Architecture of the Roman Empire in the ruins of the Roman Forum.
The conquest of Greece brought Rome a new perspective on culture and art. However, Roman architecture not only copied Greek, but also made its own contribution to the development of architecture. Ancient Roman architecture in its development also absorbed the construction culture of the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, Ancient Germany, Gaul and others conquered by the empire. Rome adopted much of the art of the Etruscans, carriers of a highly developed culture, thanks to the influence of which some constructive approaches to construction and engineering structures appeared. The beginning of the development of Roman architecture dates back to the period 6-1 centuries. BC. At the beginning of this period, Rome was a small city, and its architecture was influenced by the culture of the Etruscans, an Italic tribe. Arches and vaults with domes were borrowed from them. In those days, powerful defensive structures were created, for example, the wall of Servius (4th century BC). Until 3rd century BC. Roman architecture consisted mainly of wooden buildings with terracotta ornaments. Until 2nd century BC. In Rome, local marble had not yet been developed, and temples were built from volcanic tuff. Arched vaults made of soft tuff replaced the strong beams used in Greek buildings and served as load-bearing structural elements. The walls were decorated with plaster reliefs. The development of technologies for producing baked brick dates back to this period; a frame was built from it, and the cladding began to be made from tuff. On Capitol Hill in 509 BC. a temple was erected with three cellae of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The ridge of the pediment was decorated with a terracotta quadriga by the sculptor Vulka. Later, the temple was rebuilt several times using columns from Greek temples.
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in Rome and elements of the order in temples in different cities of the era of Ancient Rome.
In the 2nd-1st centuries. BC. In Roman architecture they began to use a new plastic material - concrete. Vaulted structures are used in construction. At this time, the construction of courthouses, trade buildings, amphitheaters, circuses, baths, libraries, and markets began. The creation of the first triumphal arches and warehouses (portico of the Emilians - 2nd century BC) dates back to that period. Offices and Archives appeared (Tabulary. 80s of the 1st century BC). Such rapid construction and the emergence of buildings for various purposes is caused by expanding expansion, seizure of territories, an increase in the size of the state and the need for strict regulation of controlled territories.
Tabularium in Rome.
By the end of the 1st century. AD The Roman Empire was formed with sole power. The reign of Emperor Augustus gave rise to “Augustan classicism” in the architecture of the Roman Empire, which later became the basis for European architecture. At this time, they began to develop “Luna” marble, then Carrara marble. Roman architecture of that period was guided by the creations of the time of Phidias in Ancient Greece. Instead of houses made of adobe and wood, the first multi-story houses and mansions of aristocrats appeared, which were built from baked brick and concrete and faced marble. The city was decorated with Campania villas, palaces decorated with porticos, columns, pediments, rich sculptural decoration. Fountains with stucco decoration combined with the greenery of gardens. The Roman Forum appeared, around which public buildings and temples were erected. Corinthian columns of the temple still stand at the Roman Forum Castor and Poluksa 12.5 m high.
Columns of the Temple of Castor and Pollux in Rome.
Looted wealth from conquered countries caused the rise of Roman architecture, which was designed to emphasize the greatness of the empire. The structures emphasized their scale, monumentality and power. The buildings were richly decorated. Not only temples and palaces were built in the ancient style, but also baths, bridges, theaters, and aqueducts. Greek orders were used as a basis, of which preference was given to the Corinthian order, as well as the new composite one, created as a mixture of ancient Greek ones. However, in the architecture of the Roman Empire, elements of the order were used mainly as decorative, in contrast to Ancient Greece, where all parts of the order system carried a certain load and were parts of the structure. In the 1st century BC. not only in Rome, but also in provincial cities, beautiful architectural complexes appeared, such as, for example, in Pompeii. Emperor Nero gave Roman architecture a new look by destroying several blocks of the city, on the site of which the Golden House was built.
Ruins of the Golden House of Nero in Rome.
During the reign of the Flavians and Trajan (late 1st - early 2nd centuries AD), large architectural complexes were built. In conquered Athens, Hadrian built the Temple of Olympian Zeus in 135 AD. (reconstructed in 307). Under Hadrian (125), the construction of the Pantheon began - a striking building of the architecture of the Roman Empire, which has survived to this day. The Pantheon was created from volumes of a strict geometric shape: a cylindrical rotunda, a hemispherical dome, a portico with two rows of columns in the form of a parallelepiped. There is a hole in the dome through which the interior of the temple is illuminated. This work clearly displays the proportions: the diameter of the rotunda is equal to the height of the structure. The height of the dome is equal to half of a conventional sphere that could be fit into the temple structure. The Pantheon is decorated with marble slabs on the lower tier and plaster on the upper tiers. The roof was covered with bronze tiles. The Pantheon became a model for many buildings of European architecture from different historical eras.
View of the Roman Pantheon from above.
