There are different research methods in geography. Describe traditional research methods in physical geography

And regional studies use methods and knowledge, conclusions of other sciences for their own development and at the same time enrich these branches of knowledge with their data.

Method is a way of knowing, studying natural phenomena and social life (from the Greek methods).

In the research of regional economics, economic geography and regional studies, a complex of scientific methods is used, the main of which are system analysis, cartographic, balance sheet, historical-comparative, statistical and econometric methods, etc.

System analysis

System analysis is a universal technology for solving management problems. In economic geography and regional studies, the main problems are [[Location of productive forces | placement]] and development.

System analysis- a method of scientific research in which a comprehensive study of the structure of the economy and internal relationships is complemented by the study of their interaction.

Final conclusions are drawn based on the comparison of forward and backward connections. System analysis is a comprehensive analysis that uses the principle of stages, starting from goal setting, defining tasks, formulating a scientific hypothesis, to a comprehensive study of the features of the optimal production location option. In this case, the optimality criterion is the effectiveness of the option, as well as maximum satisfaction of the needs of the population.

System analysis is the most developed area of system research in economics, which requires a more detailed presentation of its methodology.

Cartographic method

is a graphical way of presenting information about the location and development of natural, demographic, socio-economic and other objects in a certain territory.

In economic geography, it is a source of enrichment with information on the location and economics of regions. It allows you to visualize the placement features. Thanks to the use of maps, map diagrams, cartograms, cartograms, not only the location features are consciously perceived and remembered, but also statistical materials characterizing the levels of development of industries and regions. A map is the most modern and effective way of presenting information for preparing and making decisions.

The cartographic method occupies a special place in economic-geographical and regional studies. At its essence, a map is a graphical model of a territory. At the same time, the cartographic method is not only a means for revealing spatial relationships, but often the final goal of the study. According to N.N. Baransky. “every geographical research starts from a map and comes to a map, it begins with a map and ends with a map, a map is the second language of geography.”

Economic cartography deals with mapping actually existing socio-economic systems and their elements. Methods of displaying socio-economic objects include: the icon method, the method of linear signs and movement lines, the method of areas, the method of qualitative background, the method of isolines (image using lines connecting points on the map with the same quantitative indicators), point method (image of the concentration of objects ) etc. The combination of different methods makes it possible to develop statistical maps, while the sources of information are statistical collections and geographical maps.

Statistical maps are a type of graphic images of statistical data on a schematic geographical map, characterizing the level or degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon in a certain territory.

The means of depicting territorial placement are shading, background coloring or geometric shapes. In statistical maps, a distinction is made between cartograms and cartodiagrams.

Cartogram - this is a schematic geographical hag on which, by shading of varying density, dots or coloring of a certain degree of saturation, the comparative intensity of any indicator within each unit of the mapped territorial division is shown (for example, population density by region or republic, distribution of regions by grain yield and etc.)

Cartograms are divided into background and point.

Background cartogram- a type of cartogram on which shading of varying density or coloring of a certain degree of saturation shows the intensity of any indicator within a territorial unit.

Accurate cartogram - a type of cartogram where the level of a selected phenomenon is depicted using dots. A point represents one unit of a population or a certain number of them, showing on a geographical map the density or frequency of occurrence of a certain characteristic.

Background cartograms are used to depict average or relative indicators, point maps are used for volumetric (quantitative) indicators (population, livestock, etc.).

The second large group of statistical maps consists of cartographic diagrams, which are a combination of diagrams with a geographic map. As pictorial signs in map diagrams, diagrammatic figures are used, which are placed on the contour of a geographic map. Map diagrams make it possible to geographically reflect more complex statistical and geographical constructions than cartograms.

There are map diagrams of simple comparison, graphs of spatial movements, isolines.

On simple comparison chart Unlike a regular diagram, the diagrammatic figures depicting the values of the indicator under study are not arranged in a row. as on a regular chart, but are distributed throughout the map in accordance with the area, region or country that they represent.

Elements of the simplest cartodiagram can be found on a political map, where cities are distinguished by various geometric shapes depending on the number of inhabitants.

Isolines(from the Greek isos - equal, identical, similar) - these are lines of equal value of any quantity in its distribution on the surface, in particular on a geographical hag or graph. The isoline reflects a continuous change in the value under study depending on two other variables and is used in mapping natural and socio-economic phenomena. Isolines are used to obtain quantitative characteristics of the studied quantities and analyze correlations between them.

Balance sheet method

Balance sheet method— equalization of quantitative information about various aspects of the development of the object, phenomenon or process under study.

Drawing up industry and regional balances allows you to select the correct relationships between industries of market specialization, industries that complement the territorial complex, i.e. providing both the needs of leading industries and the needs of the population, and service sectors. Balances are also necessary for the development of rational interregional and intraregional connections. Drawing up sectoral and regional balances makes it possible to establish the level of integrated development of the region and the presence of imbalances in its development. Examples of balances: production and consumption of products, import and export of regional products, balance of labor resources, natural resources, etc.

Of particular importance in economic-geographical research is the model interindustry balance (IB), also known as the input-output model. The input balance was first developed by Soviet statisticians in 1924-1925. In the 1930s The American economist (Russian by birth) V. Leontiev proposed his own version of this model, adapted to the conditions of a capitalist economy, which became widely known as the “input-output” model.

The model is described as follows:

A * X + Y = X

A - direct cost matrix;
X is the vector of gross output;
Y is the vector of final market demand.

The main purpose of this model is to substantiate a rational version of the sectoral structure of the economy of the region under study (or the national economy as a whole) based on optimizing inter-industry flows, minimizing costs and maximizing final products.

Historical-comparative method

Historical-comparative is a method that involves studying the location of productive forces in the spatiotemporal aspect. The historical-comparative method includes two directions - the method of the historical approach and the comparative-geographical method.

Subject historical approach method is the genesis of the system, its emergence, formation, cognition, development. This method is based primarily on literary, stock, and museum sources of information.

Comparative geographical method - a method for comparing countries, regions, cities, economic results, development parameters, demographic characteristics. This method replaces experiment, allows you to determine the causes, assess the influence of conditions and factors on the development of the objects under study. Comparison can be in space and time. The comparative geographical method is the basis for forecasting, by analogy, the development of socio-economic processes.

Statistical and econometric methods

Statistical methods based on the application of statistical analysis methods in economic geography and regional studies. Particularly widely used in economic-geographical research are the methods of calculating indices, sampling, correlation and regression analysis. Statistical methods are related to econometric methods.

Econometrics - is a scientific discipline that studies the quantitative aspects of economic phenomena and processes by means of mathematical and statistical analysis. Econometrics covers all aspects of the application of mathematical methods in economics, identifies, constructs and studies specific quantitative dependencies of some economic indicators on others, using statistical methods to process information and assess the likelihood of constructions, and mathematical methods to analyze them.

The application of mathematical methods in economic geography and the development of spatial econometrics is mainly carried out in the following areas.

1. Mathematical methods in population geography:

modeling of population reproduction;
population migration assessment;
modeling the effective use of labor resources.

