The methodology of the theory of state and law is a set of certain theoretical approaches, principles, and techniques for studying state and legal phenomena.
1. General scientific methods – techniques that do not cover all scientific knowledge, but are used at its individual stages: analysis, synthesis, systems approach, structural approach, functional approach, social experiment method.
Analysis involves the mental division of a single state-legal phenomenon into parts and their study. Thus, the state and law are analyzed according to their individual characteristics.
Synthesis– conditional association of the components of a state-legal phenomenon.
System method allows us to consider state-legal phenomena as integral but systemic formations that have objectively diverse connections within and are included as an element in a more complex system.
Structural method. Through it, the structural elements of a phenomenon (system) are identified and analyzed.
Functional method focuses on identifying the impact of some state and legal phenomena on others. This is how the functions of the state and law, the functions of the political system of society, etc. are analyzed.
Social experiment method– involves checking a project for solving a problem in order to prevent damage from errors in legal regulation and improve the model. Thus, initially, as a social experiment, jury trials were introduced in the Russian Federation.
2. Special methods are a consequence of the assimilation by the theory of state and law of scientific achievements of technical, natural and human sciences. These are mathematical, cybernetic, statistical, sociological and other methods.
The mathematical method is the operation of quantitative characteristics of state-legal phenomena, widely used in criminology, criminology, law-making, in the classification of crimes, etc.
The cybernetic method involves the use of concepts, laws and technical means of cybernetics: information, control, computer technology, optimality and many others.
The statistical method allows us to obtain quantitative indicators of mass recurring state and legal phenomena.
4. Private scientific methods of cognition make it possible to achieve specific, detailed knowledge about the state and law using the methodological function of special legal concepts. These include formal legal, comparative legal (method of comparative studies), legal hermeneutics, and the method of state-legal modeling.
Formally legal The method allows you to determine legal concepts, their characteristics, classification, by interpreting the current legislation.
Comparative legal allows you to compare various legal or government systems of foreign countries or their individual elements (industries, institutions, bodies) in order to identify common and special properties.
Legal hermeneutics– analysis of the real content of the texts of legal acts, based on the social context, because the text of the norm is the result of a special worldview.
Legal modeling method– ideal reproduction of the studied state-legal phenomena in relation to a certain situation. It is used to find the optimal model for organizing the state apparatus, administrative and legal division, building a legislative system, etc.
General scientific methods of cognition.
Classification of general scientific methods. The basis of the classification is the fixation of two levels of knowledge: empirical and theoretical, then all general scientific methods of knowledge will be divided into three groups:
1. Methods of empirical knowledge (used only at the empirical level).
2. Methods related to the empirical and theoretical level of knowledge.
1. Methods of empirical knowledge.
The fundamental, initial method is observation - this is a sensory (mainly visual) reflection of objects and phenomena of the external world to obtain scientific facts, using material means and instruments. Observation is not passive contemplation, but purposeful activity (with a certain fixation of certain parameters). This activity is based on a person’s sensory abilities, which makes it possible to record the external properties and signs of objects. Three features: 1) purposefulness of observation (due to the presence of preliminary ideas or hypotheses that set the objectives of observation), 2) plannedness (observations are carried out strictly according to a plan drawn up strictly in accordance with the research objective) and 3) activity of observation (the researcher carries out an active search, using your knowledge and experience for this purpose and using observation means). The following research observation procedures correspond to the listed features (formal recording is accompanied by manifestations of the researcher’s talent and creative work): determining the goals and objectives of the study, choosing an object and subject of research, choosing an observation method that minimally affects the state of the object of observation, choosing a method for recording the observed parameters of the object, processing and interpretation of observation data.
Empirical description.
Any scientific observation is always accompanied by a description of the object of knowledge, therefore the method of empirical description is highlighted separately. Empirical description is the recording by means of natural or artificial language of information about objects obtained as a result of observations (translation of sensory information into the language of concepts, the language of signs, diagrams, drawings, graphs). The description of the results forms the empirical basis of science. The requirements for the description are as complete, scientific and objective as possible.
Empirical description is divided into qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative description is carried out using the language of mathematics and various measurement procedures. From this formulation we extract the concept of measurement method. Measurements are the determination of the relationship of the measured quantity to another quantity taken as a standard. And only with measurements does natural science turn into science.
Experiment.
Experiment is a more complex method compared to observation, but it involves observation. Active, directed, purposeful participation is expected. An experiment has a number of important unique features (compared to observation).
1. Allows you to study an object in its “pure” form by eliminating all sorts of side factors and layers (for example, Galileo threw hard balls and tried to reduce friction by wrapping something around the ball).
2. During the experiment, the object can be placed in some artificial conditions for a deeper and more comprehensive study of it (for example, extremely low or high temperatures, pressure, vacuum).
3. The experimenter can intervene in the process being studied and actively influence its course.
4. An important advantage of most experiments is their reproducibility (that is, they can be repeated as many times as necessary to obtain reliable results).
An experiment is a method of empirical knowledge that allows scientists to transform the object under study, create artificial conditions for its study, interfere with the natural course of processes and recreate the situation under study as many times as necessary to obtain an adequate and reliable scientific result.
2. General logical methods of scientific knowledge.
General logical methods of scientific knowledge are methods used simultaneously at the theoretical and empirical levels (modelling, classification, comparison, analogy).
Analysis and synthesis.
Analysis is a method of cognition, consisting of logical techniques for the theoretical or empirical division of the subject of research into its elements, properties and relationships. Analysis refers to the initial stage of any research; this stage is carried out with the aim of clarifying the properties of elements, as the basis for the subsequent disclosure of natural connections between them. Target forms of analysis include:
1. Dismemberment of the subject of research as a whole into parts with subsequent study of properties, structure, functions.
2. Identification of the totality of features and properties of the analyzed objects, study of the relationships between these... (?)
3. Dividing a set of objects according to the commonality of their properties and characteristics into certain subsets.
Completion of the analysis procedure makes it possible to move on to reproducing an object or system into integrity through a logical synthesis of the parts included in them in order to reveal the reasons and patterns of the existence of these integrity.
