Science of the USSR during the war. Education and science during the Great Patriotic War

spiritual culture soviet

The Great Patriotic War brought enormous changes to the cultural life of Soviet people. Cultural institutions underwent restructuring, and the role of radio, print, and cinematography increased. Already at the beginning of the war, they were created front brigades And theaters. In the most difficult wartime conditions, libraries, museums, and theaters continued to operate. Many cultural institutions were relocated from front-line areas to the East. Thus, Uzbekistan hosted 53 educational institutions and academic institutions, about 300 creative unions and organizations. Rare books from the library named after. IN AND. Lenin, the Foreign Language Library, and the Historical Library were taken to Kostanay. Paintings from the Russian Museum and the Tretyakov Gallery are located in Perm, and the treasures of the Hermitage are located in Sverdlovsk. By the end of 1941, about 60 theaters were evacuated to the eastern regions.

In the territory captured by the enemies, the network of educational institutions was virtually destroyed. Many children were temporarily deprived of the opportunity to study. The number of teaching staff has been reduced. However, the dedicated work of teachers made it possible not to interrupt their studies even in besieged cities (Leningrad, Odessa, Sevastopol). As Soviet territories were liberated from the occupiers, destroyed school buildings were restored and education was restored. Since 1943, the state has increased spending on culture. Measures were taken to combat homelessness. Arose boarding schools, The contingent of Suvorov and Nakhimov schools expanded. Were also created evening schools for working youth. In 1943 it arose Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR (with 1962, APN USSR).

Changes have occurred in higher education. Many large universities were evacuated. More than 300 universities that found themselves in the occupied territory were destroyed. The number of universities in the country decreased from 817 to 460. Student enrollment decreased by 41%, and the number of students decreased by 3.5 times. The state took measures to stabilize the student population: the training period for specialists was reduced to 3-3.5 years, and enrollment of girls in universities was expanded.

As Soviet territory was liberated, the network of educational institutions began to be restored. By the end of the 40s. The number of schools and students in them in the RSFSR reached pre-war levels. The restoration of some higher educational institutions began in 1943 and by the end of the war, their numbers and the number of students reached almost pre-war levels, mainly due to the expansion of higher education in Kazakhstan, Central Asia and Transcaucasia.

Science made a big contribution to the victory. The main directions of scientific research were: the study of military-technical problems, the introduction of scientific discoveries into production, and the concentration of the country's raw materials for the needs of the front. A group of scientists led by I.I. Alchkhanov(1904-1970) and D.V. Skobeltsyn(1892-1990) studied cosmic radiation. L.D. Landau(1908-1968) developed the theory of quantum fluid motion, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize. I.V. Kurchatov(1903-1960) worked on the creation of the atomic bomb.

Soviet geologists explored new deposits of minerals of strategic importance (manganese, bauxite, molybdenum).

A.P. Alexandrov(1903-1993) developed methods for demagnetizing ships. E.O. Paton(1870-1953) developed and introduced automatic welding of armor into production. Chemists have developed methods for producing acetone, alcohols, and plastics for weapons.

Scientists, designers, engineers and technicians worked to improve military weapons, creating weapons that were superior to German ones. Aircraft designers A.S. Yakovlev, A.P. Tupolev, F.A. Lavochkin, S.V. Ilyushin, N.N. Polikarpov, V.M. Petlyakov and others improved existing models of machines. At the end of the war, testing of jet aircraft began. Soviet tanks designed A.A. Morozov, Zh.Ya. Kostin, A.F. Shamshurin, in terms of combat qualities they were significantly superior to those in service with the enemy army.

Thanks to the dedicated work of medical workers, the mortality rate of the wounded has decreased. After treatment in hospitals, 70% of the wounded returned to duty.

Literature and art played a significant role in achieving victory, the leading theme of which was patriotism and citizenship. The works of M.A. Sholokhova, A.N. Tolstoy, L. Leonov, A. Fadeev, B. Polevoy, poetry K. Simonov, A. Tvardovsky, S. Marshak, V. Inber, N. Tikhonov. The plays " Front" A. Korneychuk, "Invasion" L. Leonova, "Russian people" K. Simonova.

During the war years, the art of music and, above all, the song genre developed. The songs were especially popular M. Blanter, I. Dunaevsky; B. Mokrousov, V. Solovyov-Sedogo, A. Alexandrov.

D.D. Shostakovich wrote an outstanding Seventh (Leningrad) Symphony, embodied the hatred of the Soviet people for the enemy and faith in victory.

Cinema, the most popular art form, paid special attention to the creation of documentaries that quickly responded to wartime events. Already at the end of 1941 the film was released "The defeat of German troops near Moscow"(dir. L. Varlamov and I. Kopalin). About 150 cameramen created the film epic of the Great Patriotic War. The heroic theme is embodied in feature films: "District Committee Secretary"(dir. I. Pyryev), "Invasion"(dir. A. Room), "Rainbow"(dir. M. Donskoy), "She defends the Motherland"(dir. F. Ermler), etc.

The cultural losses due to the war were enormous. Created in December 1941 from representatives of various organizations and cultural institutions, the Committee identified the damage caused by fascism to our country. More than 80 thousand schools, about 300 universities were destroyed, 430 museums, 44 thousand palaces of culture and libraries were looted. The estate-museums of L.N. were destroyed. Tolstoy in Yasnaya Polyana, A.S. Pushkin in Mikhailovsky, I.S. Turgenev in Spassky-Lutovinovo, P.I. Tchaikovsky in Klin. It was impossible to restore many cultural losses (manuscripts by P.I. Tchaikovsky, paintings by I.E. Repin, V.A. Serov, I.I. Shishkin, I.K. Aivazovsky). This could not but affect the development of the culture of Soviet society after the war.