2. Mathematical methods in the study of settlement systems:

mathematical models of population density;
spatial influence of settlements;
mathematical-geographical method for determining stages of development in the system of urban settlements.

3. Application of mathematical methods in the study of production-territorial systems.

4. Modeling the processes of self-organization of territorial socio-economic systems.

5. Modeling the process of innovation waves in the placement and development of productive forces.

6. Modeling of territorial proportions of Russian economic development.

7. Modeling of placement by industry.

8. Modeling the formation of regional economic complexes.

In economic geography, which is closely related to economics, urban planning, regional planning, and sociological disciplines (i.e., those areas of knowledge in which quantitative assessment and research methods are actively used), theoretical models and schemes for the development of territorial socio-economic objects are widely developed. The geographical approach to modeling geosystems does not imply the simple addition of a large number of different elements: enterprises, settlements. groups of people, etc., but the study of relationships in the context of dynamically updated external and internal conditions for the development of the region. The integrity of the geosystem presupposes the property of their emergence. that additional effect in their functioning, which is formed as a result of the systemic interaction of its structural elements. The development of computer technologies and mathematical modeling has led to the fact that at the present stage, for economic-geographical problems, many software products are offered, with the help of which you can solve a wide range of problems in the field of classification and zoning of territory, determining dynamic trends to highlight the main trends, choosing the area of the most effective strategies for the placement of economic and social structures.

Mathematical modeling has an important advantage over the traditional approach - it ensures the objectivity of the consequences of the accepted initial conditions.

There are expert computer systems that combine the qualitative ideas of an expert economic geographer with the potential of a computer knowledge base, which makes it possible to develop the most effective decisions on the placement and development of productive forces in conditions of significant uncertainty in the external environment. The ideas of an integrated approach to traditional methods using mathematical modeling methods are implemented in geographic information systems (GIS) and in geographic information technologies (GIT). The main elements of GIS are database management systems (DBMS), systems for their cartographic representation, a set of mathematical models of territorial and economic structures, an expert knowledge system, and a user interface that allows expert changes in the development parameters of territorial and functional objects. A characteristic feature of GIS is its adaptability to various situations, the mobility of its reconfiguration from one territory to another, the ability to accumulate and process information, self-learning and the ability to recognize various problem situations.

In economic geography and regional studies, other methods and models are also used. For example, expert methods based on the use of expert opinions, methods of economic analysis, forecasting, management decision-making and others. Some of them are considered to be methods of regional analysis and modeling of the regional economy (the technology of their application is discussed in the fourth chapter).

The variety of methods of economic-geographical research necessitates their application in accordance with the technology of systemic analysis of the problems of development of economic-geographical objects.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….	3
Chapter 1. Modern geographical research………………………	5
Modern research in geography…………………………….	5
The role of methods in modern geography……………………………………………………………….
Chapter 2. Latest research methods……………………………………	13
2.1. The essence of forecasting and mathematical modeling………………………………………………………………
2.2. Aerospace and geoinformation method……………………	18
Chapter 3. Main directions of using the latest research methods………………………………………………………..
3.1. Modern directions and problems of using mathematical modeling and forecasting in geography…………………………………………………………………………………………
3.2. Prospects for GIS technology and aerospace methods…………………………………………………………….………………………….
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..	29
Literature……………………………………………………………………..	30

Introduction

Modern geography is a complex branched system, or “family” of sciences - natural (physical-geographical) and social (economic-geographical), connected by a common origin and common goals. As long as undiscovered lands existed, geography did not face the urgent task of explaining the world. A superficial description of the various territories was enough for the study to be considered geographical. But the rapid growth of human economic activity required penetration into the secrets of nature.

One of the most important tasks of modern geography is the study of the processes of interaction between nature and society in order to scientifically substantiate the rational use of natural resources and preserve favorable conditions for human life on our planet. New tasks set for science required improvement of the principles and methods of obtaining and processing information about geographical phenomena, methods of theoretical generalizations and forecasting. In this regard, methods such as mathematical modeling and forecasting are being introduced. In addition, the modern period of development of a civilized society is characterized by the process of informatization. This contributed to the emergence of such research methods as aerospace and geoinformation.

The relevance of the topic is due to the need to use the latest research methods to significantly expand the capabilities of humanity and the boundaries of the unknown.

Purpose of the work: to identify the main directions of development of the latest methods of geography.

The object of the study is the latest methods.

Subject of research: studying the application of the latest methods in solving problems posed by modern geography.

Main goals:

Analyze the list of modern geographical research methods;
Describe the method of mathematical modeling and forecasting;
Reveal the essence of the aerospace and geoinformation method;
Determine the role and main directions of use and development of the latest methods of geography.

When writing the work, the following methods were used: literature review, method of analysis and synthesis of scientific and methodological literature.

Chapter 1. Modern geographical research

Modern research V geography

For a long time, geographers were mainly concerned with describing the nature of the earth's surface, the population and economy of countries. Now there are no places on Earth about the nature and population of which people know absolutely nothing. Researchers have climbed the highest mountains, descended to the bottom of the deepest ocean trenches, seen the Earth from space and taken satellite photographs of its surface. Currently, a significant part of the earth's surface has been developed by humanity. Nature and man, his life and activity are closely connected and depend on each other.

But even now there are white spots on Earth waiting to be discovered. True, now the unknown belongs more to the sphere of explanation, rather than description of objects and phenomena. If in the past a geographical discovery meant the first visit to a particular object (continent, island, strait, mountain peak, etc.) by representatives of peoples who had writing and were able to characterize this object or put it on a map, now a geographical discovery is understood not only territorial, but also theoretical discovery in the field of geography, the establishment of new geographical patterns.

Modern geography plays a very important role in solving the problems of the development of our planet. A holistic system of geographical science provides constant monitoring of the current state of nature, takes part in the development of a system of measures to combat the negative consequences of human impact on nature, and also makes forecasts for changes and development of territorial production complexes. It is absolutely impossible to make a real forecast of changes in nature without taking into account data on human economic activity and its impact on nature. It is also impossible to determine the development policy of a region without taking into account the characteristics of its population and nature. Solving these problems necessarily requires the introduction of modern research methods.
Our human society has entered a period of dominance of microelectronics, biotechnology and computer science, which are radically transforming all agricultural and industrial production.

The economic activity of people has grown so much that it has become noticeable throughout the entire Earth. The use of natural resources has become very rapid and on a huge scale. Walking around the planet, people often leave unpleasant traces: cut down forests, depleted soils, poisoned rivers, polluted air. But human living conditions become unfavorable and sometimes harmful to health.

Therefore, now the primary task of geography is to predict changes in nature as a result of diverse human intervention in it.

In our time, geography is no longer the same as it used to be, a predominantly descriptive science, where the main object of research was then unknown lands and countries. “The times of so-called “romantic” geography are gone forever. Man came, traveled, sailed almost the entirety of our, as it turned out, not a very large planet and, moreover, now constantly inspects it from space. Therefore, modern geography seems to be experiencing its new birth. The place of the former descriptiveness in it has been firmly taken, so to speak, by constructiveness and predictability, because The development of production and profound socio-economic transformations in the world have forced scientists to radically reconsider their views on the very essence of this science, its goals, objectives, and research methods.”1

Our science now faces new tasks: to understand the interaction of nature and human activity. Nowadays, geography studies nature with the aim of preserving it in the process of economic use, which is especially important during the period of the scientific and technological revolution.

