Advantages
I especially like this type of fuel because it is non-toxic. It consists of a food product and a fertilizer. This way I don't have to worry too much about handling it or losing pieces of it in the yard. KNO3 is used as a meat preservative in sausage production and in medicine. In my youth, I got KNO3 from the pharmacy, where on the bottles it was indicated what to take? teaspoon dissolved in water as a diuretic. I have also found it in the butcher shop where it was used in the production of sausage. And I noticed that my toothpaste includes KNO3 as a desensitizer. Thus, there is no need to worry about moderate exposure and even ingesting small amounts of KNO3 will not cause immediate harm to most people. Looking at a bag of Peter's special liquid fertilizer, I noticed that potassium nitrate was first on the list. Plants love it.
Cautions on KNO3:
- There is evidence that the use of nitrates/nitrites in food can cause cancer, and although consuming KNO3 is possible, it is not recommended.
- Once ingested, potassium nitrate is metabolized into potassium nitrite, which is toxic and especially dangerous for children! Keep it out of their reach!
- Some people develop dermatitis after exposure to KNO3. If you are susceptible to this, use gloves.
- Inhalation of large quantities of KNO3 dust can cause lung damage. If you are exposed to KNO3 dust, wear an appropriate respirator.
Other good things about Rcandy:
- Stable, does not collapse, provided that it is isolated from air moisture
- Reformable, can be heated and formed into almost any shape, or pressed into shape by hand pressure
- Excellent compressive strength, good tensile strength.
- Produces dense clouds of white smoke, can be used as a tracer.
- The burning rate can be controlled by the cooking temperature, as well as by the introduction of additives.
- Relatively insensitive to ignition by impact or friction, can be drilled, cut, hammered without ignition.*
Flaws
- I don't like the fact that the fuel is hygroscopic, absorbing moisture from the air. It must be sealed from the air or it will become useless in a short time, especially in Florida where 90% humidity is considered low. Also, this is a safety factor, since lost small pieces of fuel will not be flammable for long. Soon they will become liquid, absorbed into the ground and the plants will eat it.
- This fuel is somewhat fragile, so it must be positioned in the engine so that it will not break or fragment during processing or combustion. Concerns arise when packaged checkers may break if they expand and when checkers may hit each other. There was some concern that the shear forces caused by the extreme acceleration would destroy the blocks and the pieces would clog the nozzle. Conservative engine design can compensate for these limitations, but it may limit the choice of checker geometry.
- This fuel has an ISP (specific impulse) lower than some other fuels, especially composites.
- It produces very little visible flame when burned in the engine. This is more of an aesthetic issue - many people like to see shiny white or colored flames, similar to a contrail. I have yet to find an additive that produces visible flames or sparks. Dennis Welch reports that titanium creates a beautiful tail, but I'll have to check that out myself.
- Making this fuel requires the use of an oven, usually located in the kitchen. Attention! This poses a danger to your apartment.
 |
Please note that I do NOT recommend making this fuel in your home kitchen. I hope that one day a well-documented safety program will make it possible to safely cook moderate quantities in the kitchen. The accidental risk may not be greater in the kitchen than in the workshop, but the consequences are likely to be more catastrophic. This will solve the dilemma for many as most ovens are located in the kitchen and cannot be moved easily. I'm looking for ways to solve this problem and accept any suggestions. I am currently researching the possible use of a built-in drying rack for a workshop, thermostatically controlled gas grills for use outside the home. None of these solutions have been tested yet. My preference is to attach a mobile gas stove to a portable propane tank, like the one on my back deck. |
Some good news: I recently made a half batch of RCandy in my toast oven using a suitable sized pyrex baking bowl. So if you're not ready for an oven in your workshop, this might be a good place to start.
Recipe
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Ingredients:
Equipment includes:
- 2 Pyrex 9-inch baking pans
- 2 stone tiles or glass plates, used as covers
- Small saucepan - I prefer stainless or enameled steel, but see no reason why the others can't be used.
- Lever or other scales accurate to the gram and capable of weighing up to 100 g and above.
- Table knife and spoon (optional)
- Measuring spoon or cup
- Oven preheated to 300 degrees Fahrenheit (150 degrees Celsius)
- Kettle grip or other
- Containers of 35 mm film or other small containers that will be airtight and will not splinter when ignited. I have never experienced spontaneous combustion of this fuel, but who knows:
A fire extinguisher is also necessary. It's good if you don't need it, but it's better to have it just in case.