The restoration of cities and villages destroyed during the Great Patriotic War was one of the most important stages in the development of Soviet architecture. In 1945, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR adopted a resolution on urgent measures to restore 15 largest cities, and later master plans for the development of 250 cities were developed.

With the end of the war, the hope of the Soviet people, who showed unprecedented heroism and courage, to weaken the administrative-command methods of leading society did not come true. The image of a country of a free and prosperous society was artificially implanted in artistic culture. However, although with great difficulty, the truth about reality made its way, and positive trends were noticeable in cultural life.

In the post-war period, the main task in the field of education was the introduction compulsory seven years learning for children. The training of teachers expanded, and the network of evening and correspondence education both in secondary schools and universities grew rapidly.

The factors that hampered the development of science were a disdainful attitude towards the achievements of scientific and technical thought in Western countries. Genetics was declared a pseudoscience. But conditions turned out to be favorable for the development of branches of science of defense importance: nuclear physics, radiation biology, biochemistry.

Meanwhile, the war, which gave a powerful impetus to creativity, encouraged writers to tell the truth about the war. The story became such works V. Nekrasova (1911-1986) "In the trenches of Stalingrad"(1946) and novel A. Fadeeva (1901-1956) "Young guard"(1945). However, very soon official criticism declared military topics unnecessary, distracting from the pressing tasks of reality.

The culture of Soviet society was in a state of crisis.

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Essay

Topic: Soviet science during the Great YearsABOUTGreat War

Introduction

The years of the Great Patriotic War are moving further into the past, but the victory of our people will forever remain in history as the greatest event, the influence of which on global development is enormous. Having united in the face of a common misfortune, forgetting about their own adversities, difficulties and deprivations, everyone rose to defend their Fatherland. Scientists also made a significant contribution to the defeat of the enemy, fulfilling their main task under extreme conditions - ensuring the unity and correctness of measurements in the country, which played a special role in the development of the defense industry.

On June 23, 1941, at an emergency meeting, the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences called on scientists to mobilize all forces to fight the Nazi invaders.

During the evacuation, academic and other research institutes retained their research teams. The war did not break the connection between science and life and production, but only changed the peaceful direction of scientific work.

The topics of scientific research were focused on three leading areas:

Development of military-technical problems,

Scientific assistance to industry,

Mobilization of raw materials, for which intersectoral commissions and committees were created.

The war years became a time of bold and original technical solutions, a high rise in the creative thought of scientists, engineers, designers, and workers.

The results of the activities of the USSR Academy of Sciences and other scientific institutions made it possible to continuously expand the production and raw material base, work on the design and modernization of military equipment, and its mass production.

The purpose of the work is to consider the activities of scientific institutions during the Great Patriotic War, their achievements and significance.

The work consists of an introduction, main part, conclusion and a list of sources used.

Already in the first months of the Great Patriotic War, many research institutes were forced to evacuate to the east: 76 research institutes, which included 118 academicians, 182 corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and thousands of researchers.

Their activities were directed by the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences, relocated to Sverdlovsk. Here in May 1942, at the general meeting of the Academy, the tasks facing scientists during the war were discussed. It included more than two hundred topics related to the tasks of the country's defense. The leading areas of scientific research were the development of military-technical problems, scientific assistance to industry, and the mobilization of raw materials, for which intersectoral commissions and committees were created.

Thus, already at the end of 1941, a commission was created to mobilize the resources of the USSR Academy of Sciences, uniting the efforts of scientists to effectively use the natural resources of individual regions of the country for defense needs - over 300 employees of the institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Kazan University, Kazan and Leningrad Institutes of Chemical Technology and factory laboratories. In difficult conditions, academic institutions directed all their efforts to help the front. The scientists showed dedication and courage, working twelve hours a day.

Thanks to geologists A.E. Fersman, K.I. Satpaev, V.A. Obruchev and others, new bauxite deposits in the Southern Urals, tungsten, molybdenum, copper, manganese deposits in Kazakhstan, large reserves were explored and developed in the shortest possible time oil in Tataria. The commission was headed by academicians A.A. Baykov, I.P. Bardin, S.G. Strumilin, M.A. Pavlov.

Somewhat later, a special commission of scientists headed by Academician E.A. Chudakov made important proposals for mobilizing the resources of the Volga and Kama regions.

Academician V.L. Komarov’s work “On the development of the national economy of the Urals during war” was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1942.

In close collaboration with practical engineers, scientists have found methods for high-speed smelting of metal in open-hearth furnaces, casting high-quality steel, and producing rolled products of a new standard. New grades of high-quality steel were obtained, new technologies were proposed in the military industry.

During the Great Patriotic War, scientists worked selflessly to create new, more advanced weapons, and developed new types of ammunition and fuel. There was a search for effective means of fighting the enemy.

In 1941, in combat operations on the Black Sea, the enemy used electromagnetic mines, conventional means of combating which turned out to be ineffective. A group of prominent scientists led by A.P. Alexandrov and I.V. Kurchatov created fundamentally new methods for demagnetizing warships and submarines, developed instructions for mine protection, which preserved the fleet and saved the lives of thousands of sailors. During the war, not a single ship demagnetized by scientists was blown up by enemy magnetic mines.

The creation of acoustic trawls - an effective means of combating enemy mines - was successfully carried out by another laboratory of the Lebedev Physical Institute, which was headed by N.N. Andreev. With their help, about forty warships of the Black and Baltic Seas were equipped with acoustic trawls. In 1942, scientists were awarded the Stalin Prize of the first degree.