The efforts of many geographers in our time are aimed at studying environmental problems.

Modern geography is increasingly turning into a science of an experimental and transformative nature. She plays an important role in the development of the largest general scientific problem of the relationship between nature and society. The scientific and technological revolution, which has caused a sharp increase in human impact on natural and production processes, urgently requires taking this impact under strict scientific control, which means, first of all, the ability to foresee the behavior of geosystems, and ultimately, the ability to manage them at all levels, starting with the local (for example, the territories of large cities and their suburbs) and regional, ending with the planetary, i.e., the geographic envelope as a whole.

So, the tasks and goals of modern geography determine the need for further development of the theory of natural and industrial territorial complexes and their interaction using the latest achievements and research methods, among which methods such as mathematical modeling and forecasting, aerospace and geoinformation methods come to the fore.

The role of methods in modern geography

Research methods in geography today remain the same as before. However, this does not mean that they do not undergo changes. The latest methods of geographical research are appearing, allowing us to significantly expand the capabilities of humanity and the boundaries of the unknown. But before considering these innovations, it is necessary to understand the usual classification.

For many centuries, geographers have carried out research that was carried out using certain methods and techniques.

Different classifications of geographical research methods can be considered, for example, according to V.P. Maksakovsky, V.S. Zhekulin. Classification of methods by V.P. Maksakovsky includes such methods as general geographic (description, cartographic, comparative geographic, quantitative, mathematical, modeling, aerospace (remote), geoinformation) and specific geographic (methods of physical and economic geography). Another author is V.S. Zhekulin considers not groups of methods, but particular methods of geographical research: explanation based on modeling, experiment, analysis and synthesis, and others.2

There are also other classifications of methods used in geographical research: classification of methods according to their essence, time of occurrence and principle of application. According to the time of occurrence, they are distinguished: traditional, new and newest.

It is the latest research methods - mathematical modeling and forecasting, aerospace and geoinformation methods that come to the fore. This is due to the fact that our science now faces new tasks: to understand the interaction of nature and human activity. Modern geography is increasingly turning into a science of an experimental and transformative nature. She plays an important role in the development of the largest general scientific problem of the relationship between nature and society.

It is hardly legitimate to begin developing recommendations for optimizing the natural environment for a more or less long term without imagining in advance how geosystems will behave in the future due to their inherent natural dynamic tendencies and under the influence of technogenic factors. In other words, it is necessary to draw up a geographical forecast, the purpose of which is to develop ideas about the natural geographical systems of the future. Perhaps the most powerful evidence of the constructive character of geography must lie in the ability of scientific foresight.

At the same time, geographical research uses, first of all, successive connections of a temporal, spatial and genetic nature, since it is precisely these connections that are characterized by causality - the most important element in predicting events and phenomena even of a high degree of randomness and probability. In turn, complexity and probabilistic nature are specific features of geoforecasting.

Currently, modeling, in particular mathematical modeling, is increasingly being used to develop forecasts. It is necessary to create adequate predictive models of the objects, phenomena and processes being studied.

Modeling allows us to identify the causality of system parameters and give a functional, point and interval assessment of them.
The use of modeling for forecasting purposes is an extremely complex process. It is based on a large amount of information and requires adaptation of the existing mathematical apparatus for specific forecasting purposes and the involvement of specialists in various fields (mathematicians, programmers, geographers, economists, sociologists, etc.).

“Mathematical-geographical modeling is an important tool in approaches to solving one of the most pressing problems of modern geography—the problem of studying and managing the environment.”3 This problem requires a formalized idea of the environment, and such formalization is provided by modeling based on a systems approach. In this case, the environment is usually displayed in the form of models of geosystems, expressed in the language of mathematics. The most effective models are those created on the basis of information modeling, which involves a parametric representation of geoinformation for the purpose of its further automated processing in control systems.

The essence of the modeling and forecasting method is to study any phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying their models. Consequently, when modeling, the studied object, phenomenon, process is replaced by another auxiliary or artificial system. The patterns and trends identified during the modeling process are then applied to reality. Modeling facilitates and simplifies research, makes it less labor-intensive and   more visual. In addition, it provides the key to the knowledge of objects that cannot be directly measured (for example, the Earth's core).

Aerial methods include visual observation methods carried out from aircraft. But aerial photography plays a much larger role. Its main type is aerial photography, which has been widely used since the 30s and today remains the main method of topographic survey. It is also used in landscape research. In addition to conventional photography, thermal, radar, and multispectral aerial photography are used.

Space methods include primarily visual observations - direct observations of the state of the atmosphere, the earth's surface, and ground objects, which were and are being carried out since the beginning of the space age.

Following visual observations, space photography and television photography began, and then more complex types of space photography - spectrometric, radiometric, radar, thermal, etc. - became widespread.

The main features and advantages of space photography include, first of all, the enormous visibility of space images, the high speed of receiving and transmitting information, the ability to repeat images of the same objects and territories many times, which allows you to analyze the dynamics of processes.

As for information processing, at first this was done using punched cards, then the first computers appeared, geographic information data banks based on the use of computer storage devices arose, completely new geoinformation technologies began to be introduced, and information was provided in text, graphic, and cartographic forms , including using electronic networks, e-mail, electronic maps and atlases.

The development of geoinformatics led to the creation of geographic information systems. A geographic information system (GIS) is a complex of interconnected means of obtaining, storing, processing, selecting data and issuing geographic information. Nowadays, hundreds and thousands of geographic information systems are already operating in the world, and yet this is only the initial period of their formation. On the basis of GIS, new types of texts and images are developed and introduced into scientific circulation.
Since all the methods that we will consider are used for the purposes of geographical research, they all study spatial or spatiotemporal relationships. Sometimes this is done implicitly, such as the use of mathematical methods to study the relationships between geographic phenomena.

So, we can say that the entire diverse set of new methods for studying the geographical shell significantly contributes to the advancement of our knowledge about the processes occurring in it, contributes to the development of the theory of geographical science, and the knowledge of the laws governing the structure and dynamics of the shell. This makes it possible for geographical science to rise to a new, higher level of development.

Chapter 2. Latest research methods

2.1. Essence forecasting and mathematical modeling

From a general scientific perspective, a forecast is most often defined as a hypothesis about the future development of an object. This means that the development of a wide variety of objects, phenomena and processes can be predicted: the development of science, a branch of the economy, a social or natural phenomenon. Particularly common in our time are demographic forecasts of population growth, socio-economic forecasts of the possibility of satisfying the growing population of the Earth with food, and environmental forecasts of the future human living environment. If a person cannot influence the object of forecasting, such a forecast is called passive.