KNO3
I mainly use potassium nitrate purchased from fireworks suppliers like Firefox and Skylighter. They're both good. They sell KNO3 for $2.50 to $4.00 per pound depending on the brand and grind. Higher quality powders are more expensive. The coarsest brand will do for this process, since dissolving the saltpeter grinds it down to a very small particle size.
Honey works fine as a substitute for corn syrup, but makes the final fuel more hygroscopic, so I don't recommend it. I recently used Honey Girl syrup, which is flavored corn syrup, and that worked fine too. Maple syrup didn't work - it makes the fuel burn well but not form.
The container is placed on fire. This is a moderately dangerous point. The photo clearly shows that there is a heating flame under the pan. Please mark two different tiles. Both work. Sometimes I use recessed tiles which work great. I'm sure it could be done over a fire. It doesn't matter how you heat the vessel as long as the KNO3 and sugar dissolve. It is important that you monitor and do not let the mixture boil over or dry out!
Finally, everything is dissolved, the mixture becomes clear. Five minutes may seem long, but you need to watch without stopping!
Roughly, half goes into each mold. Apparently I have to put exactly half in each container, but slight differences are not a big deal. And I like to do this quickly so that the crust that quickly forms does not remain in the vessel I was using, thereby unbalancing the mixture.
 | Forms in 10 minutes. Bubbles begin to form. |
 | Forms in 25 minutes. Well formed bubbles. There is still a little liquid left in the middle of each mold. |
 | Forms in 35 minutes. There is no liquid, but the flakes and bubbles are all bluish-white. |
 | Forms at 40 minutes and beyond. The color of the mixture gradually changes from bluish-white to ivory. This is not shown in the photo. Again, note that the golden color of the far form is an illusion; both mixtures are the same color, more similar to the color of the near form. |
Note that the mixture DO NOT STIR until cooking is complete. Breaking the bubbles will slow down the evaporation of water, making the process slow. So do not stir this mixture before doing the brittleness test.
At the 45th minute, the molds are removed from the oven and a small sample is taken.
It is rolled into a pea-sized ball, flattened on a cold, dry surface and left to cool, about 20 seconds. The mold is returned to the oven while the sample cools.
The cooled sample is bent in two. If the sample bends without breaking, the mixture is still wet and will need to cook longer. Take samples every three minutes or until the bent sample breaks.
(More recently, I have found that good structure can be achieved by a small amount of residual moisture in the mixture. If the cooled sample bends with difficulty, this may be a good thing. It may reduce the brittleness of the resulting fuel, but this has not yet been determined.)
In this case, I took the pans out of the oven on time. The cooled sample is broken cleanly, showing a uniform structure. In fact it was a little grainy, almost dry. Another five minutes and the mixture would have had to be saved.*
*To save, add 1 teaspoon water to each pan, cover with a mason jar, and return to oven for 15 minutes. Continue preparing and repeating tests until the desired structure is achieved.
Once the mixture passes the bend test, it is ready and should be processed immediately. Time to scrape. This is the point of danger at which you must wear all protective equipment. I've never had a fire, but I bet if the flakes ignited, they would fly in all directions, causing a lot of damage.
The flakes in each mold are scraped off and combined in one container.
I use a stiff tablespoon to press, stir, and plasticize the flakes until they begin to compact. They may resist sticking together at first. Be persistent. If you haven't made the mixture too dry, this will happen eventually.
Another new trick: Pour in the flakes and pound them with a wooden or plastic mallet. This will cause them to compact with less effort than simply stirring and squeezing.
After a minute or two of cooling, the fuel is still hot but may need to be lightly processed. I pass it from one hand to the other to maintain a good relationship with my nerve cells.
Here I break off a small sample and roll it into a stick. Note that the board is covered with fabric. The smooth finish makes for an excellent knurling surface for this fuel.
You can roll it into nice sticks like clay. It hardens exactly as you rolled it, maintaining its intended shape.
By crushing the fuel more tightly, I can cover it with tiles. This allows me to keep it warm and soft for longer. The oven temperature is reduced to 200 F (93 C). Fuel at this temperature can remain soft for a long time without decomposing.