During the war years, the creators of weapons and military equipment worked fruitfully. Particular attention was paid to improving the quality of artillery systems and mortars. In this area, great credit belongs to scientists and designers V.G. Grabin, I.I. Ivanov, M.Ya. Krupchatnikov and others.

Advances in the production of small arms were achieved with the leading role of designers N.E. Berezin, V.A. Degtyarev, S.G. Simonov, F.V. Tokarev, G.S. Shpagin.

A huge increase in the production of cartridges was achieved thanks to the use of automatic machines designed by the team of the Institute of Automation and Telemechanics of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

The calibers of tank and anti-tank artillery have almost doubled, and the armor penetration of shells has increased by approximately 5 times. The USSR exceeded Germany in terms of average annual production of field artillery by more than 2 times, mortars by 5 times, anti-tank guns by 2.6 times.

Defense factories have launched the production of new 76-mm cannon, 152-mm hull howitzer, 57-mm anti-tank gun, as well as self-propelled artillery units (self-propelled guns) of various calibers.

Soviet scientists managed to reduce the time required to develop and introduce new types of weapons many times over. Thus, the well-proven 152-mm howitzer was designed and manufactured in 1943 in 18 days, and its mass production was mastered in 1.5 months. About half of all types of small arms and the overwhelming number of new types of artillery systems in service with the active army in 1945 were created and launched in series during the war.

Thanks to the efforts of Soviet tank builders, especially the workers and engineers of the Ural "Tankograd", the enemy's advantage in armored vehicles was relatively quickly overcome. By 1943, the superiority of the Soviet Armed Forces in tanks and self-propelled artillery began to increase. Domestic tanks and self-propelled guns were significantly superior to their foreign counterparts in their combat characteristics. Enormous credit for their creation belonged to N.A. Astrov, N.L. Dukhov, Zh.Ya. Kotin, M.I. Koshkin, V.V. Krylov, N.A. Kucherenko, A.A. Morozov, L. S. Troyanov and others.

Aircraft designers, together with factory workers, managed to supply the front with a number of wonderful aircraft: fighters, attack aircraft, bombers. Work was carried out in the field of jet aviation. The first test flight of a Soviet jet aircraft designed by V.F. Bolkhovitinov, piloted by test pilot G.Ya. Bakhchi-vandzhi, took place in May 1942.

From the second half of 1942, the production of aircraft and aircraft engines steadily increased. The most popular aircraft of the Soviet Air Force was the Il-2 attack aircraft. Most Soviet combat aircraft were superior in performance to those of the German Air Force. During the war, 25 aircraft models (including modifications), as well as 23 types of aircraft engines, entered mass production.

Aircraft designers M.I. Gurevich, S.V. Ilyushin, S.A. Lavochkin, A.I. Mikoyan, V.M. Myasishchev, V.M. Petlyakov, N.N. contributed to the creation and improvement of new combat vehicles. Polikarpov, P.O. Sukhoi, A.N. Tupolev, A.S. Yakovlev, creators of aircraft engines V.Ya. Klimov, A.A. Mikulin, S.K. Tumansky.

The activities of medical scientists were of great importance: academicians N.N. Burdenko, A.N. Bakulev, L.A. Orbeli, A.I. Abrikosov, professor-surgeons S.S. Yudin and A.V. Vishnevsky and others, introducing into practice new methods and means of treating sick and wounded soldiers.

They managed to develop the principles and technology for the mass introduction of blood transfusions and the production of dry plasma, develop drugs that can accelerate wound healing, make devices for removing metal fragments from wounded people, etc.

Doctor of Medical Sciences V.K. Modestov made a number of important defense inventions, including the replacement of absorbent cotton wool with cellulose, the use of turbine oil as a base for the manufacture of ointments, etc.

Significant assistance to hospitals was provided by the Physiological Institute named after. Pavlova and the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology, headed by Academician L.A. Orbeli. The teams of these institutes invested a lot of work in improving the qualifications of hospital doctors and organized series of lectures on physiological and medical topics.

USSR scientists have achieved significant success in the field of biology and agriculture. They found new types of plant raw materials for industry and sought ways to increase the productivity of food and industrial crops. Thus, in the eastern regions of the country, the cultivation of sugar beets was urgently mastered.

During the war years, scientific research by agricultural scientists did not stop. In 1941-1945. Agriculture was experiencing serious difficulties - the flames of war were blazing across the vast expanses of the most productive lands of Ukraine. The war diverted significant human and material resources from agriculture. The entire burden of supplying the country with bread and food fell on the eastern regions, the republics of Central Asia.

Under these conditions, there was only one way out - to look for internal reserves, to use some new ways to replenish equipment and spare parts for it. It was necessary to fight to increase productivity on the same lands that were plowed before the war, to better combat weeds and agricultural pests, and to achieve an expansion of sown areas. In all this, agricultural practitioners needed the help of science.

The importance of agricultural science in solving the grain problem in the difficult climatic conditions of the Volga region cannot be overestimated. The leading role in its solution was played by the Research Institute of Grain Farming in the southeast of the USSR. The attention of agricultural scientists in the Volga region was focused on solving such problems as the development of new varieties of seeds; introduction into production of scientific achievements and best practices, scientifically based methods for increasing the yield of wheat, millet and other crops. During the war years, scientists at the Research Institute of Grain Farming in the southeast of the USSR developed and introduced over 40 new highly productive varieties of agricultural crops that had high yields, winter hardiness, and resistance against diseases in all weather conditions to the collective and state farms of the country.