The forecast may also consist of assessing the future economic and natural state of any territory for 15–20 years in advance. Anticipating, for example, an unfavorable situation, you can change it in a timely manner by planning an economically and environmentally optimal development option. It is precisely this kind of active forecast, implying feedback and the ability to control the object of forecasting, that is characteristic of geographical science. Despite all the differences in forecasting goals for modern geography and geographers, there is no more important common task than the development of a scientifically based forecast of the future state of the geographic environment based on assessments of its past and present. It is precisely in conditions of high rates of development of production, technology and science that humanity especially needs this kind of advanced information, since due to the lack of foresight of our actions, the problem of the relationship between man and the environment has arisen.

In its most general form, geographic forecasting is a special scientific study of specific prospects for the development of geographic phenomena. Its task is to determine the future states of integral geosystems and the nature of interactions between nature and society.

The main operational units of geographic forecasting - space and time - are considered in comparison with the purpose and object of the forecast, as well as with the local natural and economic characteristics of a particular region. The success and reliability of a geographic forecast are determined by many circumstances, including the correct choice of the main factors and methods that provide a solution to the problem. Geographic forecasting of the state of the natural environment is multifactorial, and these factors are physically different: nature, society, technology, etc. It is necessary to analyze these factors and select those that, to some extent, can control the state of the environment - stimulate, stabilize or limit unfavorable or factors favorable for human development. These factors can be external and internal. External factors are, for example, sources of impact on the natural environment such as quarries and overburden dumps that completely destroy the natural landscape, smoke emissions from factory chimneys that pollute the air, industrial and domestic wastewater entering water bodies, and many other sources of impact on the environment . The size and strength of the impact of such factors can be foreseen in advance and taken into account in advance in plans for the protection of nature in a given region. Internal factors include the properties of nature itself, the potential of its components and landscapes as a whole. Of the components of the natural environment involved in the forecasting process, depending on its goals and local geographical conditions, the main ones can be relief, rocks, water bodies, vegetation, etc. The relative stability of these factors over time allows them to be used as a background and framework for the forecast . In specific conditions, the strength of their impact on the landscape and the process of economic activity will depend not only on themselves, but also on the stability of the natural background on which they influence. Therefore, when making predictions, a geographer operates, for example, with indicators of relief dissection, vegetation cover, mechanical composition of soils and many other components of the natural environment. Knowing the properties of the components and their mutual connections, differences in response to external influences, it is possible to foresee in advance the response of the natural environment, both to its own parameters and to factors of economic activity. But even having selected not all, but only the main natural components that best suit the solution of the problem, the researcher still deals with a very large number of parameters of the relationship between each of the properties of the components and types of man-made loads. Therefore, geographers are looking for integral expressions of the sum of components, that is, the natural environment as a whole. Such a whole is the natural landscape with its historically established structure. The latter expresses, as it were, the “memory” of landscape development, a long series of statistical data necessary to predict the state of the natural environment.

Currently, modeling, in particular mathematical modeling, is increasingly being used for development. It is necessary to create adequate predictive models of the objects, phenomena and processes being studied. Modeling allows us to identify the causality of system parameters and give a functional, point and interval assessment of them.

The use of modeling for forecasting purposes is an extremely complex process. It is based on a large amount of information and requires adaptation of the existing mathematical apparatus for specific forecasting purposes and the involvement of specialists in various fields (mathematicians, programmers, geographers, economists, sociologists, etc.).
Among the existing models for forecasting purposes, the following are used:

Functional, describing the functions that are performed by individual components of the system and the system as a whole;
Models of a physical process that determine mathematical relationships between the variables of this process. They can be continuous and discrete in time, deterministic and stochastic;
Economic, determining the relationship between various parameters of the process and phenomenon being studied, as well as criteria that allow optimizing economic processes;

Procedural, describing the operational characteristics of systems necessary for making management decisions;
Predictive models can be conceptual (expressed in verbal description or flowcharts), graphic (presented in the form of curves, drawings, maps), matrix (as a link between verbal and formalized representation, mathematical (presented in the form of formulas and mathematical operations), computer (expressed in a description suitable for entering into a computer).

Simulation forecasting models occupy a special place. Simulation modeling is the formalization of empirical knowledge about the object under consideration using modern computers. A simulation model is understood as a model that reproduces the process of functioning of systems in space at a fixed point in time by displaying elementary phenomena and processes while maintaining their logical structure and sequence. This allows, using initial data on the structure and main properties of territorial systems, to obtain information about the relationships between their main components and to identify the mechanism for the formation of their sustainable development. The process of developing forecasts based on mathematical modeling includes the following steps:

Formulation of the purpose and objectives of the study. Qualitative analysis of the predicted object in accordance with the purpose of the study.
Determination of the subject and level of modeling, depending on the forecasting tasks;

Selection of main features and parameters of the model. The model should include only parameters that are essential for solving a specific goal, since an increase in the number of variables increases the uncertainty of the results and complicates the calculations of the model;

Formalization of the main parameters of the model, i.e. mathematical formulation of the goals and objectives of the study;

A formalized representation of the relationships between the parameters and characteristics of the predicted object or process;

Checking the adequacy of the model, i.e., the accuracy of the mathematical model’s reflection of the features of the original;

Determining the informative capabilities of the model by establishing quantitative connections between patterns and synthesis.

So, geographic forecasting and mathematical modeling are of particular importance, since it is complex and involves assessing the dynamics of natural and natural-economic systems in the future using both component and integral indicators.

2. 2 . Aerospace and geoinformation method

Aerospace methods are generally understood as “a set of methods for studying the atmosphere, the earth’s surface, oceans, and the upper layer of the earth’s crust from air and space media through remote recording and subsequent analysis of electromagnetic radiation coming from the Earth.”4 Aerospace methods provide determination of the geographical location of the objects or phenomena being studied and obtaining their qualitative and quantitative biographical characteristics.

An aerospace image is, first of all, an information model of the object or phenomenon being studied. Analog and digital aerospace images have dozens of varieties and carry a variety of information about geographical objects and phenomena, their relationships and spatial distribution, condition, and changes over time. To effectively use these images, the researcher must know their information properties and master special methods and techniques for effectively extracting the required information from the images.

In aerospace research methods, information about a distant object is transmitted using electromagnetic radiation, which is characterized by such parameters as intensity, spectral composition, polarization and direction of propagation. The recorded radiation parameters, functionally dependent on the biogeophysical characteristics, properties, state and spatial position of the object of study, make it possible to study it indirectly. This is the essence of aerospace techniques.

The leading place in aerospace methods is occupied by the study of an object from images, so their main task is the targeted acquisition and processing of images. The principle of multiplicity, or complexity, of aerospace research involves the use of not one image, but a series of them, differing in scale, visibility and resolution, angle and time of shooting, spectral range and polarization of the recorded radiation.

Despite the differences in images, methods and techniques for processing them, aerospace methods make it possible to solve such general problems in physical and economic geography as inventory of various types of territorial systems, assessments of their condition and possibilities of use, study of dynamics, and geographic forecasting. The aerospace method is very useful for various types of territory zoning.

Aerospace methods make it possible, directly or indirectly, to obtain only that geographic information about the area that is inherent in the characteristics of the radiation coming from the object being photographed. It has long been proven that 80-90% of all data consists of geodata, i.e. not just abstract, impersonal data, but information that has its specific place on the map, diagram or plan.