Alternative to crushing fuel by hand: Use a food processor! It can be located outside or in a very secure location. I plug the combine into an unplugged extension cord and then plug the extension cord into the mains at a safe distance. I've never had an accidental fire, but there's always a chance.
After about 1 minute, the fuel becomes a ball. If I'm satisfied, I turn off the car and take out the fuel. Typically, I roll it into smaller balls that are cooled and placed in a tightly sealed container.
I always save the pieces to make rods to test the burning rate.
A piece of fuel is rolled by hand into a 1/4 inch diameter rod. A piece 1 inch long is cut and one end is set on fire. This shape is called a fuel rod. You don't have to use a propane torch to ignite, it's just a good source of a stable flame and leaves one hand free to hold the wire and the other to hold the stopwatch.
I start my stopwatch when the fuel lights up and stop it when it burns out. Since the fuel burns from one end to the other, this value will be the rate of combustion of the fuel in air. This sample burned an inch in 11 seconds, which is average for a light burst of fuel. Some samples burn an inch in 8 or 9 seconds. It will burn faster under pressure, like a rocket engine.
The rod has cooled, so I break it into pieces and place it in film boxes. In an airtight container, fuel can be stored for years. I use these ?-inch sticks for vortexes and micro-missiles.
Label each container clearly and place them in a safe place.
Perhaps the most remarkable property of this fuel is that it can be reheated and formed into any shape. Place it in a 200 F (93 C) oven until heated through, it takes on the consistency of putty and can be shaped by hand like clay into any shape. Light hand pressure can give it the shape of a matrix (mold).
For example, I will make a fuel bomb for an engine. It is simply a cylindrical block 5/8" in diameter with a 1/8" through hole and weighs 10 grams. It is used in conjunction with black commercial powder of FFFG grain size. 
Cut a piece weighing about 10 grams or a little more. 
Roll into a cylinder with a diameter the size of the engine housing. In this case, the tube was 5/8 inch in diameter.
Place a dose of black powder on a rolling board, then roll the fuel over it to help the grains stick. If they do not stick, place the fuel in the oven at 200 F (93 C) for a few minutes until it softens again.
Make a through hole through the middle of the fuel charge. Make it big enough for your igniter. Here I use bamboo skewers, the same ones used for shish kebabs or tempura. I use these sticks for many things:
Now I try to insert a block into a 5/8 inch diameter tube. This piece is too big.
So I roll again. The fuel has hardened a little and can therefore be rolled more accurately.
Not shown here, but I weighed this tablet and it weighed over 12 grams. This will almost certainly tear the casing, so I cut a piece off with a sharp knife. After this, the weight was 10.2 grams. Close enough.
Now everything is good, just place it in the 5/8 inch tube.
Since I will not be using this checker immediately, I place it in a film box. Along with the rest of this download. Simply make lumps and lumps of fuel, place them warm in containers and close tightly. Place containers on their sides until cool. If this is not done, the fuel will drain to the bottom and solidify, and you will spend a lot of time removing it.
Jimmy Yawn
5/26/01
rev 6/5/03
Translated by Incubus
TRANSLATOR'S NOTES
1. THIS TECHNOLOGY IS TRANSLATED AND PUBLISHED WITH THE KIND PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR.
2. WHEN REPRINTING IT IN WHOLE OR PARTIALLY, A LINK TO THE ORIGINAL SOURCE (WWW.JAMESYAWN.COM) IS MANDATORY.
3. TRANSLATION IS MAINLY SENSITIVE, NOT LITERAL. SPECIAL ATTENTION WAS PAID TO TECHNOLOGY AND SAFETY.
Potassium nitrate is an inorganic binary compound represented by the formula KNO 3, also known as potassium nitrate, potassium nitrate, potassium nitrate. The KNO 3 compound is a colorless crystalline powder, non-volatile, odorless, and has hygroscopic properties. The substance is highly soluble in water. Not toxic to animals. In nature, the substance KNO 3 occurs in the form of the mineral nitrocalite, the largest deposits of which are found in the East Indies and Chile. It is found in small quantities in plants and animal organisms.
Chemical properties and methods of obtaining potassium nitrate
Potassium nitrate KNO 3 decomposes at a temperature of 400°C to form potassium nitrite KNO 2 and oxygen O 2 . This substance acts as a strong oxidizer and reacts with flammable materials and reducing agents. The substance KNO 3 is reduced by hydrogen at the time of release.