A necessary condition for the successful development of the country's national economy was the continuous training of new personnel in universities and technical schools. In 1941, the number of universities decreased from 817 thousand to 460 thousand, their enrollment was halved, the number of students decreased by 3.5 times, and the duration of training was 3-3.5 years. However, by the end of the war, student numbers, especially as a result of increased enrollment of women, approached pre-war levels.

In addition, the country not only preserved, but even increased the network of scientific institutes and the number of scientists. In 1943, the West Siberian branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, and in 1944, the world's largest Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, were established.

In wartime conditions, the Academy’s scientists lived a full-blooded creative life: fundamental theoretical research did not stop, and the defense of candidate’s theses was successfully completed in all institutes.
and doctoral dissertations.

During the war years, one of the oldest scientists of the Academy of Sciences, V.I. Vernadsky, completed his fundamental work “The Chemical Structure of the Earth’s Biosphere and Its Environment,” in which he summed up the results of his many years of research in the field of biogeochemistry.

Astronomers successfully observed solar eclipses in 1941 and 1945.

Under the leadership of academicians A.I. Alikhanov and D.V. Skobeltsyn, the study of cosmic radiation was actively carried out.

In 1941-1942 L.D. Landau developed the theory of motion of a quantum liquid, for which he was subsequently awarded the Nobel Prize.

In 1944-1945 V.I. Veksler formulated the principle of acceleration of elementary particles, which formed the basis for the operation of modern accelerators.

A group of researchers from the Institute of Chemical Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, led by N.N. Semenov, successfully studied the mechanism of chain reactions.

At the beginning of 1943, under the leadership of I.V. Kurchatov, research in the field of uranium fission began. In the summer of 1943, a laboratory was opened at the USSR Academy of Sciences, uniting almost all nuclear scientists, where a technology for separating plutonium from irradiated uranium was developed. In the fall of 1944, under the leadership of Academician I.V. Kurchatov, a version of the atomic bomb with a spherical detonation “inside” was created, and at the beginning of 1945, a plutonium production plant was launched.

S.I. Vavilov, who simultaneously led two institutes - FIAN and the State Optical Institute, evacuated to Yoshkar-Ola, managed to unite their efforts to solve the most important defense problems. In 1942, employees of the luminescence laboratory, which was directly supervised by Vavilov, developed methods and means for blackout military installations. At one of the Kazan enterprises, the production of permanent light compositions was organized.

New blackout means were sent to aviation powder factories and were used to camouflage piers on the Volga. Together with his collaborator S.A. Fridman, Vavilov developed a series of specially designed fluorescent lamps for the Navy. Special optical devices were manufactured for aimed fire at night.

Important military topics related to radar were developed in the laboratory of N.D. Papaleksi. In the laboratory of B.M. Vul, a device was designed to combat aircraft icing.

G.S. Landsberg in the winter of 1941-42. organized optical workshops in one of the rooms of the Museum of Local Lore, where the production of steeloscopes was established. The devices were immediately handed over to representatives of defense factories and front-line repair units of the Red Army. In total, about a hundred devices were manufactured during the war before the resumption of industrial production.

One of the large departments of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology studied the electrical and thermal properties of semiconductors. His research was used in the manufacture of the “partisan pot” - a thermoelectric generator, which was intended to power radio stations in partisan detachments and reconnaissance groups.

An outstanding event in the scientific life of the Academy was the work of P.L. Kapitsa on the creation of new methods for achieving low temperatures and producing liquid oxygen. Arriving in Kazan in July 1941, the Institute of Physical Problems immediately began installing equipment and soon oxygen began to flow into Kazan hospitals. In Kazan, Kapitsa created the most powerful turbine plant in the world to produce it in large quantities needed in the military industry.

Institute of Chemical Physics, headed by Academician N.N. Semenov. deeply studied the processes of combustion and explosions. Valuable research in the field of the theory of combustion and detonation in gases was carried out by the young scientist Ya.B. Zeldovich, later three times Hero of Socialist Labor. Another employee of the institute, Professor Yu.B. Khariton, later also three times Hero of Socialist Labor, studied the combustion of propellant rockets for Katyusha rockets.

The Radium Institute was headed by V.G. Khlopin, where a method for producing light compositions using radiothorium was developed. With his direct participation, the processing of state radium reserves was carried out in order to isolate radiothorium for the production of light compounds necessary for the defense industry. In 1943, Khlopin and his colleagues were awarded the Stalin Prize for this work.

At the Institute of Organic Chemistry, Professor I.N. Nazarov developed carbinol glue, which is widely used for repairing military equipment in factories and in the field.

During the war years, many outstanding Soviet scientists headed institutes, laboratories and departments in research institutions and universities of the union and autonomous republics. They made a great contribution to the exploration and use of natural resources, the development of scientific research work and the training of scientific personnel in national regions. This contributed to the intensification of the activities of academic branches and bases, as well as the creation in October 1943 of the West Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Novosibirsk.

The evacuation of many leading scientific organizations to the eastern regions and their fruitful activities in new places had a positive impact on the development of science and culture there, and the training of national personnel. This allowed the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Council of People's Commissars to decide to create in 1943 the Kyrgyz branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Academies of Sciences in Armenia and Uzbekistan, and in 1945 in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan.

Conclusion

Victory in this great war was largely achieved thanks to the development of science and the creation of new advanced technologies.

Scientists have made significant contributions to solving such defense problems as:

Creation of new explosives and armor-piercing shells,

High strength armor for tanks,

More advanced optical instruments for aviation, artillery, tanks and submarines,

Increasing the speed and range of aircraft,

Improvement of radio equipment and radar devices,

New methods of producing fuel and plastics, etc.