Remote sensing is the source of data for GIS.

GIS appeared thanks to computer maps, which have many additional and useful properties. There are dozens of definitions of geographic information systems. But most experts are inclined to believe that the definition of GIS should be based on the concept of a DBMS. Therefore, we can say that GIS are database management systems designed to work with territorially oriented information. A critical feature of a GIS is the ability to associate cartographic features (that is, features that have a shape and location) with descriptive, attribute information that relates to those features and describes their properties.

As noted above, the basis for constructing a GIS is a DBMS. Spatial data is organized in a special way, and this organization is not based on a relational concept. On the contrary, attribute information of objects (semantic data) can quite successfully be represented by relational tables and processed accordingly. Combining the data models that underlie the representation of spatial and semantic information in a GIS forms a georelational model.

To be used in a GIS, data must be converted into a suitable digital format. The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitization. For joint processing and visualization, it is more convenient to present all data on a single scale and the same map projection. GIS technology provides different ways to manipulate spatial data and extract the data needed for a specific task. In small projects, geographic information may be stored as regular . But with an increase in the volume of information and an increase in the number of users, it is more effective to use a DBMS, special computer tools for working with integrated data sets, for storing, structuring and managing data. If you have GIS and geographic information, you can get answers to both simple questions and more complex queries that require additional analysis. The process of overlay (spatial fusion) involves the integration of data located in different thematic layers. For many types of spatial operations, the end result is a representation of the data in the form of a map or graph. GIS provides amazing new tools that expand and advance the art and science of cartography. With its help, the visualization of the maps themselves can be easily supplemented with reporting documents, three-dimensional images, graphs, tables, diagrams, photographs and other means, for example, multimedia.

Remote sensing is one of the main methods for quickly obtaining information about the earth's surface. The exceptionally rich information and high accuracy of digital images, combined with versatility and cost-effectiveness, have ensured its widespread implementation in various branches of science. And the advent of computers, which are information processing tools, and the development of GIS have greatly helped geographers and many others who use spatial data in their work. These new tools are being widely introduced into geographical science and practice. The quality of questions asked and problems solved is improving, and the scope and scope of application of spatial analysis methods is expanding. This allows us to delve deeper into spatial variables, looking at factors and relationships that would not otherwise be explored.

Chapter 3. Main directions of using the latest methods of informationfollowing

3.1. Modern directions and problems use mathematical modeling and forecasting in geography

“The main goal of modeling in geographical research is to identify the conditions for the formation, functioning and development of territorial systems, their interaction with the natural environment in connection with forecasting further development.”5

Geographical objects and phenomena provide a vast springboard for the application of a wide variety of models. However, when modeling them, significant difficulties arise due to the fact that the model is a simplification of the real system. Therefore, it cannot completely describe the behavior of real objects, and at best explains only some small part of the actual functioning of systems as a whole. Another difficulty lies in choosing the right way to build a model, which, on the one hand, would be as simple as possible, and on the other hand, would allow for better interpretation of the results obtained. Significant difficulties are associated with the large amount of initial information used in constructing mathematical models and its heterogeneity. As a result, many models have a number of disadvantages.

The main object of studying geography is territorial natural and socio-economic systems, which, in accordance with the cybernetic concept, belong to complex systems. The complexity of a system is determined by the number of elements included in it, the connections between these elements, as well as the relationship between the system and the environment. Territorial complexes have all the features of a very complex system. They unite a huge number of elements and are distinguished by a variety of internal connections and connections with other systems (natural environment, economy, population, etc.). Complex objects are of greatest interest for modeling; This is where modeling can provide results that cannot be obtained by other research methods. The potential possibility of mathematical modeling of any geographical objects and processes does not mean its successful feasibility, but also depends on the level of development of geographical and mathematical knowledge, available specific information and computer technology. In addition, there will always be problems that cannot be formalized, and in this case mathematical modeling is not effective enough. For a long time, the main difficulty in the practical application of mathematical modeling in geography was filling the developed models with specific and high-quality information. The accuracy and completeness of primary information, the real possibilities of its collection and processing largely determine the choice of types of applied models.

Another problem is generated by the dynamism of geographical processes, the variability of their parameters and structural relationships. As a result, they must be constantly monitored in order to have a steady flow of new data. Since observations of geographic processes and processing of empirical data usually take quite a lot of time, when constructing mathematical models of the economy it is necessary to adjust the initial information taking into account its delay.

Knowledge of the quantitative relationships of geographical processes and phenomena is based on appropriate measurements. The accuracy of measurements largely determines the accuracy of the final results of quantitative analysis through simulation. Therefore, a necessary condition for the effective use of mathematical modeling is the improvement of the system of geographical indicators. The use of mathematical modeling has sharpened the problem of measurements and quantitative comparisons of various aspects and phenomena of socio-economic development, the reliability and completeness of the data obtained, and their protection from intentional and technical distortions.
An important task of geographic forecasting is the search for stable connections (structural, functional, spatial, temporal, etc.) between the components of geosystems. This is due to the multidimensionality of the forecast object – the territorial system of a certain region.

The problems of geographic forecasting are quite complex and diverse due to the complexity and diversity of the forecasting objects themselves - geosystems of various levels and categories. The hierarchy of forecasts and their territorial scales is in strict accordance with the hierarchy of the geosystems themselves. It can be argued that the complexity of forecasting problems increases as one moves from the lower levels of the geosystem hierarchy to the higher ones.

As is known, any geosystem of a relatively lower hierarchical level functions and develops as an integral part of systems of higher ranks. In practice, this means that the development of a forecast of the “behavior” in the future of individual tracts should be carried out only against the backdrop of the enclosing landscape, taking into account its structure, dynamics, and evolution. And the forecast for any landscape should be developed against an even broader regional background. Ultimately, a geographic forecast of any territorial scale requires taking into account global trends.

The participation of geographical science in the process of studying global problems is seen not only in developing ways to optimize the relationship between nature and human society, geographical forecasting of the impact of human activity on the natural environment, tracking the mechanisms of this impact on a global scale using modern geoinformation technologies, i.e. in what falls within the sphere of interests of this science itself.

The use of mathematical modeling and forecasting has sharpened the problem of measurements and quantitative comparisons of various aspects and phenomena, the reliability and completeness of the data obtained, and their protection from intentional and technical distortions. These methods are necessary because the future is unusual and the effects of many decisions made today will not be felt for some time. Therefore, accurately predicting the future increases the efficiency of the decision-making process.

3 . 2 . Prospects for GIS technologies and aerospace methods

GIS technologies are combined with another powerful system for obtaining and presenting geographic information - Earth remote sensing data from space, from airplanes and any other aircraft. Space information in today's world is becoming more diverse and accurate. The ability to obtain and update it is increasingly easier and more accessible. Dozens of orbital systems transmit high-precision space images of any territory on our planet. Abroad and in Russia, archives and data banks of very high-resolution digital images covering a vast territory of the globe have been formed. Their relative accessibility for the consumer (quick search, order and receipt via the Internet), surveying of any territory at the consumer’s request, the possibility of subsequent processing and analysis of space images using various software tools, integration with GIS packages and GIS systems, make the GIS tandem -DZ into a new powerful geographic analysis tool. This is the first and most realistic direction of modern GIS development.