Synthesis (Greek connection, combination, composition) is a method of cognition, consisting of logical techniques for theoretical or empirical connection of selected elements of an object into a whole (or system). There is not just a mechanical unification of previously identified objects, they are generalized and thereby achieve the goal of identifying structural patterns, causal and other mechanisms of it...(?) Synthesis presupposes its own forms of generalization of results:
1. Education of scientific concepts.
2. Formulation of patterns or laws of existence of integrity.
3. Formation of systematizations or concepts reflecting the existence of integrity.
In some cases, the results of synthesis can become an empirical theory (for example, Mendeleev synthesized the table and an empirical class of theories appeared). Empirical theories reveal the essence of the first order, and knowledge of a higher order (2nd and 3rd), this is obtained by qualitatively different procedures (for example, an absolutely black body cannot be obtained by analysis and synthesis).
Methods of analysis and synthesis are interconnected, dialectically presuppose and complement each other. Analysis is the moment of cognition of the whole; on the other hand, the precondition for synthesis is the total empirical presence of the parts that make up the subject of synthesis. Any synthesized knowledge belongs to the essence of the first order.
Induction and deduction.
Induction (Latin: guidance) is a method of scientific research associated with the movement of thought from individual facts (particular premises) to a general conclusion (general hypothesis). The basis of inductive inference is the repeatability of features in a number of objects of a certain class. Therefore, inductive inferences are a conclusion about the general properties of all objects of a given class based on the study of a large number of individual events. Aimed at identifying something common in objects, acting as an objective pattern. Induction is divided into complete and incomplete. In full, the general conclusion is based on knowledge of all subjects studied; however, if, due to spatial and temporal limitations, the researcher can study only part of the objects - incomplete induction.
There are three types of incomplete induction.
1. Through a simple listing of facts (popular induction). Drawing a general conclusion based on observation of a limited number of facts, unless among them there is a case that contradicts it. (For example, all swans are white - they thought so until they found black ones).
2. Induction through the selection of facts from their total mass according to a certain rule (used in statistical methods of assessment - a survey is conducted on a certain group and people’s opinions are reported).
3. Induction, carried out on the basis of knowledge of the causal relationships of phenomena within the class of phenomena being studied.
Induction is the original form of inference; with its help, a lot of knowledge has been derived (the uncertainty principle, the law of conservation of matter). Inductive generalization stimulates the scientist's thought. It does not work in isolation and interacts with previously proven knowledge.
When a sufficient number of generalizing facts, hypotheses, and principles have been accumulated, the possibility of deduction appears.
Deduction is the logical derivation of new (scientific) knowledge from previously acquired knowledge. (These are all investigators - Sherlock Holmes, Columbo - who solve the crime based on evidence). A deductive conclusion is built according to the following scheme: all objects belong to class m...(?) (for example, all people are mortal, Socrates is a man => mortal).
The deductive method is not limited to deductive reasoning. The direction from the general to the specific can form an entire system. For example, mechanics - the law of inertia, mechanics of a material point and...(?)
Deduction (as a method of scientific knowledge) is a method of scientific research, which consists in the fact that new knowledge is derived on the basis of empirical theories, laws, principles, axioms or hypotheses previously obtained through inductive generalization of observational and experimental data.
Induction and deduction are inextricably linked with each other, dialectically complement and mutually determine each other. This is just a way of developing some provisions on the knowledge of the original knowledge, etc. Induction can be error-prone, and so can deduction. Deduction does not make it possible to obtain meaningful new knowledge. The role of scientific deduction is nevertheless constantly increasing, especially in two directions:
1. Where science has to deal with phenomena that are directly inaccessible to sensory perception (microworld, rapidly occurring processes).
2. In the development of mathematization of science, mathematical and logical-mathematical theories, which are derived through deductive rules (deductive theories) on the basis of certain statements (?), and the method is axiomatic.
Abstraction.
Abstraction is a special type of thinking that consists in abstracting (eliminating) from a number of properties and relationships of the subject being studied while simultaneously highlighting only the properties and relationships that interest the subject. The result is various kinds of abstractions. Using this pattern, we can highlight those properties that are important. Mathematical abstraction is an abstraction from all sensory properties (softness, hardness, taste), but quantitative certainty is preserved. Abstraction appears in the form of a sensually visual image (atom), in the form of an idealized object (absolutely black body) or in the form of a judgment (this object is white), a concept (?) (category of movement, space), in the form of a law (negation of negation).
Classification.
Classification is a method of scientific research, which is based on the division and distribution of many objects into subsets and subclasses according to certain characteristics. Classification is based on the logical operation of dividing the scope of a concept. The scope of a concept is a class of objects designated by a given concept.
The following types of classification are distinguished:
1. Natural and artificial are formed according to the degree of significance of the basis of division. Essential - are the source of knowledge about the object. For example, the periodic table of chemical elements. Non-essential (artificial) do not reveal essential knowledge about the object. For example, a bibliographic index in a library.
2. Formal and substantive classification. Formal ones are focused on identifying some kind of order in objects (vertical or horizontal hierarchy), and substantive ones are focused on revealing laws (classification of types of organisms) (???).
3. Descriptive and essential. Descriptive - records the fact of the existence of an object, and essential reveals the essential characteristics of objects.
Modeling.
The modeling method is the study of an object (original) by creating and studying its copy, which is called its model. The model replaces the original only in those characteristics that constitute the subject of knowledge. The model always corresponds to the original only in those properties that are subject to study; it excludes all other properties and relationships of the original that are not relevant at this stage, this makes the model convenient for research.
Modeling as a procedure includes the following steps:
1. Construction of a model, the goal is to create conditions for the full replacement of the original with an intermediary object that reproduces its necessary parameters. When building a model, simplification, idealization, abstraction, etc. occur.
2. Study of the model, the purpose of this stage is to obtain the necessary information about the model. The model is studied with the depth and detail required to solve a specific cognitive problem. The researcher can make observations, describe, etc. with the model.
3. Transfer or extrapolation of modeling results to the original object, based on the modeling grounds; the method of analogy of knowledge about the original is supplemented with information about the study of the model. If there are inconsistencies, the model is adjusted and everything is repeated, if the assessment of new knowledge is not confirmed by correspondence. In physical and mathematical models, the correspondence is created in advance and an adequate model is created, then even if the results are not very satisfactory, the models are not subject to adjustment, but differences are sought and theoretical transfer methods are used.
Models can be material (physical, social) and ideal (mathematical). Due to the increase in the theoretical level, physical modeling is losing its place and mathematical modeling, which is divided into:
1. Abstract.
2. Analog.
3. Simulation modeling.
The characteristics are as follows.
1. Abstract modeling is based on the possibility of describing the phenomenon or process being studied in the language of some scientific theory (usually in mathematical language). At the beginning, they give as clear and unambiguous a description as possible of what is happening, why, under what conditions, i.e. they build an information (descriptive) model of the process, which is then translated into mathematical language (mathematical language of a certain theory). Those. a logical-mathematical model is defined and it is studied as a functioning phenomenon. For example, in a physical model of a system, features are identified, the behavior of elements is described by difurs, and research begins. Such a model is isomorphic to a specific class of systems.