In addition to military developments, scientists from such fields as medicine, biology, agriculture, chemistry, physics and many others made a significant contribution to the victory. The war years became a time of high growth in the creative thought of scientists, bold and original decisions of engineers, designers, and workers.

Scientists did their best to help the front, and not only with their scientific work in institutes and laboratories. Everyone, from the laboratory assistant to the academician, was a regular participant in numerous subbotniks and Sundays: they loaded coal, unloaded wagons and barges, cleared the airfield landing strip from snow...

Science during the war years was the long and hard work of thousands of scientists in conditions of constant mortal danger, the selfless work of employees, scientific and technical intelligentsia under extreme strain of spiritual and physical strength, often in conditions of hunger and cold.

Overall, the total contribution of science equaled a victory.

List of useds sources

1. Dmitrienko, V.P. The history of homeland. XX century: Manual for general education schools / V.P. Dmitrienko, V.D. Esakov, V.A. Shestakov. - M.: Bustard, 2002. - 640 p.

2. History of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union 1941-1945: A Brief History / ed. Pospelova P.N. - M.: Nauka, 1975. - 631 p.

3. History of the Fatherland. Part 2: Lectures for students / Edited by M.V. Zotova. - 2nd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Publishing house MGUP, 2001. - 208 p.

4. Lange, K. Physiological sciences in the USSR. Becoming. Development. Prospects / K. Lange. - L.: Nauka, 1988. - 479 p.

5. Levandovsky, A.A. Russia in the twentieth century: Textbook / A.A. Levandovsky, Yu.A. Shchetinov. - 5th ed. - M.: Education, 2001. - 368 p.

6. Makarenko, V.P. Etatization of science: Soviet experience / V.P. Makarenko // Jurisprudence. - 2006. - No. 2. - P.207-236.

7. Shirokov, G.A. Scientific research of agricultural scientists during the Great Patriotic War. 1941-1945 / G.A. Shirokov. - M.: SamSU. - 2007. - No. 5/3. - P.55.

Guerrilla movement

The front-line zone of enemy-occupied Soviet territory was under the control of the German military command. The rest was under the control of the civil administration. It was divided into 2 Reichskommissariat - “Ostland” and “Ukraine”. The first of them included almost the entire territory of the Baltic states and most of Belarus. The second contained most of Ukraine and some southern regions of Belarus. The administration of all Soviet territories captured by the enemy was carried out by the Reich Ministry of Eastern Regions, headed by Rosenberg. From among local collaborators, the fascists created local “self-governments”, “volost councils” headed by elders, and appointed village elders and policemen. Local authorities were appendages of the occupation authorities. In the occupied lands, the occupiers introduced a military-convict regime of terror, violence, robbery and exploitation. The occupiers killed and tortured 6.8 million civilians, 3.9 million prisoners of war, and deported 4.3 million people to Germany. Therefore, the fight against the invaders at the first stage was organized largely spontaneously, hastily, already during the war. It was distinguished by serious shortcomings: there was no single center for the leadership of the partisan movement, the detachments were poorly armed and poorly organized, the majority of partisan detachments and underground groups had no connection with the Soviet rear.

The first partisan detachments began to be created in the summer of 1941. The first partisan detachment in Belarus was the Red October detachment. The detachment commander T. Bumazhkov and his deputy F. Pavlovsky were the first among the partisans to be awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. From the end of 1941, in a number of areas, the unification of small detachments into larger ones began. In the area of Lake Ilmen, the first “partisan region” was created, which controlled more than 300 settlements. By the end of 1941, more than 2 thousand partisan detachments with a total number of over 90 thousand people were operating in the occupied territory. They disorganized the rear of Hitler's troops in all directions of the Soviet-German front. By the summer of 1942, the leadership of the partisan movement was centralized. On May 30, 1942, at the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command, the State Defense Committee created the Central Headquarters of the partisan movement, the head of which was appointed the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Belarus (Bolsheviks) P. Ponomarenko, and republican headquarters. Headquarters of the partisan movement were also created at the military councils of the fronts. They coordinated the actions of the partisans and underground fighters with the actions of the Red Army, generalized and disseminated the accumulated experience of the struggle, developed plans for major operations, trained specialists for the detachments, organized the supply of weapons, ammunition, medicines, etc. to the partisans. Since the fall of 1942, partisan raids began to be carried out deep behind enemy lines, the purpose of which was to intensify the partisan movement in the occupied territory, consolidate partisan formations (into regiments and brigades) and strike at enemy communications and manpower. In September-November 1942, deep raids were undertaken by two formations of Ukrainian partisans under the command of S.A. Kovpak and A.N. Saburova. During the strategic offensive in the summer-autumn of 1943, Operation Rail War was organized. For the first time in the history of wars, the partisans carried out a series of major operations to disable enemy railway communications over a large area in close connection with the actions of the country's Armed Forces. For a long time, the partisans disabled more than 2 thousand km of communications routes, bridges and various types of railway equipment behind enemy lines. This provided significant assistance to Soviet troops during the battles near Kursk, Orel and Kharkov. There were also national detachments in the partisan formations. By the end of 1943, there were 122 thousand partisans in Belarus, 43.5 thousand in Ukraine, 35 thousand in the Leningrad region, and more than 25 thousand in the Oryol region. , in Crimea - more than 11 thousand, in Lithuania - about 10 thousand, in Estonia - 3 thousand. The partisan army reached its maximum strength by the summer of 1944 - 280 thousand people. Then most of the partisans became part of the active army. During the Nazi occupation, Soviet partisans and underground fighters destroyed, wounded, captured about 1 million fascists and their accomplices, caused more than 18 thousand train wrecks behind enemy lines, blew up and disabled 42 thousand cars, 9,400 locomotives, 85 thousand wagons and platforms defeated many enemy garrisons. More than 230 partisans and underground fighters were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, of whom S.A. became Heroes of the Soviet Union twice. Kovpak and A.F. Fedorov. The selfless struggle of the Soviet people behind enemy lines was one of the important factors that ensured the victory of the Soviet Union in the Great Patriotic War.