The second direction of GIS development is the joint and widespread use of high-precision global positioning data of an object on water or on land, obtained using GPS (USA) or GLOSSNAS (Russia) systems. These systems, especially GPS, are already widely used in maritime navigation, aeronautics, geodesy, military affairs and other branches of human activity. Their use in combination with GIS and remote sensing forms a powerful triad of highly accurate, relevant (up to real time), constantly updated, objective and densely saturated territorial information, which can be used almost everywhere.

The third direction of GIS development is associated with the development of the telecommunications system, primarily the international Internet network and the massive use of global international information resources. There are several promising paths in this direction.

The first path will be determined by the development of corporate networks of the largest enterprises and management structures with remote access using Internet technology. This path is supported by the serious financial resources of these structures and the problems and tasks that they have to solve in their activities using spatial analysis. This path will most likely determine the development of GIS technological problems when working in corporate networks. The dissemination of proven technologies to solve problems of small and medium-sized enterprises and firms will give a powerful impetus to their mass use.

The second way depends on the development of the Internet itself, which is spreading around the world at a tremendous pace, attracting tens of thousands of new users to its audience every day. This path leads to a new and as yet unexplored road along which traditional GIS from usually closed and expensive systems existing for individual teams and solving individual problems will, over time, acquire new qualities, unite and turn into powerful integrated and interactive systems for shared global use.

At the same time, such GIS themselves will become: geographically distributed; modularly expandable; shared; constantly and easily accessible.

Therefore, we can assume the emergence, on the basis of modern GIS, of new types, classes and even generations of geographic information systems based on the capabilities of the Internet, television and telecommunications.

The summation of the capabilities of GIS - remote sensing - GPS - Internet will form a powerful quartet of spatial information.

All the trends, prospects, directions and paths of development described above will ultimately lead to the fact that geography and geoinformatics will represent a single complex of sciences, based on spatial ideology and using the most modern technologies for processing a huge amount of any spatial information.

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Conclusion

In the course of the work, a number of geographical literature were reviewed and a list of modern geographical research methods was analyzed. The characteristics of the method of mathematical modeling and forecasting are given, the essence of the aerospace and geoinformation research method is revealed. The features of their application in modern geography, directions and prospects for development are revealed.

The role of methods in geographical research is significant, since methods constitute the methodology of geographical science. Geographical research centers around significant problems.

New tasks set for science required improvement of the principles and methods of obtaining and processing information about geographical phenomena, methods of theoretical generalizations and forecasting.

In recent decades, research methods such as forecasting and modeling have been purposefully applied, i.e. active methods of research. These methods make it possible to study the behavior of objects in a wide range of external factors. As a result of informatization, GIS technologies and remote sensing are actively used, making it possible to process and analyze a large amount of information.

The newest methods of geographical research that have emerged make it possible to significantly expand the capabilities of humanity and the boundaries of the unknown, to understand the interaction of nature and human activity, to study nature in order to preserve it in the process of economic use, which is especially important during the period of the scientific and technological revolution. This makes it possible for geographical science to rise to a new, higher level of development.

Literature

Armand   HELL. Geography of the information age // Izv. AN. 2002. - No. 1. - P.10-14.

Dyakonov K.N., Kasimov N.S., Tikunov V.S. Modern methods of geographical research. M.: Education, 2000. – 117 p.

Garbuk S.V. Gershenzon V.E. Space systems for remote sensing of the Earth. M.: Publishing house “A and B”, 2003. – 296 p.

Golubchik M.M., Evdokimov S.P., Maksimov G.N., Nosonov A.N. Theory and methodology of geographical science: Textbook for universities. M.: VLADOS, 2005 – 464 p.

Guk A.P. Automatic selection and identification of characteristic points on multi-time, multi-scale aerospace images. / Guk A.P., Yehia Hassan Miki Hassan // News of universities “Geodesy and aerial photography”. 2010. - No. 2. – pp. 63-68.

Ekeeva E.V. Methods of geographical research: Textbook.

Gorno-Altaisk: RIO GAGU, 2010. – 48 p.

Zhekulin V.S. Introduction to geography: Textbook. allowance. L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1989. – 272 p.

Zvonkova T.V. Geographic forecasting. M.: Education, 2003. – 216 p.

Isachenko A.G. Geography today: A manual for teachers. M.: Education, 2000. – 92 p.

Knizhnikov Yu.F. Fundamentals of aerospace research methods. M.: MSU, 2003. – 137 p.

Knizhnikov Yu.F. Aerospace methods of geographical research. / Knizhnikov Yu.F., Kravtsova V.I., Tutubalina O.V. M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2004. - 333 p.

Kreider O.A. Information environment for using GIS technologies. // Geoinformatics. 2005. - No. 4. – P.49-52.

Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical culture: A textbook for university students. M.: VLADOS, 1998. – 416 p.

Website "GeoMan.ru: Library of Geography". URL: http://geoman.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000056/st026.shtml (access date 12/06/2013).

Website “Gistechnik: all about GIS” URL: http://gistechnik.ru/publik/git.html (access date 12/8/2013).

Saushkin Yu.G. Geographical science in the past, present, future: A manual for teachers. M.: Education, 1999. – 269 p.

Tikunov V.S. Modeling in geography. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1999. – 137 p.

Trofimov A.M. Modeling of geosystems. Kazan: Ecocenter, 2000. 321 p.

Trofimov A.M., Igonin E.I. Conceptual foundations of modeling in geography. Development of basic ideas and ways of mathematization and formalization in geography. Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2001. – 241 p.

Trofimov A.M., Panasyuk M.V. Geographic information systems and problems of environmental management. Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2005. – 450 p.

Research methods (methods) are specific techniques for studying geographical objects and phenomena. Geographic research methods (methods) include: traditional - expeditionary, descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographical, mathematical and statistical, and new methods - experimental, modeling, remote sensing (aerospace), geographic monitoring, geographic forecast, GIS technologies, etc.

The fundamental method of geographical research, the primary source of all geographical knowledge, is the expeditionary method. Much that people learned about the Earth, about its great natural diversity and richness, they learned during their wanderings and travels, and in modern language - expeditions.

The travelers' recording of what they saw led to the emergence of a method of description. The very name of the science - geography (from the Greek geo - Earth and grapho - describe), proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes, indicates the importance of this method. The description includes not only the collection of information about the object of research, but also its systematization, explanation and theory building. In the 18th century A scientific description began to develop, which included elements of analysis, comparison, and explanation. This method is especially important in works of a regional character, where it has developed from an element-by-element description of countries (nature, population, economy, etc.) to a comprehensive regional characterization. Currently, description is not necessarily associated with recording information on paper. It can be spoken into a voice recorder; the use of electronics allows the description to be transmitted over long distances, stored, and edited. Literary and artistic description is of great importance for memorization and emotional perception (literary works by I.A. Bunin, K.G. Paustovsky, M.M. Prishvin, etc.). The following types of geographical descriptions are distinguished: ascertaining (statement of facts); description of dynamic processes and phenomena; description of cause-and-effect relationships; forward-looking descriptions.

