Metaphysics”, “On Heaven”, “On Origin and Destruction”. These works, translated back in the 12th century, despite a number of prohibitions, were becoming increasingly widespread at the University of Paris; in 1231 they were read and commented on everywhere 1. In these same issues, the Averroist influence is clearly visible. Firstly, philosophy is considered as an independent science separate from theology. Secondly, a number of natural science and philosophical questions were the subject of discussion by Averroes (questions about the movement and relationship of the planets, about the qualities and accidents of matter, about heredity, etc.)2 .

Siger of Brabant is trying to get rid of the dualistic gap in Aristotle's teaching between the concepts of matter and form. According to Siger of Brabant, matter and form differ in the representation of people, but are united in their existence. Thomas Aquinas views the essence of things as something different from their real existence. Recognizing the coincidence of being and essence only in God, Thomas Aquinas solves this problem idealistically. For Siger of Brabant, the existence of things is inseparable from their essence3 .

The most original and most dangerous for the church was the Averroist theory of eternity and the unity of the “rational soul,” that is, the human intellect. 1. Aristotle's reasoning about time is very interesting: any given moment of time is finite, but time, composed of an infinite number of finite moments, is infinite. Eternity as a property of the human species is combined with the mortality of each individual.

Persecuted and condemned, the Averroists were expelled from the University of Paris, and their works were destroyed. Despite all the efforts of the church to suppress Averroism, it spread again at the beginning of the 14th century. A prominent representative is Jean Zhendensky. His scientific activity was devoted to commenting on the works of Aristotle and Averroes. Although he rejected every scientific position incompatible with dogma as contrary to the truth and spoke of the truth of dogma, he just as loudly declared the impossibility of proving these truths with reason. Jean Gendinsky rejects the theory of the duality of truth2 .

If acquaintance with the logical works of Aristotle in the 12th century brought to the fore dialectics as the ability to apply logical conclusions in a dispute and gave rise to such a thinker as Abelard, then the reception of the natural science and philosophical works of Aristotle expanded scientific horizons and increased interest in secular knowledge. Philosophy for the first time becomes not only the art of reasoning, but also the science of the nature of things.

intellectual university aristotle education

Conclusion

From this work the following conclusions can be drawn:

· The problem of the emergence of universities, their formation and development is covered in the works of domestic scientists quite fully. The researchers describe in detail the problems that inevitably arose during the emergence of the university, their relationship with secular and ecclesiastical authorities.

· Despite all the diversity of universities, their geographical location and scientific direction, the disciplines studied at universities were approximately the same. The differences were explained by the specifics of the current of scientific thought in various university centers.

· philosophical science was the most important and integral part of university education. It was a universal method for almost any branch of science. At the same time, she tried to free herself from her stigma as “the handmaiden of theology” and turned her attention to more specialized issues, especially of a natural science nature.

The education system that arose in the Middle Ages in Western Europe largely predetermined the development of the modern educational system. Modern universities are direct descendants of medieval ones. We can say that the problem of education was one of the most pressing social problems, both in the Middle Ages and in our days. Therefore, the study of this aspect of the spiritual life of medieval society will never cease to be relevant.

List of sources and literature

Sources

1.Anthology of pedagogical thought of the Christian Middle Ages. In 2 volumes./ Ed. V.G. Bezrogova and O.I. Varyash M., 1994.

2.Documents on the history of European universities in the 12th-15th centuries / Ed. G.I. Lipatnikova. Voronezh. 1973.

.Poetry of the Vagants. M., 1975.

.Reader on the history of the Middle Ages. / Ed. N.P. Gratsiansky and S.D. Skazkina. M., T. II, part I. 1938.

.Reader on the history of the Middle Ages. / Ed. N.P. Gratsiansky and S.D. Skazkina. T. 2. M., 1950.

Literature

1.Borishanskaya M.M. Leading trends in school development in Western European countries // Western European school and pedagogical thought (research and materials): Coll. scientific tr. M., 1989. Issue. 1 part 1

2.Borishanskaya M.M. Pedagogical ideas in the culture of Western Europe in the 13th-14th centuries. // Humanistic thought, school and pedagogy of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times. M., 1990.

.Denisenko N.P. Spanish universities in the XIII-XIV centuries. // Universities of Western Europe. Middle Ages. Revival. Education. Interuniversity. Sat. scientific works Ivanovo, 1990.

.Dobiash-Rozhdestvenskaya O.A. Collisions in French society of the 12th-13th centuries. on student satire of this era. // Culture of the Western European Middle Ages. Scientific heritage. M., 1975.

.Materova E.V. Universities and school life in the Middle Ages. // Teacher XXI century - 2006 No. 3.

.Mitkova N.D. Some aspects of the system of medieval university education according to the treatise “De disciplina scolarum” (On school science). // Universities of Western Europe. Middle Ages. Revival. Education. Interuniversity. Sat. scientific tr. Ivanovo, 1990.

.Panyutina M.N. On the issue of the formation of the University of Oxford. // Man in the culture of antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Sat. scientific tr. edited by V.M. Tyuleneva. Ivanovo, 2006.

.Rutenburg V.I. Italian city from the early Middle Ages to the Renaissance. L., 1987.

.Rutenburg V.I. Universities of Italian communes. // Urban culture and the beginning of modern times. L., 1986.

.Uvarov P. Yu. Intellectuals and intellectual work in the Middle Ages. // City in the medieval civilization of Western Europe. T.2 M., 2001.

.Uvarov P.Yu. University of Paris and local interests (late XIV - first half of the XV centuries) // Middle Ages. No. 54.

.Uvarov P.Yu. The University of Paris and the social life of a medieval city (based on French-language works of the 13th-early 14th centuries). M., 1982.

.Uvarov P.Yu. University of Paris: European universalism, local interests and the idea of ​​representation. // City in the medieval civilization of Western Europe. T.4.

.Uvarov P.Yu. University. // Dictionary of medieval culture. / ed. AND I. Gurevich M., 2007

.Uvarov P.Yu. The university and the idea of ​​European community. // European almanac. Story. Tradition. Culture. M., 1993.

.Shevkina G.V. Siger of Brabant and the Parisian Averroists of the 12th century. M., 1972.

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