Soviet rear during the Great Patriotic War. Transferring the country's economy to a war footing 5-11-2009, 00:48 |

Not only military units, but also all home front workers took part in the fight against the fascist invaders. The difficult task of supplying the troops with everything necessary fell on the shoulders of the people in the rear. The army had to be fed, clothed, shoed, and continuously supplied to the front with weapons, military equipment, ammunition, fuel and much more. All this was created by home front workers. They worked from dark to dark, enduring hardships every day. Despite the difficulties of wartime, the Soviet rear coped with the tasks assigned to it and ensured the defeat of the enemy. The leadership of the Soviet Union, with the unique diversity of the country's regions and an insufficiently developed communications system, managed to ensure the unity of the front and rear, the strictest execution discipline at all levels with unconditional subordination to the center. The centralization of political and economic power made it possible for the Soviet leadership to concentrate its main efforts on the most important, decisive areas. The motto is “Everything for the front, everything for victory over the enemy!” did not remain just a slogan, it was put into practice. Under the conditions of state ownership domination in the country, the authorities managed to achieve maximum concentration of all material resources, carry out a rapid transition of the economy to a war footing, and carry out an unprecedented transfer of people, industrial equipment, and raw materials from areas threatened by the German occupation to the east. The foundation for the future victory of the USSR was laid even before the war. The difficult international situation and the threat of an armed attack from outside forced the Soviet leadership to strengthen the defense capability of the state. The authorities purposefully, neglecting in many ways the vital interests of the people, prepared the Soviet Union to repel aggression. Much attention was paid to the defense industry. New factories were built, existing enterprises producing weapons and military equipment were reconstructed. During the pre-war five-year plans, the domestic aviation and tank industry was created, and the artillery industry was almost completely updated. Moreover, even then, military production was developing at a faster rate than other industries. Thus, if during the Second Five-Year Plan the production of the entire industry increased by 2.2 times, then the defense industry increased by 3.9 times. In 1940, costs for strengthening the country's defense capacity amounted to 32.6% of the state budget. Germany's attack on the USSR required the country to transfer its economy to a war footing, i.e. development and maximum expansion of military production. The beginning of a radical structural restructuring of the economy was laid by the “Mobilization National Economic Plan for the Third Quarter of 1941,” adopted at the end of June. Since the measures listed in it turned out to be insufficient for the economy to begin to work for the needs of the war, another document was urgently developed: “Military economic plan for the IV quarter of 1941 and for 1942 for the regions of the Volga region, the Urals, Western Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia”, approved on August 16. Providing for the transfer of the economy to a military footing, taking into account the current situation at the front and in the country, he played an important role in increasing the production of weapons, ammunition, production of fuels and lubricants and other products of primary importance, in the relocation of enterprises from the front line to the east, and in the creation of state reserves. The economy was being rebuilt in conditions when the enemy was rapidly advancing into the interior of the country, and the Soviet armed forces were suffering enormous human and material losses. Of the 22.6 thousand tanks available on June 22, 1941, by the end of the year only 2.1 thousand remained, of 20 thousand combat aircraft - 2.1 thousand, of 112.8 thousand guns and mortars - only about 12 ,8 thousand, out of 7.74 million rifles and carbines - 2.24 million. Without replacing such losses, and in the shortest possible time, an armed struggle against the aggressor would simply become impossible. When part of the country's territory was occupied or engulfed in hostilities, all traditional economic ties were disrupted. This had a particularly strong impact on enterprises producing cooperative products - castings, forgings, electrical equipment and electrical equipment. The extremely unfavorable course of affairs at the front also caused such a measure, which was completely not provided for by pre-war plans, as the transfer of people, industrial enterprises, and material assets to the east from the western and central regions of the country. On June 24, 1941, the Evacuation Council was created. Under the pressure of circumstances, mass evacuation had to be carried out almost simultaneously from Belarus, Ukraine, the Baltic states, Moldova, Crimea, the North-Western, and later the Central industrial regions. The People's Commissariat of key industries were forced to evacuate almost all factories. Thus, the People's Commissariat of the Aviation Industry removed 118 factories (85% of capacity), the People's Commissariat of Armaments - 31 out of 32 enterprises. 9 main factories of the tank industry were dismantled, 2/3 of the production capacity for gunpowder was converted. By the end of 1941, more than 10 million people, over 2.5 thousand, were evacuated to the rear. enterprises, as well as other material and cultural assets. This required more than 1.5 million railway cars. If they could be lined up in one line, they would cover the route from the Bay of Biscay to the Pacific Ocean. In the shortest possible time (on average, after one and a half to two months), the evacuated enterprises began to work and began to provide the products necessary for the front. Everything that could not be removed was mostly destroyed or rendered inoperable. Therefore, the enemy was never able to fully use the empty factory workshops, blown up power plants, destroyed blast furnaces and open-hearth furnaces, flooded mines and mines in the occupied territory. The relocation and restoration of industrial enterprises in difficult war conditions is the greatest achievement of the Soviet people. Essentially, an entire industrial country was moved east. The core around which the economy developed during the war was the defense industry, created in peacetime. Since its capacities were clearly not enough to meet the urgent needs of the active army, from the very first days of the war thousands of civilian factories switched to producing military products in accordance with previously developed mobilization plans. Thus, tractor and automobile factories mastered the assembly of tanks with relative ease. The Gorky Automobile Plant began producing light tanks. Since the summer of 1941, the production of the T-34 medium tank at the Stalingrad Tractor Plant increased significantly, which continued until the Germans reached the Volga in August 1942. Chelyabinsk became the largest machine-tool center, where, on the basis of the local tractor plant, as well as equipment evacuated from Leningrad A multi-profile tank production association was formed at the Kirov and Kharkov diesel plants and a number of other enterprises. People quite rightly called it “Tankograd”. Until the summer of 1942, KV-1 heavy tanks were produced here, then T-34 medium tanks. Another powerful center of Russian tank building on the basis of Uralvagonzavod was deployed in Nizhny Tagil. This center provided the active army with the largest number of T-34 tanks during the entire war. In Sverdlovsk, at the Uralmashplant, where previously mainly unique large-sized vehicles were created, serial production of hulls and turrets for heavy KV tanks began. Thanks to these measures, the tank industry was able to produce 2.8 times more combat vehicles in the second half of 1941 than in the first. On July 14, 1941, Katyusha rocket mortars were used for the first time near the city of Orsha. Their widespread production began in August 1941. In 1942, Soviet industry produced 3,237 rocket launchers, which made it possible to equip guards mortar units at the Headquarters of the Supreme High Command. Special attention was paid to the production of such complex military equipment as aircraft, which requires a high level of precision. Since August 1940, the People's Commissariat of the Aviation Industry has transferred more than 60 operating factories from other industries. In general, by the beginning of the war, the USSR aviation industry had large production capacities, hundreds of thousands of highly qualified workers and specialists. However, most of the aircraft factories were located in such a way that already in the first weeks and months of the war they had to be urgently evacuated to the east. Under these conditions, the growth in aircraft production was primarily due to exported and newly built aircraft factories. In a short time, agricultural engineering factories became the basis for the mass production of mortars. Many civilian industrial enterprises switched to the production of small arms and artillery weapons, as well as ammunition and other types of military products. Due to the loss of Donbass and the damage caused to the Moscow region coal basin, the fuel problem in the country has sharply worsened. The leading suppliers of coal, which was the main type of fuel at that time, were Kuzbass, Ural and Karaganda. In connection with the partial occupation of the USSR, the issue of providing the national economy with electricity became acute. After all, its production by the end of 1941 was reduced by almost half. In the country, especially in its eastern regions, the energy base did not satisfy the rapidly growing military production. Because of this, many enterprises in the Urals and Kuzbass could not fully use their production capabilities. In general, the restructuring of the Soviet economy on a war footing was carried out in an unusually short time - within one year. Other warring states took much longer to do this. By mid-1942, most of the evacuated enterprises in the USSR were working at full capacity for defense, and 850 newly built factories, workshops, mines, and power plants were producing products. The lost capacity of the defense industry was not only restored, but also significantly increased. In 1943, the main task was solved - to surpass Germany in the quantity and quality of military products, the output of which in the USSR by that time exceeded the pre-war level by 4.3 times, and in Germany - only 2.3 times. Soviet science played a major role in the development of military production. For the needs of the front, the work of research institutions of the industrial people's commissariats and the USSR Academy of Sciences was restructured. Scientists and designers created new models of weapons, improved and modernized existing military equipment. All technical innovations were introduced into production at a rapid pace. Successes in the development of the military economy made it possible in 1943 to accelerate the rearmament of the Red Army with the latest military equipment. The troops received tanks, self-propelled guns, aircraft, a fair amount of artillery, mortars, and machine guns; no longer have an urgent need for ammunition. At the same time, the share of new models reached 42.3% in small arms, 83% in artillery, more than 80% in armored weapons, and 67% in aviation. By subordinating the national economy to the needs of war, the Soviet Union was able to provide the Red Army with high-quality weapons and ammunition in the quantities necessary to achieve victory.