2. Analog modeling is based on the isomorphism of phenomena (similarity of forms) that have different physical natures, but are described by the same mathematical equations. For example, with the help of a computer, various processes in nature are modeled, which are described in the same way as in machine electronics (thermal processes) (?). Laplace's partial differential equation - hydrodynamic processes are described by an electric field. And the electric field is easier to study than hydrodynamic processes.
3. Simulation modeling. It consists of simulating on a computer the structure and process of functioning of the object under study. There is no detailed description of the system elements, and the processes occurring in them are simulated in an integrated form, allowing one to determine only the basic data necessary for making decisions at a higher level. In simulation modeling, not only theoretical and...(?) but also intuitive, informal information about the object is used as initial information, therefore the role of the researcher (informal) is significant.
Generalization.
This method permeates all other methods.
Generalization is a way of identifying common properties, connections and patterns of a certain subject area by moving to a higher level of abstraction and defining relevant concepts. Includes all previously discussed methods, while they leave their significant imprint at certain levels and stages of generalization. Depending on the objectives and level of research, empirical and theoretical generalizations are distinguished. Generalization is often called a special type of abstraction or generalizing abstraction. However, they cannot be identified, because the cognitive task is significantly different. The generalization operation is a transition from a particular or less general concept or judgment to a more general one, expanding the class of objects and allowing us to achieve new concepts.
3. Methods of theoretical knowledge.
These methods are used to reveal the causes and essence of a phenomenon (idealization, thought experiment...)
Idealization.
Idealization is a type of abstraction in which the mental construction of extremely abstract objects is carried out, endowed with a minimum number of essential properties necessary for solving theoretical problems. Idealized objects, idealizations, do not exist in reality, but they have a prototype in the material world. For example, a material point is a thrown stone, or an absolutely black or solid body. The purpose of idealization is to create constructs for thought experiment models. As a process, idealization is characterized by two theoretical procedures: 1) abstraction from real properties and relationships, the studied fragments of reality and 2) introduction into the content of the concept of a mentally constructed object of such features that cannot belong to the real prototype.
So Galileo understood that it is impossible to artificially reproduce a natural process => it is necessary to build a model.
Thought experiment.
Thought experiment - methods of theoretical research of an object, in their entirety, forming an idealized model consisting of mental schemes and their interaction. During such an experiment, objects are mentally placed in various situations, and in the course of this it is possible to establish laws that cannot be obtained experimentally. Classical research methods: the method of Galileo, Einstein in deriving the theory of relativity about the identity of the inertial force and gravity of a body. He derived this identity through a thought experiment - he imagined an elevator moving from the surface of the Earth to the center; an observer sits in it and suddenly the elevator breaks off, and the question is - what does the observer feel? The observer does not know that the cable has broken, and does not distinguish whether it is the force of gravity or the acceleration from the fall. Next Sa?do Carnot? when studying a steam engine. He believed that there is caloric there and likens it to water and the temperature difference is a difference in levels, and then the work does not depend on the nature of the substance, but is measured by the product of the amount of caloric by the temperature difference, i.e. limited by heater and refrigerator temperatures, which are both important. This later became the second law of thermodynamics.
Such experiments accompany all modern science.
Method of formalization (Formalization).
Formalization is a method of studying the content of an object using identified patterns and connections between the elements of its form. In the process of formalization, any content area (reasoning, evidence, search for scientific information, etc.) is presented in the form of a formal system. In this system, form is separated and abstracted from content, and the subject area being studied is displayed in sign systems of artificial languages (formulas). Such a model allows one to study the structural patterns of the process occurring in it, while abstracting from qualitative characteristics. Subject to transformations with formal signs. Operating with formulas and receiving the final content, the subject can then again put content into it.
Formalization is carried out on the basis of abstractions, formalizations, etc. is carried out on the basis of mathematics and a special case of this method is the method of mathematization - the introduction of mathematics into the field. Logic and linguistics have their own “packaging” of the formalization method. In this case, artificial languages are used, which are called calculi. Calculus is a system for studying certain areas...(???) establishing correspondence between signs and objects in the field of theoretical research.
In mathematical logic: calculus of predicates, classes, statements, etc.
Axiomatization method (axiomatization).
The axiomatic method is a method of deductive construction of a theory or any branch of science (mathematics of mechanics), in which, based on the choice of initial postulates, called axioms, all other provisions of the theory or any branch of science are logically deduced. Axioms include initial general provisions whose truth is accepted without proof, and all other provisions of theories are deduced with the help of evidence. An example is Euclid's geometry. Sciences built on the basis of the axiomatic method are deductive sciences.
Hypothetico-deductive method.
The hypothetico-deductive method is a method of putting forward an abstract theoretical assumption (scientific hypothesis) to explain the causes of directly non-observable forms of connections between the objects being studied. This construction is further developed deductively. Those. the hypothesis develops from the initial assumption, is tested, and then the knowledge is refined and analyzed.
Private scientific methods are a set of methods, principles of knowledge, research techniques and procedures used in a particular science corresponding to a given basic form of movement of matter. These are methods of mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology and social sciences.
1. General scientific methods are means of cognition used in all areas of scientific knowledge. General scientific methods include, for example, the system-structural method, functional approach, general logical techniques, etc.
The systemic-structural method involves the study of the internal structure (structure) of the phenomenon being studied, as well as the study of connections both between the components within the phenomenon itself and with related phenomena and institutions. This method is based on the fact that: 1) the system is an integral complex of interconnected elements; 2) it forms unity with the environment; 3) as a rule, any system under study is an element of a higher order system; 4) the elements of any system under study, in turn, usually act as systems of a lower order. Any phenomenon can be considered as a system.
The functional method is used to identify the constituent structural parts in various systems from the point of view of their purpose, role, interrelation, as well as the real action of the phenomena under study. In particular, the use of the functional method in the process of characterizing the state makes it possible to identify and characterize relatively independent directions (vectors) of state activity in political, economic, environmental and other spheres of public life. This method is also used in the study of individual government bodies, law, legal consciousness, legal responsibility and other state-legal phenomena.