In laboratory conditions, KNO 3 is obtained by the reaction of potash Ca(NO 3) 2 and calcium nitrate K 2 CO 3, which is the oldest method of producing this substance. Currently, potassium sulfate K 2 SO 4 is used instead of potash. A solution of potassium nitrate is obtained by the same reaction. Among modern methods for producing potassium nitrate KNO 3, the reaction of potassium chloride KCl and sodium nitrate NaNO 3 is more accessible and cheaper.
Areas of application of potassium nitrate
Potassium nitrate KNO 3, as well as a solution of potassium nitrate, is used as a fertilizer (one of the nitrogen fertilizers rich in potassium, which is a necessary component for plant growth). The substance is also used in the electric vacuum industry, metallurgy, optical glass melting, and in the production of gunpowder.
Nutritional properties of potassium nitrate
Potassium nitrate is widely used in the food industry as a food additive E252, classified as a preservative.
Preservatives are chemical substances, food additives E200 - E299, which suppress the growth of microorganisms in the product, as well as prevent the appearance of unpleasant odor and taste of the product, the development of mold processes, and the formation of toxins of microbial origin.
Potassium nitrate is used in the production of:
- cheeses (hard, semi-hard, soft);
- milk-based cheese analogues;
- sausages and meat products (salted, boiled, smoked), canned meat;
- fish products (herring, salted and marinated sprat);
- goose liver products.
The food additive is also a color fixative. The substance is added to food products to preserve the attractive appearance of the product for a longer period of time. Has a weak antibacterial effect.
Effects of potassium nitrate on the body
Potassium nitrate produces a carcinogenic effect - the development of malignant tumors under the influence of external factors. However, in recommended doses, E252 has no harmful effects on the adult human body. The negative impact of nitrates is explained by their transformation in the human body into nitrites (uncontrolled conversion of potassium nitrate into nitrites occurs in food products) and carcinogenic nitrosamines. The amount of nitrates entering the body with food additives, in particular with E252, is negligible compared to the content of these substances in drinking water, as well as in vegetables (as a result of excessive fertilization).
Long-term exposure to E252 in small doses on the body can lead to the development of the following symptoms and diseases:
- Severe abdominal pain
- Weakness
- Dizziness
- Mental disorders
- Spatial orientation disorder
- Arrhythmia
- Kidney inflammation
- Anemia
legal information
Potassium nitrate as a food additive is approved for use in food production in the Russian Federation and Ukraine, as well as the countries of the European Union.
Volcanic thermite (combustion of a mixture of iron oxide Fe 3 O 4 and aluminum)
(№ 4 2009)
In 1898, German metallurgical engineer Hans Goldschmidt invented a method for smelting metals from their oxides using aluminum as a reducing agent. For this purpose, a mixture of aluminum and metal oxide powders was used, which the scientist called thermite (from the Greek “therme” - heat, warmth).
In the case of thermite from Fe 3 O 4 and aluminum, a temperature of about 2400°C develops, and this reaction itself begins when the temperature reaches 1000°C. The method of producing metals using thermite was called aluminothermy, and the mixture of metal oxide and aluminum powders was called Goldschmidt thermite. Aluminothermy is a special case of metallothermy, which was discovered in 1856. N.N. Beketov.
Today, many different thermite compositions are known. Not only aluminum, but also magnesium, calcium, ferrosilicon, boron, borides, silicon, titanium, etc. can act as a reducing agent. Fluorides or chlorides of low-active metals and even Teflon (fluoroplastic-4) are also used as oxidizing agents. Thermites are used not only to obtain metals, but also for welding, and also as incendiary mixtures.
Now we will carry out the combustion reaction of thermite Fe 3 O 4 + Al, which externally resembles the eruption of lava from a volcanic crater. For the experiment, completely dry river sand is first prepared by drying it at 200°C in an oven or simply in the oven. At the same time, dry a small ceramic pot. A wide metal container (basin, frying pan, etc.) is filled with dry sand, and above it a clay flower pot is secured in a tripod ring and its bottom hole is covered with a sheet of filter paper. Dried powders of iron oxide Fe 3 O 4 and aluminum are mixed in a ratio of 3:1 by weight. Take no more than 200 g of this mixture - termite (about 50 g of Al and approximately 150 g of Fe 3 O 4) and pour it into the pot to 3/4 of its volume. To prepare thermite mixture You should not use aluminum powder instead of aluminum powder.. Aluminum powder contains oxidized aluminum, which greatly interferes with the start of the reaction. But the main trouble is that aluminum powder contains a lot of air, and this leads to strong splashing of a very hot mixture.