Despite the war, Kazakhstani science was actively developing; during the Great Patriotic War, the Kazakh Academy of Sciences was formed in the republic (1945).

During the war years, the following scientific institutions were created in the republic: in 1942, the Institute of the Language of Literature and History, later the Institute of Language and Literature and the Institute of History were formed from it. In the same 1942, the Chemical-Metallurgical Institute was formed, later it was divided into the Institute of Chemistry and the Institute of Metallurgy and Enrichment, and in 1943-1945 the Institutes of Soil Science and Botany, Zoology and Regional Pathology. Also during these years, 75 scientific institutions, laboratories and stations operated in the republic. During the evacuation period, 20 large scientific research centers were located on the territory of Kazakhstan (Institute of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences).

Despite such significant successes in the development of science, it should be noted that most scientific research was aimed at increasing the efficiency of mining coal, lead, and copper. And also to increase the production capacity of existing factories. So, during these years, a group of academicians carried out work to mobilize the resources of the Urals and Rudny Altai.

Expeditions from the KAZFAN Institute of Geology identified new deposits of non-ferrous metals, the group of Academician Satpayev discovered and explored reserves of metal ores, and justified the construction of a new large metallurgical plant in central Kazakhstan.

Chemists have developed new methods for producing fertilizers from Karatau phosphorites and processing local types of oil. Through their efforts, the production of a number of reagents necessary for the production of steel was established. Genetic scientists conducted research on the development of new varieties of winter wheat and new varieties of vegetable and melon crops. Isenzhulov and Butarin worked on developing new breeds of livestock.