The analogy method is based on the idea of similarity, which is based on the assumption that there are certain correspondences between different phenomena of the same order, so that, knowing the characteristics of one of them, one can judge the other with sufficient certainty (for example, considering legal cases by analogy involves that in the absence of a rule of law regulating this particular legally significant relationship, the decision will be made in accordance with the rule regulating a relationship similar to the one being considered. Thus, in family law, cases related to the collection of alimony from a parent who is not a member of a formal legal (legal) relationship. ) marriage are considered in accordance with the rules governing the relevant relations between legal spouses).
Modeling method. This method involves the creation of models, concepts of phenomena in general (“pure law”, “ideal state”, etc.) abstracted from the realities of life, the study of the created models, and then the dissemination of the information obtained to the phenomena of the same name existing in reality. Modeling helps in finding the best schemes for organizing the state apparatus, the most rational structure of administrative-territorial division, in forming a legislative system, etc.
General logical techniques (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy, hypothesis) are used to define scientific concepts, consistently argue theoretical positions, and eliminate inaccuracies and contradictions. At their core, these techniques are a kind of “tools” for fruitful scientific activity.
Analysis involves identifying the components and studying the simplest components of a particular phenomenon.
Synthesis involves summarizing the data obtained during the analysis and obtaining qualitatively new knowledge about the phenomenon under study.
A hypothesis is a scientific assumption about the direction of development of the phenomenon under study in the foreseeable future.
Deduction is a way of reasoning from general provisions to specific conclusions.
Induction is a method of reasoning from particular facts and provisions to general conclusions.
All of the listed methods of cognition are closely related to each other and are used by researchers in combination. Thus, analysis, i.e., the division of the whole into its component parts, allows us to identify the structure, structure of the object under study, for example, the structure of the state mechanism, legal system, etc. In turn, synthesis involves the process of combining parts, properties, characteristics into a single whole , relationships identified through analysis. For example, on the basis of combining and generalizing the main features characterizing the state, government body, law, legal relationship, offense, legal responsibility, their general concepts are formulated. Thus, analysis and synthesis are considered as primary and derivative knowledge and represent inextricably linked stages in the perception of scientific information.
Induction and deduction are also directly related to analysis and synthesis. In essence, induction is the process of transition of analytical knowledge into synthesized knowledge, since any generalizations can only claim truth when they are based on primary true data. For example, the analytical perception of individual (private) aspects characterizing law (understanding of law as a system of rules (norms), a community of formal sources, a set of legal relations, cultural phenomena, means of communication, etc.) allows us to form a general (synthesized) idea of the essence and content of this phenomenon. Accordingly, deduction can be conditionally called “reverse synthesis”, since it involves isolating specific information from generalized information. In particular, knowledge of the general patterns that characterize the legislative process allows one to make proposals regarding the optimization of its individual components.
2. Special methods are techniques and ways of knowing that are developed within separate scientific groups (for example, in the field of natural or social sciences). Special methods include sociological, statistical, etc.
The sociological method embodies a special direction of general theoretical research - the sociology of law, which studies “law in action”: the connections between law and life. The use of the sociological method allows us to assess the degree of state and legal influence on the life of society. In this case, techniques such as questionnaires, population surveys, conducting socio-legal experiments, etc. are widely used.
The statistical method helps to obtain quantitative data characterizing the phenomenon being studied. The role of this method is especially great when studying mass recurring phenomena (application of law by government bodies and officials, offenses, etc.).
The extrapolation (dissemination) method allows the formation of general legal and national knowledge through reliable analogies, i.e., extending the knowledge obtained from the study of one legal phenomenon to other (similar) phenomena and thereby increasing the volume of general theoretical knowledge.
3. Private legal methods are techniques and methods of cognition developed directly by one or another legal science. Private law methods of the theory of state and law include methods of typology of law, comparative law, interpretation of law, filling gaps in law, theoretical and legal modeling and forecasting, formal legal method, etc.
The method of typology of law involves the identification and analysis of the main types of legal understanding. Through this method, the most scientifically significant ideas about the essence of law, its place and role in the system of social life are systematized.
The method of comparative law is intended to study various state legal systems by comparing institutions, principles, and schools of the same name. The comparative research method has as its object similar or similar institutions of two or more political and legal systems.
Moreover, the comparison can be synchronous - when state legal systems existing at the same time are compared; and dichronic - when phenomena that existed at different historical stages of the development of society are compared.
The comparison method includes the following steps:
studying the compared institutions separately;
comparison of identified features from the point of view of their similarities and differences;
evaluation of results.
Methods of interpretation (interpretation) of law (clarification, clarification) are used in the process of understanding and explaining the essential content of the rule of conduct enshrined in a legal norm.
Methods for filling gaps in law (analogy of law, analogy of law) make it possible to make a decision on a case in a situation where, on the one hand, there is a situation that requires settlement by legal means, and on the other hand, there is no formal source of law in which these means would be enshrined .
The method of theoretical-legal modeling involves the creation of theoretical models within which ideas about the ideal (for a given period of socio-political development) forms of state and law are embodied. For example, for modern domestic legal science, the ideal model of a state is considered to be a rule-of-law state.
The method of theoretical and legal forecasting allows us to put forward and convincingly prove the possibility of developing the situation in the sphere of functioning of the state and law according to one or another scenario.
The formal legal method involves the study of law in its “pure” form, without connection with other social phenomena (politics, economics, ideology, etc.). The study of the internal structure of legal norms and law in general, analysis of the sources (forms) of law, the formal certainty of law and its most important properties, methods of systematization of normative material, rules of legal technique - all these are specific manifestations of the formal legal method. This method is also applicable in the analysis of the forms of the state, in determining and legally formalizing the competence of state bodies, etc. In a word, the formal legal method follows from the very nature of the state and law, it helps to describe, classify and systematize state legal phenomena, study them forms.
The proposed classification of scientific methods cannot be absolute for at least two reasons. Firstly, in modern conditions there is a wide integration of sciences, which occurs, in particular, through the borrowing of methods. For example, in legal science, methods of sociology, psychology, logic, cybernetics, and computer science are becoming increasingly widespread. Secondly, the methodological basis of a specific scientific study is, as a rule, a very complex “bundle” of various methods and techniques aimed at the most complete, comprehensive coverage of the object being studied. For these reasons, the classification of methods as general scientific, particular scientific or special is of a relative, conditional nature.
In addition to methods (tools, means, techniques), the methodology also distinguishes the principles of scientific knowledge, i.e. the fundamental principles, ideas on the basis of which the subject of science is understood. The principles of knowledge in the field of theory of state and law include: historicism, objectivity, universality, pluralism.