In the thermite mixture poured into the pot, make a depression in the center and place a fuse in it - a piece of magnesium tape, sanded with fine-grained sandpaper. Using a long splinter, they light a magnesium strip and quickly move away to a distance of 2-3 m. After the fuse burns out, a violent reaction begins. Flame and smoke appear above the pot, hot particles of the mixture fly out of it, and a stream of molten iron, formed by the reaction, flows out of the bottom hole:
8Al + 3Fe 3 O 4 = 6Fe + 4Al 2 O 3
Aluminum is a more reactive metal than iron, so it takes oxygen away from iron oxide, turning into aluminum oxide. When the molten iron has cooled, the resulting bead is removed from the sand and cleaned of slag - aluminum oxide.
Now it becomes obvious why the sand must be completely dry. Water will evaporate from the wet sand, and drops of molten iron will begin to splash. In this case, the experience will become extremely dangerous.
If you conduct the experiment outdoors, then an iron tin can, which is buried in the sand, will also work as a disposable reaction vessel.
Fe 3 O 4 can be obtained by the action of an excess of ammonia solution on a solution that contains equal amounts of Fe(II) and Fe(III) salts. A precipitate forms, it is filtered, washed with water, dried and calcined at approximately 200°C.
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Success in learning depends on the child's desire to learn. In order to increase motivation to study chemistry, I use various teaching technologies that allow students to be involved in an active cognitive process.
Lesson objectives:
- To consolidate and expand students' knowledge about chemical reactions, their signs and conditions of occurrence;
- Introduce decomposition reactions and begin to develop the ability to draw up equations of chemical reactions;
- Continue to practice students’ ability to set coefficients;
- Continue to develop students’ ability to solve problems using equations of chemical reactions;
- Continue to develop the skills to observe and compare;
- To form a chemical culture, the ability to listen to others when working in a class, in a group.
Equipment:
- For demonstration experiments: crucible tongs, splinter, alcohol lamp, crystalline KNO 3, charcoal, HNO 3 (conc.), H 2 O 2, MnO 2., laboratory stand with foot;
- Computer, projector, presentation “Decomposition reactions”.
During the classes
I. Organizational moment.
II. Motivational moment.
The most interesting thing about the world around us is that it is very complex and, moreover, constantly changing. Every second, an innumerable number of chemical reactions occur in it, as a result of which some substances are transformed into others. The man took a breath - and oxidation reactions of organic substances began in the body. He exhaled - and carbon dioxide entered the air, which was then absorbed by plants and turned into carbohydrates. We can observe some reactions directly, for example, the rusting of iron objects, blood clotting, and the combustion of automobile fuel. However, the vast majority of chemical processes remain invisible, but they determine the properties of the surrounding world. To control the transformations of substances, it is necessary to thoroughly understand the nature of such reactions. Our task, having studied the properties of substances, is to learn to use the acquired knowledge for the benefit of humanity.
III. Updating knowledge.
- What do we know about chemical reactions? (Slide 2)
- What conditions are necessary for a chemical reaction to occur? (Slide 3)
- What are the signs of a chemical reaction occurring? (Slide 4)
- Give examples of chemical reactions.
Conclusion: There are many chemical reactions. They leak constantly. What needs to be done to avoid getting confused in this variety of chemical reactions?
Learn to classify chemical reactions.
Introduction of the concept of decomposition reaction.
1. View multimedia “Electrolysis of water”(digital database of videos on chemistry). Appendix 2
Then, during the conversation, make a note:
water → hydrogen + oxygen
2H 2 O 2H 2 + O 2
2. Demonstration experiments.
a) Decomposition of potassium nitrate. KNO 3 is placed in a test tube, the test tube is fixed in a stand and heated - the saltpeter quickly melts and turns into a thick liquid. Throw a hot coal into the melt; the coal in the test tube becomes even hotter and begins to jump, interacting with oxygen.