History also developed actively during this period, Soviet scientists collected material on the Great Patriotic War, and in 1943 the book “The History of Kazakhstan from Ancient Times to the Present Day” was published in Kazakhstan. Some of Lenin’s works are being translated into Kazakh: “The Military Program of the Proletarian Revolution”, etc. In general, the science of Kazakhstan, despite the difficulties of the war period, has made significant strides forward, and has also strengthened in the personnel issue. Such a rapid development of Kazakhstani science is, first of all, due to the fact that during the war, many prominent scientists of that time were on the territory of our republic.

During the war years, schools and institutions of higher education faced an extremely difficult situation. This had its own reasons, namely: lack of premises; part of the school premises was given over to hospitals and partly to defense enterprises. As a result, schools, and many higher educational institutions, were forced to switch to 2-3 shift teaching. And this is in a situation where there is a sharp reduction in the number of students. Which led to the closure of many teachers' schools and institutes. During the war, there was an acute shortage of teaching staff; most teachers of military age were sent to the front. But, despite such a difficult situation, school teams made every effort to provide more education to children. Particular attention was paid to orphans, front-line soldiers and war veterans.

Particular attention was paid to general education subjects, such as the Russian language, mathematics and history. Much attention was paid to control over the quality of knowledge; examinations were introduced in primary grades, seven-year schools, and a matriculation certificate in secondary schools. Starting from the forty-third year, measures have been taken to strengthen the educational base. The network of evening schools is expanding, and measures are being taken to return school buildings. Tuition fees for Kazakh students in schools, technical schools, and universities are cancelled. At the beginning of the war, there were 20 universities and 110 secondary educational institutions in the country. Which during the war years continued to actively train personnel. In addition to them, over 20 universities and 16 technical schools were evacuated to the republic. Among the evacuated universities were the following: Moscow Aviation Institute, Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute of Signaling and Communications, Crimean Medical Institute, Ukrainian State University. During the war years, these universities graduated more than 900 specialists.

Thus, we know that during the war years, the science of Kazakhstan not only did a lot for the front, ensuring victory with its scientific research, but also significantly advanced.

The main theme of literary subjects during this period was war, the heroic struggle of the Soviet people against the invaders. The poetry of this period glorified the courage of the Soviet soldier and confidence in victory over fascism. And also the great role in the victory of Comrade Stalin. Wartime poets managed to create a vivid image of a fascist, whom they compared to a snake and other scaly abominations.

During these years, Amanzholov’s lyrical “Poem about the Great Patriotic War”, Ormanov’s poems “For the Motherland” and many others became widely known. A special place in the literature of this era is occupied by the work of the famous Kazakh poet Dzhambul, his vivid poems: “My children of Leningrad,” “Order of the Motherland,” “Moscow,” etc. They are well known not only to Kazakhs, but also to all the peoples of the former USSR. Following the work of Dzhambul are the works of front-line writers: B. Mamush-uly, Gabdulin, Snegin, Kuznetsov.

Another layer of literary creativity was the glorification of heroic labor, home front workers. The works of M. Auezov are dedicated to this: “When the Motherland Calls”, “The Mighty Song of the Conveyor”. Mustafin and Abishev also dedicated a number of their works to home front workers, those young guys who went to the mines, to oil rigs, to the fields, replacing their fathers and brothers who went to the front. The following works are devoted to this topic: “Shygynak” and “Fire Mountain”.

The war, despite all the difficulties, accelerated the formation of distinctive Kazakh art. By the beginning of the war, 37 theatrical and musical associations operated in Kazakhstan. And with the beginning of the war, 23 artistic groups from Moscow, Kyiv, Leningrad and other cities of the Soviet Union were evacuated to Kazakhstan. These groups included many stage talents. The cooperation of these groups with local ones accelerated the emergence of Kazakh art as distinctive.

An event in the cultural life of this period was the completion of the construction of the State Opera and Ballet Theater named after Abai in 1941. Works in both Russian and Kazakh languages were staged on the stage of this theater. Recently, in 1942, the premiere of Sabit Mukanov’s heroic work “Guard Alga!” took place. The music for this opera was written by the author of the music of the Kazakhstan anthem, Brusilovsky. He was also the author of music for “Amangeldy” and “Abai” and many other works. In Kazakh theaters of this period, as in literature, the central theme was the struggle of the Soviet people against the fascist invaders. On the stages of the theaters, scenes of the feat of the 8th Guards Division named after General Panfilov were played out: “Namys Guardiyasy.” But in addition to battle works, theaters also staged works by Tchaikovsky, Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”, as well as works by other peoples of the USSR.

The productions of the Moscow Mossovet Theater and the Ukrainian Theater of the Order of Lenin were very popular among the audience.

Musical culture also did not differ from theater and literature. The main theme here was also the fight against the fascists. During this period, musical works by Brusilovsky “Sary-Arka”, Dina Nurpeisova “Voice of the Motherland”, M. Tulebaev “Zhoryk” Campaign were created. The team of the Kazakh State Philharmonic performed actively. During the war years, her groups gave over 300 concerts at large factories and collective farms. 14 front-line brigades of artists toured the fronts.

Under the influence of artists from Moscow and Leningrad, the painting of Kazakhstan was enriched. Cinema played a prominent role in the rise of patriotism. During the war years, such films as “Alexander Nevsky”, “Ivan the Terrible”, etc. were shot in Kazakhstan. Masters from Mosfilm and Lenfilm played a prominent role in the development of our national cinema.

Science of the USSR during the war. Education and science during the Great Patriotic War

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