The principle of historicism assumes that the state and law are characterized as phenomena that change over time and therefore should be studied in the dynamics of their historical development.
Objectivity as a methodological principle means the desire to obtain the most reliable information about the phenomena being studied, while the influence of subjective factors (personal attitude, public opinion, established tradition) is minimized as much as possible.
The universality of the theory of state and law lies in the fact that it studies the general patterns of development of state and law, regardless of any specific political and legal system or historical era. The concepts and principles formulated within the framework of the theory of state and law act as evaluation criteria, in comparison with which almost any actually existing (existing in the history of human civilization) state legal system can be considered.
The principle of pluralism establishes the possibility of the existence of various ideological and theoretical approaches, concepts, schools, sometimes defending conflicting points of view. At the same time, it is not allowed to forcibly impose any ideological and theoretical schemes, declaring them “absolute truths” (as was the case, for example, with the ideas of Marxism, which were introduced under the slogan “The teachings of Marx are omnipotent because they are true”).
The course of general theory of state and law is intended to form
students have the basic knowledge necessary to master all other
educational disciplines of the specialty “Jurisprudence”. He is orienting
relies: on a good knowledge of the conceptual structure of the theory of state and
law, creating a basis for the study of categories and concepts in specific
nary branches of law and other academic disciplines; on the formation
development of normative thinking among future jurists and specialists
practical jurisprudence; on the formation of a scientific worldview
students' vision, their ability to detect the very nature of phenomena
tions and institutions of state and legal life.
In accordance with this, a course and order system is built
document for the location of the components of the academic discipline.
In the first sections you can see the characteristics of the legal
science, its structure, functions, concepts and place of the theory of state
gifts and rights among other legal sciences, as well as methodological
logical foundations of knowledge of the subject of jurisprudence and theory
state and law. Other sections contain generalized characteristics
teristics of the state, its functions, forms, state appa- ratus
Rata, etc., institutional and functional components of the city
government organization.
The most significant in terms of specific gravity are the
affairs of the general doctrine of law, its functional analysis, mechanics
low regulation of social relations.
There is another cross-section of ideas about the logical linking of cat-
hories and concepts of the theory of state and law that define the whole
the importance of the academic discipline and the systematic nature of the connections between
its components. This is facilitated by the understanding that knowledge
in the theory of state and law are presented in categories and concepts
I. Let us note the value categories as names (name
own) of the subject and concepts how to individualize an object
through the discovery and integration of the most significant features
kov, properties, indicators of the corresponding phenomenon, institution. TO
the formulation of the concept must be approached from the standpoint of requirements
conceptual culture and, above all, the comprehensiveness of its mastery
knowledge and discipline in establishing its meaning. This
important, since concepts in jurisprudence often become de-
philosophies, find normative consolidation and state
provision become normative regulations.
This approach (V.M. Gorshenev) allows categories and understanding
theory of state and law should be arranged in accordance with their
role and purpose in jurisprudence through the isolation of the concept
tiy rows. In particular, they call general conceptual series, to
eras, civilizations (state, law, state apparatus
and etc.); static a conceptual series in which categories and understanding
tia are presented “statically”, they state existing phenomena
state legal life (state body, norm
law, branch of law, etc.); dynamic conceptual series, cat-
hories and concepts in which they show the action of state-
legal institutions, forms: functions of the state, mechanism of implementation
implementation of state power, the mechanism of legal regulation
formation, legal relations, etc. Finally, they call result-
tive conceptual series, where categories and concepts are presented,
showing the results of the actions of state institutions,
legal regulation (legitimacy of state power,
law and order, legal behavior, etc.).__
The study of management systems, depending on the level of the problem being studied, the goals, and objectives of the study, can be global or local in nature. Global problems, as a rule, are systemic, interdisciplinary in nature, and are studied using general scientific methods. Problems that are limited in scope and have pronounced specificity are studied mainly using private scientific methods.
General scientific methods are applicable for research within the subject framework of a number of scientific fields: economics, management, sociology, psychology, etc. The study of a narrower or specific problem in one selected area is carried out using private scientific methods used mainly in the selected scientific direction. For example, methods for studying demand for products are used in marketing research, and the method of functional-cost analysis is used in enterprise economics.
General scientific research methods in IMS include: control and diagnosis of problems, system analysis, expert research methods, modeling and statistical research, morphological analysis and functional decomposition representation in the form of an aggregate, analysis and synthesis of concepts.
Particular scientific methods include: sampling and methods of sociological research, Delphi, methods of weighted average criteria when evaluating suppliers, the Monte Carlo method, testing, parametric method, factor analysis, functional cost analysis, financial analysis, budgeting, calculation, timing, photography working hours, the Pareto method, used to identify the highest costs associated with defects, and many other methods used in functional management subsystems. Fundamental in modern management research is a systems approach, within which the factors of the external and internal environment of the organization are analyzed, and the organization itself is considered as an open, dynamically developing system.
Modeling is a method of predicting possible states of an object in the future, ways to achieve specified parameters using models: subject, symbolic, mathematical, simulation, analytical. A model in the study of control systems is a simplified representation of an object, which must meet the requirements of complete adaptability and provide the ability to include fairly broad changes. The model must be sufficiently abstract to allow variation by a large number of variables, and be oriented towards implementation using existing technical means, i.e. must be physically feasible at a given level of development of science and technology, taking into account the specific enterprise performing the forecasting.
Examples of models used in the study of control systems: functional decomposition representation - unit, Monte Carlo simulation model, block model presented in the form of a logical block diagram, functional cost model, Boston Consulting Group model, factor matrix, cost forecast model and arrived.
Simulation models in MIS are built by analogy with the object of study using statistical methods. For modeling under random conditions, a statistical testing method (Monte Carlo method) was developed, the main idea of which is to model random phenomena through the implementation of “draws”. The results of such modeling are processed using computer technology. The type and parameters of the distribution of random variables are determined.
The functional-decompositional representation of the system in the form of an aggregate complements the mathematical modeling methods used in the IMS.
The general representation of the system is most conveniently used in the form of a mathematical model, for example, in the form of service loops or a unit (Fig. 6).
An abstract diagram of the functioning of a complex system, the central link of which is the unit, is considered. At each moment of time t, the aggregate is in one of the possible states Z(t). The state of the unit at a fixed point in time is determined by the control action g(t) in accordance with the transition operator H using the relationship:
Z(t) = H (Z(t°), g(t)) (1)
The unit has input contacts. They receive input signals X(t), which, in accordance with operator G, are converted into output signals Y(t). This scheme allows for the variation of a large number of parameters used to characterize the state of the system, while at the same time it requires simplification of the set of these parameters to an extremely abstract model that most fully reflects the main ones and allows one to predict future development trends. Visualization and abstraction are the advantages of the vector model under consideration.