With the emergence of description, a special geographical way of depicting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appeared - various “drawings”, diagrams, maps. This is how a very important and necessary cartographic research method arose for geography.

Currently, the cartographic method, in addition to drawing up maps of the study area, includes a visual search and analysis of objects on the map; measuring distances, areas, heights, etc. from a map; comparison of various geographical phenomena and study of their connections and causes; analysis of maps by constructing profiles, etc. The need to describe new countries, territories and compare them with existing, known ones contributed to the development of the comparative research method, which is successfully used to this day. (Which famous geographer successfully used the comparison method? Who was the first to use the historical method in the study of geographical phenomena?)

Geographic information system (geographic information system, GIS) - a system for collecting, storing, analyzing and graphically visualizing spatial (geographic) data and related information about the necessary objects.

The concept of a geographic information system is also used in a narrower sense - as a tool (software product) that allows users to search, analyze and edit both a digital map of the area and additional information about objects.

A geographic information system may include spatial databases (including those controlled by universal DBMSs), raster and vector graphics editors, and various tools for spatial data analysis. They are used in cartography, geology, meteorology, land management, ecology, municipal administration, transport, economics, defense and many other areas. Scientific, technical, technological and applied aspects of the design, creation and use of geographic information systems are studied by geoinformatics.

Data in geographic information systems usually describe real objects, such as roads, buildings, reservoirs, and forests. Real objects can be divided into two abstract categories: discrete (houses, territorial zones) and continuous (relief, precipitation levels, average annual temperature). Vector and raster data are used to represent these two categories of objects.

The comparative geographical research method is a method of comparing different countries, economic regions, cities, industrial hubs, types of agriculture and other economic and geographical objects, according to their development, specialization, etc. The comparative method replaces experiment in economic geography. It allows us to approach the problem of the typology of the phenomena being studied. The comparative geographical method is used in close connection with the cartographic research method. But approaches to defining objects and subjects of study of geography have changed throughout the history of the development of science. One thing remained in common: most scientists considered the surface of the Earth as the main object of geographical science. At the same time, K. Ritter considered the entire globe to be the object of geography, A. Höttner - countries that are studied from the point of view of the spatial distribution of objects and phenomena, F. Richtofen - the earth's surface, E. Marton - the distribution of physical, biological and phenomena related to human activity, as well as the reasons for this distribution, O. Peschel - the nature of the Earth, etc. Various terms were proposed to define the object of geography: geographical envelope, landscape envelope, geosphere, landscape sphere, biogenosphere, epigeosphere, etc. The greatest recognition received the term "geographical envelope". Prominent Soviet geographer, academician. A. A. Grigoriev believed that the main task of science is to understand the structure of the geographical shell. Another outstanding Soviet geographer, academician. S. V. Kalesnik clarified the definition of the object of geography, including in it the structure of the geographical shell, the laws of its formation, spatial distribution and development. So, geographers have established a specific object of their research. This is a geographical shell, which is a complex formation consisting of interacting main earthly spheres or their elements - lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere. Over the course of a number of years, experience has been accumulated that makes it possible to clarify specialization depending on a number of points that were not previously taken into account. These include, for example, differences from place to place in the supply of water for irrigation, in temperatures (beets need more water, and cotton needs more heat); but along with aspects of the natural order, it is necessary to take into account others, such as: proximity to the city market (which is important for vegetable growing), the presence or absence of labor reserves, labor skills and traditions of the population, the possibility of production linkage with other industries (for example, beet sugar crops with intensive livestock farming), etc. d. In this entire very complex set of different kinds of factors and moments, factors of a natural order always play one role or another, but not as the only ones, but in combination with a number of factors, although also regional, but of a different order - socio-historical or transport-related. market. In all studies on the influence of natural conditions on the production direction of the economy, it is necessary to take into account production technology, which in turn is closely related to the social system.

1) Cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of domestic economic geography, Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky, is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information!

It gives an idea of the relative position of objects, their sizes, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises out of nowhere, therefore, to understand modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3)Statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative production indicators, etc.

4) Economic-mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, fertility, mortality and natural population growth, balance of migration, resource availability, GDP per capita, etc.

5) Geographical zoning method. Identification of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the research methods of geographical science.

6) Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison:
more or less, profitable or unprofitable, faster or slower. Only comparison allows us to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7)Field research and observation method. Geography cannot be studied only while sitting in classrooms and offices. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material that is the subject of study.

8) Remote sensing method. Modern aerial and space photography are great assistants in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development of the national economy and nature conservation, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Geographic modeling method. Creating geographic models is an important method for studying geography. The simplest geographical model is the globe.

10) Geographical forecast. Modern geographical science must not only describe the objects and phenomena being studied, but also predict the consequences that humanity may come to in the course of its development. Geographic forecast helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rationally use resources, and solve global problems.

Methods of geographical research and main sources of geographical information Wikipedia
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Methodology of geographical science

Method ( Greek methods) in science is a way to achieve a goal, a course of action; way of cognition, research of natural and social phenomena.

The methods used in economic-geographical research are varied and can be divided into two main groups: general scientific and special scientific (special).

The effectiveness and reliability of economic-geographical research and conclusions formulated by science depends on the completeness of reliance on methodological tools and the correctness of its choice (careful selection of the most effective methods) for each specific study.

General scientific methods:

— description(the oldest method used by geographers);

— cartographic method(this is a graphical way of presenting information about the location and development of natural demographic, socio-economic and other objects in a certain territory). The cartographic method is often not only a means for revealing spatial relationships, but often the final goal of the study. Baransky N.N.: “... every geographical research starts from the map and comes to the map, it begins with the map and ends with the map, the map is the second language of geography.” A map is a mathematically defined, reduced, generalized image of the surface of the Earth, another celestial body or outer space, showing objects located or projected onto them in an accepted system of signs. Types of cartographic ( cartographic) methods:

o map demonstration (the map serves as a demonstration of the results obtained by other methods);

o cartometric (the map is used to obtain initial information and display final results);

o centrographic (the map provides initial information and is used to demonstrate the final result);

— comparative(comparative) method (serves to identify the diversity of forms and types of human activity in natural and socio-economic conditions). The comparative method consists of comparing countries, regions, cities, results of economic activity, development parameters, and demographic characteristics. This method is the basis for forecasting, by analogy, the development of socio-economic processes;

— historical(promotes understanding of territorial objects in space and time, helps to take into account the time factor in the processes of territorial organization of society). The historical method consists in analyzing the genesis of the system (distribution of productive forces): the emergence of the system, formation, cognition, development;