2KNO 3 2KNO 2 + O 2 (Slide 5)
b) Decomposition of copper(II) hydroxide. Heat the test tube with the freshly obtained precipitate of Cu(OH) 2 - it will turn black due to the formed copper(II) oxide.
Cu(OH) 2 CuO + H 2 O (Slide 6)
c) Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide using a catalyst (MnO 2, raw carrots, potatoes).
H 2 O 2 2H 2 O + O 2 (Slide 7)
d) Decomposition of mercury (II) oxide. J. Priestley's experience
2HgO 2Hg + O2 (Slide 8)
Issues discussed:
- What do all these reactions have in common? (Slide 9)
- What is their difference?
- How, in one word, can we call the processes that take place? (Slide 9)
- What conditions are necessary for these reactions to occur? (Slide 9)
1. The process of decomposition of substances is underway (decomposition reaction). In all reactions, one substance reacts, and two or more new substances are formed: both simple and complex. Try to formulate a definition of a decomposition reaction.
2. As a rule, almost all decomposition reactions are endothermic reactions, because For the reaction to occur, certain conditions are required: heating, electric current, and the presence of other substances that accelerate the reaction—catalysts. (Slide 10)
Catalysts in cars. (Slide 11)
- Millions of cars use the roads every day, and each of them is a source of air pollution. This is especially felt in large cities, where vehicle exhaust fumes can create big problems.
- Modern cars have a catalytic converter or car catalyst . The task of an automobile catalyst is to reduce the amount of harmful substances in exhaust gases. Among them:
- Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous, colorless and odorless gas.
- hydrocarbons, also known as volatile organic compounds, are one of the main components smog , formed due to incomplete combustion of fuel
- nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) are also a component smog , and acid rain , influence mucous membrane person.
Catalysts are ubiquitous in nature. Suffice it to say that all transformations of substances in living organisms occur with the participation of natural catalysts - enzymes and therefore do not require high temperature. This is very important - otherwise living tissues, carrying out chemical reactions, could be cooked. Without special “biological” catalysts - enzymes - neither delicious bread, nor appetizing cheese, nor sauerkraut will be obtained. A cut apple darkens in air because the enzyme polyphenol oxidase accelerates the oxidation of polyphenols, organic substances, found in the cells of the fruit. When a wound is poured with hydrogen peroxide, the hydrogen peroxide “boils” - it rapidly decomposes into water and oxygen under the influence of the catalase enzyme found in the blood. The body needs catalase to destroy hydrogen peroxide, which is formed during cellular respiration.
Digestive juices contain dozens of enzymes: lipases, which decompose fats into glycerol and organic acids; proteases that degrade proteins, etc.
Catalysts are also used in the chemical industry in the synthesis of various substances, including such important chemical products as ammonia NH 3 and sulfuric acid H 2 SO 4.
Catalysts are among the most necessary substances, although sometimes we don’t think much about it.
Chemical reactions as a result of which heat is absorbed are called endothermic.(Slide 12)
Substances that change the rate of a chemical reaction, but are not consumed as a result of the reaction, are called catalysts.(Slide 12)
IV. Consolidation.
Complete the tasks.
(Slide 13)
- Arrange the coefficients by converting the diagrams into reaction equations. Determine the decomposition reaction of your option. Give an explanation.
| Option 1 CuO + H 2 → Cu + H 2 O CO + O 2 → CO 2 AI + CI 2 → AICI 3 CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2 |
Option 2 HCI + AI → AICI 3 + H 2 Na 2 O + H 2 O → NaOH KCIO 3 → KCI + O 2 Na + H 2 → NaH |
- Task. Determine the amount of substance and the mass of one of the reaction products if 2 moles of the substance decomposed as a result of the reaction.
V. Homework§ 27, ex. 1, 2 p. 155 (Slide 14).
VI. Used Books:
- Gabrielyan O.S."Chemistry". 8th grade. Textbook.
- O.S. Gabrielyan, N.P. Voskoboynikova, A.V. Yashukova"Chemistry", 8th grade. Teacher's handbook. M.: Bustard, 2002.
- O.S. Gabrielyan, T.V. Smirnova. We study chemistry in 8th grade.
- L.Yu. Alikberova“Entertaining chemistry: A book for students, teachers and parents”, M.: AST - PRESS, 1999.
- Encyclopedia for children. Volume 17. Chemistry. M.: Avanta +, 2000.
- Internet materials.