Expert methods for studying management systems are methods based on the analysis and averaging in various ways of the opinions and judgments of specialist experts on the issues under consideration. Often accompanied by the creation of special working groups of specialists, an expert commission, and a network of experts.
The selection of experts is carried out on the basis of an analysis of their competence, determined through an objective assessment and self-assessment of experts, as well as a method of stabilizing the expert network.
The way to stabilize an expert network is to select a number of competent specialists, for example 10 people on a selected problem, who select the same number of experts, etc.
The next stage is the formation of a representative sample from the general population and the creation of the necessary expert commission.
Methods of expert assessments: Delphi, round table, interview, expert survey, brainstorming, scenario method, weighted average method, business game, Japanese ring method.
Delphi is one of the methods of expert forecasting, based on a consistent assessment by specialists of any proposed alternatives. Can be applied in the process of group management decision making by selecting the best alternative.
The results of expert assessments are entered into a table (Table 1), where P is the ranking score assigned by the expert to the alternative depending on the degree of its significance. The most significant alternative, for example, the decision to change the supplier, is placed in first place (rank 1); B - the score is given by an expert from 1 to 10 points. The highest score is taken to be one.
P = P * B (2)
For each alternative, the sum of the products is determined. The smallest sum of products indicates the most significant alternative.
Brainstorming is a method of activating the creative activity of participants, based on the spontaneous expression of ideas that are formulated and expressed by the participants in a concise and clear form. Criticism of ideas is unacceptable at this time. It is possible only after the end of the brainstorming. The rule applies is that the number of ideas expressed is more important than their quality. The founder of the method is the American psychologist A. Osborne. In brainstorming, it is believed that a person can be blessed with brilliant ideas if he expresses thoughts “on the spot”, without first thinking about it, only relying on his subconscious. The method is based on free associations of ideas.
The nominal group technique method is based on the principle of limiting interpersonal communications. Group members present their proposals in writing independently and independently of others. The presented options are considered by group members without discussion or criticism. Then each member of the group, again independently of the others, gives written rankings of the ideas considered.
The project that receives the highest score is accepted as the basis for the decision. The method allows you to organize the joint work of a group without limiting the individual thinking of each participant. Close to the nominal group technique method is the Japanese group decision-making method “ringi”.
The method of weighted average criteria is effective for experts to evaluate a number of alternatives and options for weakly structured solutions. A system of weighted criteria can be used to evaluate product suppliers. At the first stage, experts evaluate the selection criteria directly. Let's assume the price for the material, the size of the minimum supply, etc. All criteria are “weighted” in relation to the main criterion (Table 2).
All possible solution options are evaluated using selected weighted criteria.
Let's say there are four product supply companies: A, B, C, D. In fact, there may be much more of them. At this stage, a comparative assessment of each company is made for each criterion.
At the last stage, the total weighing of the options is determined taking into account the different “weight” category of each criterion, i.e. the weight indicators of the selection criteria are multiplied by the weighted options for each line (Table 3). The total weighted assessment shows the most adequate assessment of supplier firms.
The parametric method for studying control systems is based on the quantitative expression of the studied properties of the system and establishing the relationship between a number of parameters.
Typically, functional and correlation dependencies are distinguished. Correlation, unlike functional ones, are incomplete and are distorted by the influence of extraneous factors. In the case of a functional connection, the correlation coefficient is 1.
The correlation method is used in production to develop various kinds of standards and analyze supply and demand. The simplest type of correlation equation characterizing the relationship between two parameters is the straight line equation:
where X,Y are independent and dependent variables,
a,b - constant coefficients
An example of a linear dependence could be the volume of sales Y on the volume of products produced at the enterprise X. The conclusion about the rectilinear nature of the dependence can be verified by simply comparing the data and registering them in a rectangular coordinate system. An important task is to determine constant coupling coefficients between variable parameters that best correspond to the X,Y values. In this example, factors influencing the volume of production and sales of products. The value of the parameter under study is quite often influenced by not one, but several factors. Therefore, a linear multiple correlation equation can be used.
Factor analysis consists of the transition from the initial description of the objects under study, specified by a set of a large number of directly measured characteristics, to the description of the most significant components that reflect the most essential properties of the phenomenon. These principal components contain most of the information contained in the original X variables and explain most of their total variance. These kinds of variables, called factors, are functions of the original characteristics. To determine the variables that have the largest factor loadings, variance calculation is used, and the contribution of the component to the total variance is determined. Variables when using factor analysis are not divided a priori into dependent and independent and are considered as equal. This is its difference from the parametric method, in which interdependent variables are taken.
The advantage of certain research methods and techniques used in management practice is determined by the possibility of obtaining a managerial effect, overcoming problems and modeling the optimal forecast of the organization’s activities for the future.
An example of the successful use of modeling in strategic planning is the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) concept, which is also known as the growth-share model. The BCG model is a matrix on which business units (strategic business zones - SZH) are depicted by circles (Fig. 6).
The x-axis is logarithmic, so the coefficient characterizing the relative market share occupied by a business area varies from 0.1 to 10.
Rice. 7.
Market share is calculated as the ratio of an organization's sales in the relevant business area to the total sales of its competitor. The y-axis is the market growth rate, determined by the volume of products produced. In the original BCG version, the boundary between high and low growth rates is a 10% increase in output per year.
Each circle plotted on the matrix characterizes only one business unit present in the business portfolio of the organization under study. For example, an organization supplying dairy food products to the market has in its portfolio such business units (BUs) as: cheeses, yogurt, fermented milk drinking products (kefir, fermented baked milk), etc. The size of the circle plotted on the matrix is proportional to the total size of the entire market. This size is determined by simply adding the organization’s business and the corresponding business of competitors. Sometimes a segment is identified on the circle that characterizes the relative share of the organization’s business area in a given market. Market sizes are measured by sales volumes, sometimes by asset values.
The BCG matrix consists of four squares with figurative names: stars, cash cows, problem children (wild cats), dogs.
“Stars” are, as a rule, new business areas that occupy a large share of a rapidly growing market, leaders in their industries, guaranteeing high income for the organization.
Cash cows are areas that have gained significant market share, but their growth has slowed over time. Despite this, they provide organizations with significant profits and help maintain a competitive position in the market.