— quantitative methods:

o scoring method(used to assess natural resources and analyze the environmental situation);

o balance method(used in studies of dynamic territorial systems with established flows of resources and products). The balance method is the equalization of quantitative information about various aspects of the development of the phenomenon or process under study. Of particular importance in economic-geographical research is the model intersectoral balance(MOB). The MOB was first developed by Soviet statisticians in 1924-1925. In the 1930s V. Leontiev (USA) proposed his own version of this model, adapted to the conditions of a capitalist economy (input-output model). The main purpose of this model is to substantiate a rational version of the sectoral structure of the regional economy based on optimizing inter-industry flows, minimizing costs and maximizing final products;

o statistical method(operations with statistical information about socio-economic processes in the region). Particularly widely used are methods for calculating indices and sampling, correlation and regression analysis, and the method of expert assessments;

— modeling, incl. mathematical (modeling of migration processes, urban systems, TPK). Modeling is one of the main categories of the theory of knowledge, the essence of which is the study of phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying their models. Consequently, during modeling, the object under study is replaced by another auxiliary or artificial system. The patterns and trends identified during the modeling process are then extended to reality;

o material models(layouts, layouts, dummies, etc.);

o mental (ideal models)(sketches, photographs, maps, drawings, graphs);

— econometric method. Econometrics studies the quantitative aspects of economic phenomena and processes by means of mathematical and statistical analysis;

— geographic information method(creation of GIS - a means of collecting, storing, mapping and analyzing various information about the territory based on geographic information technologies);

— expeditionary(collection of primary data, work “in the field”);

— sociological(interviewing, questioning);

— system analysis method(this is a comprehensive study of the structure of the economy, internal relationships and interaction of elements. System analysis is the most developed area of system research in economics. To carry out such an analysis, it is necessary to follow such systematization techniques as:

o classification (grouping of the objects under study into groups that differ from each other mainly in quantitative characteristics, and the qualitative difference reflects the dynamics of the development of objects and their hierarchical order);

o typology(grouping of objects under study into groups (types) that consistently differ from each other in terms of qualitative characteristics);

o concentration(a methodological technique in the study of complex geographical objects, in which the number of elements additional to the main object, associated with it and to varying degrees affecting the completeness of the study, either increases or decreases);

o taxonization(the process of dividing a territory into comparable or hierarchically subordinate taxa);

o zoning(a process of taxonization in which the identified taxa must meet two criteria: the criterion of specificity and the criterion of unity)).

Private scientific methods:

— zoning (economic, socio-economic, environmental);

— “keys” method (primary attention is paid to specific local or regional objects considered as typical or basic in relation to a given territorial system);

— methods of “game of scales” (when the phenomenon under study is analyzed at various spatial-hierarchical levels: global, state, regional, local);

— cyclic method (method of energy production cycles, method of resource cycles);

— remote aerospace methods (the Earth or other cosmic bodies are studied at a considerable distance, for which air and spacecraft are used):

o aerial methods (visual observation methods carried out from aircraft; aerial photography, the main type is aerial photography since the 1930s - the main method of topographic survey):

o space methods (visual observations: direct observations of the state of the atmosphere, the earth’s surface, earth objects):

- comparative-geographical (geography, unlike most natural sciences, is deprived of its main method - experiment. The method that replaces experiment in geography is comparative-geographical. The essence of the method is the study of several territorial systems that exist in reality.

In the process of development of these systems, the death (stagnation) of some and the development and prosperity of others occurs. Consequently, by studying a group of similar systems, it is possible to identify those whose location provides favorable conditions for their successful development, and discard obviously losing options. That is, it is necessary to study historical experience and identify the reasons that provide positive or negative results in the compared options and choose the optimal one).

Thus, the main methods of geographical research are: the method of system analysis, cartographic, historical, comparative, statistical and others.

Literature:

1. Berlyant A.M. Cartography: textbook for universities. M.: Aspect Press, 2002. 336 p.

2. Druzhinin A.G., Zhitnikov V.G. Geography (economic, social and political): 100 exam answers: Express reference book for university students. M.: ICC “MarT”; Rostov n/d: Publishing house. Center "MarT", 2005. pp. 15-17.

3. Isachenko A.G. Theory and methodology of geographical science: textbook. for students universities M.: Publishing house "Academy", 2004. P. 55-158.

4. Kuzbozhev E.N., Kozyeva I.A., Svetovtseva M.G. Economic geography and regional studies (history, methods, state and prospects for the distribution of productive forces): textbook. village M.: Higher Education, 2009. pp. 44-50.

5. Martynov V.L., Faibusovich E.L. Socio-economic geography of the modern world: a textbook for students of higher educational institutions. M.: Publishing house. Center "Academy", 2010. pp. 19-22.

Correlation analysis is a set of methods based on the mathematical theory of correlation for detecting a correlation between two random characteristics or factors.

Regression analysis is a section of mathematical statistics that combines practical methods for studying the regression relationship between quantities based on statistical data.

Taxon – territorial (geotorial and aquatorial) units that have specific qualifying characteristics. Equal and hierarchically subordinate cells of the territory. Types of taxa: region, area, zone.

Methods of geographical research

Methods of geographical research - methods of obtaining geographical information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1)Cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of domestic economic geography, Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky, is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of the relative position of objects, their sizes, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises out of nowhere, therefore, to understand modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) Statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative production indicators, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, fertility, mortality and natural population growth, balance of migration, resource availability, GDP per capita, etc.

5) Method of geographical zoning. Identification of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the research methods of geographical science.

6). Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison: more or less, profitable or unprofitable, faster or slower.

Only comparison allows us to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observation. Geography cannot be studied only while sitting in classrooms and offices.

What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material that is the subject of study.

8) Remote observation method. Modern aerial and space photography are great assistants in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development of the national economy and nature conservation, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Geographic modeling method. Creating geographic models is an important method for studying geography. The simplest geographical model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science must not only describe the objects and phenomena being studied, but also predict the consequences that humanity may come to in the course of its development. Geographic forecast helps to avoid
many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rational use of resources, solve global problems

How geographers study objects and processes. How scientific observations are carried out.

From the text of the textbook (p. 11), write down the main features (features) of scientific observations.

Explain these features. Use adjectives to complete this task.

1. Active - the observer searches for and records certain meteorological quantities and atmospheric phenomena.

2. Targeted - the observer records only the meteorological quantities and phenomena necessary to determine the weather.

A specific plan of action is thought out by the observer in advance and is written down in the book “Instructions for Hydrometeorological Stations and Posts.”

4. Systematic - carried out repeatedly according to a specific system.

School of geographer-pathfinder.

Write down the results of observations of the long shadow of the gnomon in the table.

Place of observation: city, town, village of Buguruslan.

Gnomon height: 50 cm.

Observation time (hour, minute)	Gnomon shadow length (cm)	The position of the Sun above the horizon (rising, descending)
10:30	40	rises
12:00	50	at the zenith
14:30	60	goes down
9:30	30	rises
8:30	20	rises
15:30	70	goes down
16:30	80	goes down
7:30	10	rises

Conclusion based on the results of observations (fill in the missing words).

When the Sun rose above the horizon, the shadow of the gnomon increased; when the Sun descended to the horizon, the shadow of the gnomon decreased.

Compare the length of the gnomon with the longest length of its shadow.

The length of the gnomon is greater than the longest shadow of the gnomon.