Problem children or wildcats compete in growing industries but have a small market share. The position of the “wild cats” is most uncertain. If there is a lack of investment, they can slide into the “dog” position.
Business areas with small market share in slow-growing industries are dogs. It is very difficult for them to maintain their position, and such business, as a rule, declines.
To maintain the continuity of a successful business, the free cash supply generated as a result of the implementation of a mature business is partially invested in new areas of the business, which may become sources of income in the future. If the growth rate of the market is high in comparison with other markets, then an organization that locates its business units (BU) in the relevant area can very soon receive a return on investment.
The BCG method has been tested as a tool for forecasting cash flows and forming a strategic business portfolio; it shows how the whole range of research techniques in management can be successfully used.
The study of management subsystems: personnel, production, quality, finance, marketing, logistics, is carried out by a number of general scientific and special scientific methods. The methods used are specific to each functional subsystem
Thus, to study the financial management system, coefficient analysis is used to calculate financial stability, liquidity, creditworthiness, etc.; to study quality management, the Pareto and Ishikawa method is used.
Private scientific methods for studying management systems used to analyze the financial management subsystem, determine the level of risk of investment projects, and weaknesses in the economic activities of an organization are methods of economic analysis. They occupy a significant place in the group of research techniques for studying control systems. The professionalism of a manager lies in mastering modern methods of analysis, planning and forecasting of financial and economic activities, determining its relationship with aspects of marketing activities.
The activities of a financial manager include: general financial analysis and planning; providing the enterprise with financial resources (management of sources of funds; distribution of financial resources (investment policy and asset management.
Economic studies of management systems can be carried out on the basis of financial analysis, budgeting, accounting and audit data.
Thus, any study has a set of characteristics that must be taken into account when conducting and organizing it. The main ones:
1) research methodology - a set of goals, approaches, guidelines, priorities, means and methods of research;
2) organization of research - the order of conduct based on the distribution of functions and responsibilities enshrined in regulations, standards and instructions;
3) research sectors - a set of means and opportunities (informational, economic, human, etc.) that ensure the successful conduct of research and achievement of its results atov;
4) object and subject of research. The object of research is a set of connections, relationships and properties that exists objectively and serves as a source of information necessary for the researcher, the subject is a problem whose solution requires research;
5) type of research - whether it belongs to a certain type, reflecting the uniqueness of all characteristics;
6) the result of the research - recommendations, model, formula, methodology that contribute to the successful resolution of the problem, understanding its content, origins and consequences;
7) the effectiveness of the research - the proportion of resources used to conduct the research and the results obtained from it.
The methods used for diagnosing, identifying problems, and searching for optimal measures to improve the functioning mechanism of control systems require knowledge and research skills from managers.
A manager in his activities, no matter what functional subsystem he works in, must own a certain set of established research methods, have the ability to independently formulate and put forward hypotheses, develop research tasks and implement them in conditions of limited time and funds.
Introduction. 3
1. General scientific research methods. 4
1.1 Modeling. 4
1.2 System method. 5
1.3 Mathematical methods.. 6
2. Private scientific research methods. 8
2.1 Comparative method. 8
2.2 Cartographic method. 9
2.3 Historical method. 12
2.4 Geographic information systems.. 14
2.5 Aerial photo methods.. 15
2.6 Space methods.. 16
2.7 Phenological observations. 17
Conclusion. 20
Literature. 21
Introduction
When solving theoretical problems and practical problems in biogeography, a wide arsenal of geographical methods is used, among which the most important role is played by comparative geographical and cartographic methods; this also requires deep knowledge of the biological properties and ecology of plant and animal organisms, the ability to widely use data on the specific interactions of organisms and communities with each other and with the environment.
There are general scientific methods and specific scientific methods that are used by every science, including biogeography.
General scientific methods that are used in various fields of science, i.e. have a wide, interdisciplinary range of applications. These include:
1) modeling;
2) system analysis;
3) mathematical.
Private scientific (specific) are methods used only in a specific science. Among them, comparative, cartographic, historical, and the creation of geographic information systems are important.
General scientific research methods
Modeling
Modeling of processes, connections, and phenomena is widely used in biogeography. Striving for systematicity, geographers at all times excluded some phenomena from their field of view. In the last 10 years, this has been done consciously, which is, in essence, modeling: after all, when scientists “select” only the main features of reality, their structure and mechanism of development become clearer and more understandable to them.
Modeling is a simplified reproduction of reality, describing in a generalized form its essential features and relationships, and is widely used in modern geography.
Mathematical modeling in community ecology is a fairly extensive area of research in terms of the choice of modeling objects, the range of methods, and the range of problems to be solved. The review offered to the reader does not pretend to cover all aspects of modeling. The authors' attention is drawn to two classes of methods: modeling using differential equations and methods based on extreme principles of biology. If examples of variational models relate to a fairly wide range of plant and animal communities, then for approaches based on differential equations, due to the vastness of the material, attention is focused on modeling communities of microorganisms.
The models of each method certainly have their own advantages and disadvantages. Thus, differential or difference equations make it possible to describe the dynamics of processes in real time, while variational methods, as a rule, predict only the final stationary state of a community. But on the path of simulation using equations, difficulties arise of both a fundamental and technical nature. The fundamental difficulty is that there are no systematic rules for deriving the equations themselves. The procedures for their compilation are based on semi-empirical patterns, plausible reasoning, analogies and the art of the fashion designer. Technical difficulties are associated with the high dimensionality of community modeling problems. For substantially multispecies communities that consume numerous resources, the selection of hundreds of coefficients and the analysis of systems of dozens of equations is required.
Depending on the purpose of modeling, two types of models can be distinguished: descriptive models and behavioral models.
A descriptive model provides information about the relationships between the most important ecosystem variables. This type of model is implemented using stochastic modeling methods based on the tools of probability theory and mathematical statistics. There are static methods that do not take into account time as a variable (simple and multiple linear and nonlinear correlation and regression; variance, discriminant and factor analysis, methods for estimating parameters), and dynamic methods that take into account the time variable (Fourier analysis, correlation and spectral analysis , weighting and transfer functions).
Behavior models describe systems during a period of transition from one state to another. To implement this category of models, the following are studied: 1) the structure of the signals at the input and output of the system; 2) the system’s response to special test signals; 3) internal structure of the system. The last point is implemented by analytical modeling, which is based on differential equations that describe cause-and-effect relationships in the ecosystem.
System method
"Nature must be viewed as a whole if we are to understand the details." (Dokuchaev, Berg, Baransky, Saushkin). L. Bertalanffy - the creator of the systems approach - in the late 40s. wrote: “A system is a complex of interconnected elements.”
The most important concepts of systems theory include: integrity, structure, self-regulation, stability. A systematic approach allows not only to take a fresh look at the object as a whole, but also to characterize it quantitatively and create its graphic model. This is the practical significance of systems methodology.
In the 60-70s. XX century A systems approach based on the general theory of systems began to penetrate into geographical research. Works by A.D. appeared Armanda, V.S. Preobrazhensky, Yu.G. Puzachenko, A.Yu. Reteyuma, A.G. Isachenko, V.N. Solntseva, Yu.G. Saushkina and others (abroad even earlier in the USA, Switzerland - D. Harvey, R. Chorley). This attention is not accidental. Indeed, in reality, any system (an integral complex of interconnected elements) is infinitely complex and we can only study a system obtained as a result of some abstraction from the real system. The systems approach is applicable to a wide range of geographical problems both in statistics (analysis of the elements that form the system, their relationships, structure) and in dynamics (retrospection, forecasting changes, both spontaneous and purposeful). Allows you to evaluate the dynamics of the development of communities of living organisms in time and space, as well as their interaction with the natural environment.
Mathematical methods
Obviously, mathematical methods are also necessary. In science, they were brought to life by the desire to somehow express “in number and measure” the infinite combination of objects of nature, population, and economy in certain territories. But mathematical methods in geography are especially successfully applied when there is a certain homogeneity of space, which is rare.
In the 60s Some geographers considered the introduction of “quantitative” mathematical methods into geography as a high road for its development. This was called the “quantitative revolution” in geography, and its supporters called themselves “quantitative scientists.” But already in the 70s a rollback began, because... the whole complexity of the objective reflection of the entire diversity of space and its elements is obvious only by the methods of mathematics.
In addition to the methods of mathematical statistics and probability theory, which are currently widely used in physical geography, mathematical analysis, set theory, graph theory, matrix algebra, etc. are also used. Particularly high hopes are placed on the use of information-theoretic methods and cybernetics.
Until now, in geography the most widely used probabilistic and statistical methods are necessary for analyzing observation protocols and systematizing factual data, i.e. at the empirical level of knowledge. However, when moving to the theoretical level, to make generalizations and identify basic patterns, geographers are increasingly beginning to use mathematical and vector analysis, information theory and set theory, graph theory and pattern recognition theory, probability theory and the theory of finite automata. At the same time, the role of such cognitive operations as idealization, abstraction, and hypothesis increases sharply. Obtaining research results in the form of maps, graphs, mathematical formulas, etc. in fact, it is already a simulation.
Fundamental knowledge about the patterns of functioning of natural supraorganismal systems is obtained not only in specially organized and planned experiments, but also by analyzing environmental monitoring data obtained using standard methods. This data has been accumulated for decades, can cover large areas, but does not always satisfy the requirements of metrology, statistical reproducibility and other conditions that would allow the reasonable use of traditional methods of mathematical statistics for their analysis.
An analysis of the environmental literature of recent years shows that when analyzing multidimensional data sets obtained during the study of natural ecosystems, either classical statistical methods, such as variance and regression analysis, or methods that are only formally related to statistics are most often used: factor analysis, cluster analysis. analysis, multidimensional scaling. Due to the fact that for all these methods there are currently packages of applied computer programs (for example, SYSTAT, SPSS, STATISTICA, etc.), these methods have become accessible to a wide range of ecologists, who, as a rule, do not have adequate mathematical and statistical training. Meanwhile, the applicability of these methods to the analysis of environmental observation data (environmental monitoring), belonging to the category of so-called "passive experiments" seems quite problematic.
Further prospects for the development of the theoretical level in geography are associated with the use of mathematical and logical methods, as well as modeling methods and cybernetics.
Private scientific research methods
Comparative method
As Getner noted: “Comparison is one of the main logical methods of cognition... knowledge of any object and phenomenon begins with the fact that we distinguish it from all other objects and establish its similarities with related objects.”
The comparison method is one of the oldest traditional methods in science. It is important because it makes it possible to more fully and deeply understand the diversity of forms of communities of living organisms in individual development and in connection with the environment. The purpose of comparisons is to establish quantitative and qualitative indicators, their description and analysis to draw conclusions about the spatio-temporal structure of natural-territorial systems, communities, their functioning, condition and potential.
The comparative method is divided into:
· actually comparative-geographical (used to identify and display qualitative and quantitative differences between objects and phenomena of the same name);
· geographical comparison (carried out by composition, structural connections, genesis, type of functioning);
· comparison of the correspondence of the theoretical model to the objective development of geographical objects (used to establish patterns of spatial differentiation of objects, study their dynamics and development).
The practical goals of biogeography are closely related to the tasks of general ecology and Earth sciences. The specificity of biogeography consists, on the one hand, in obtaining complex, related data about the organic world of a particular territory, and on the other, in a comparative geographical approach to the analysis and interpretation of this data. With its help, biogeography is capable, in principle, of predicting the results of various planned and random impacts on the biosphere. At the same time, biogeography acts as an observer and interpreter of experiments carried out by nature itself. Most often it is impossible to specifically carry out such experiments - it is either risky for the biosphere, or requires many hundreds and even thousands of years to obtain results.
The most developed private disciplines of biogeography are zoogeography and phytogeography (plant geography, botanical geography, geobotany). The geography of microorganisms is in its infancy due to the difficulty of studying the object itself.
Zoogeography and phytogeography clearly differ in objects, but the processes that determine distribution patterns for animals and plants have much in common. This implies the fundamental similarity of goals and methods for these biogeographical disciplines, their synthesis within the framework of a single science.
Biogeographic synthesis is most justified in those sections of private disciplines that study the distribution of complexes of organisms over a territory and the patterns of this distribution. Next comes the task of explaining the identified patterns, which requires knowledge of current and past interactions between different groups of organisms, between them and the environment. Thus, there is a logical transition to a comparative geographical study of communities and ecosystems of different ranks, which seems to be the basis of biogeographical methodology. In reality, the researcher deals only with a limited set of species or groups, however, even here it is necessary to comprehend the material in biogeocenotic and ecosystem terms.
The comparative geographical method, when used creatively, makes it possible to analyze the similarities of territories that are far from each other and completely different.
To a certain extent, the comparative method is closely related to the method of analogues, widely used in various sciences. It consists in the fact that knowledge and data about any geographical object are derived from already established ideas about another, often similar object (territory).