At the end of the 3rd century. AD One of the most important structures of the architecture of the Roman Empire was the defensive wall of Aurelian. Emperor Diocletian (3rd-4th centuries AD) made the city of Salona his residence and practically did not live in Rome. A well-fortified palace complex with access to the sea was built in Salona. At this time, the architecture of the Roman Empire was distinguished by austerity, clarity and less decoration. The late period (until the end of the 2nd century) of the development of Roman architecture began during the reign of Hadrian and under Antoninus Pius. These were years of fierce wars, conspiracies, political assassinations, uprisings, and the plague. In those days, triumphal arches were not erected, but many residential buildings and villas were built. Roman architecture of the late Antonines was characterized by a large amount of decoration. The Temple of Hadrian, the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman Forum, the columns of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, richly decorated with bas-reliefs, date back to that period.
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman Forum (141 BC).
With the coming to power of Emperor Constantine and after 313, with the official recognition of the Christian religion as the main one in the territory of the Roman Empire, ancient orders were used for the construction of temples. The capital was moved to the once Greek Byzantium, which was named Constantinople. Rome loses its central importance, and ancient art, moving away from its center, gradually acquires a formal character, gradually developing into medieval styles.
Temple of St. Sophia in Constantinople. Built under Emperor Constantine. 324-337
Roman architecture of the 3rd century. AD was increasingly exposed to the influence of Christianity, however, the order system was still used in the construction of temples and public buildings: large entrance staircases, multi-column porticoes, podiums, decor of high walls. During the Dominant era (284-305 AD), the appearance of Roman architecture changed: the amount of decor decreased, the clarity of volumes and proportions decreased. At this time, techniques appeared that later began to be used in Byzantine architecture: a combination of stone and brick, mosaic decoration. For example, the Temple of Jupiter was built from white stone and brick; colored marble was used for cladding; the surfaces were covered with plaster, mosaics, and plaster stucco. At the same time, the art of stone carving faded: stucco became rougher and less detailed. The developing Byzantine art used the architectural traditions of the Roman Empire and Ancient Greece, combining them with oriental motifs. During the 5th century. Based on these trends in Roman architecture, European architecture began to take shape, bringing great works to world architecture. To this day, many of the elements of Roman architecture are used in the construction of buildings in historical styles. And with the advent of artificial materials that imitate natural ones, such as, for example, polyurethane, such construction has become more democratic, reducing the cost and the need for large labor costs.
The façade of the apartment building resembles ancient Roman buildings in its appearance.
ART OF ANCIENT ROME. THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE ROMANS TO THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE DIVERSITY OF TYPES OF ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES IN ANCIENT ROME
The presentation was prepared by an Fine Arts teacher at the MBU DODSHI a. Takhtamukai Saida Yurievna Jaste
Who founded Rome and when?
- Rome was founded by Romulus. He was the first king of the Roman Empire (although it was not yet an empire). Here's how it happened.
- In ancient times, a tribe of Latins lived on the territory of modern Italy. In one of the Latin city-states of Alba Longa (in Latium), a king ruled Numitor Silvius .
- But in the fourth year of service, Rhea gave birth to two sons.
- How did the Vestal Rhea Silvia, who was not supposed to have children, give birth to twins?
- One day, Rhea Silvia went down to the Tiber River, which flowed near the Temple of Vesta, in order to get water. When she was returning back to the temple, a very strong thunderstorm broke out. But there were many caves around the temple of the goddess Vesta, and Rhea Silvia took refuge in one of them from the weather. Suddenly, the god of war, Mars, appeared in the light of lightning and told Rhea that the gods themselves had chosen her to be his wife. And nine months later, Rhea Silvia gave birth to twins - Romulus and Remus .
- The brothers decided to found their own city, but argued over not knowing what to call it. Everyone wanted to become a king in it and give it their name. In the end, Romulus killed Remus and put an end to the feud. The city built later was called Rome (Roma in Latin) and Romulus became its king No. 1.
- This happened in 753 BC.
ROME - THE “HEART” OF THE EMPIRE
Model of Ancient Rome
- Rome is the capital of the Roman Empire and its largest city (up to 1 million people). Rome amazed everyone with its majesty and beauty: both visitors and the townspeople themselves.
- In parallel with the prosperity of the Hellenistic centers in the West, the military power of Rome increased - first a small oligarchic republic, then the master of all of Italy and, finally, a huge power that absorbed the entire Mediterranean, the entire ancient world.
- Fall of Carthage in 146 BC was a turning point: from that moment on, Rome took possession of Greece.
Roman Pantheon
- Proud Rome, unyielding and stern in the struggle for world domination, obediently bowed its head before the great Greek culture. The Romans' own artistic traditions were rather meager. They adopted the entire pantheon of Greek gods, giving them different names:
Art of Rome
- The art of Rome represents the last, final stage in the development of ancient artistic culture. For the Roman, more than for the Greek, art was one of the means of rational organization of life; Therefore, in Rome, the leading place was taken by architecture, engineering research, a sculptural portrait characterized by an interest in a specific person, and a historical relief that tells in detail about the actions of citizens and rulers. The real element prevails over fiction in ancient Roman art, and the narrative principle prevails over philosophical generalization. In addition, in Rome there was a clear division of art into official and meeting the needs of private consumers. Official art played an important role in Roman politics, being an active form of establishing state ideology in conquered areas. The importance of architecture, which combined ideological functions with the organization of public life, was especially great; In Roman construction practice, a system of constructive, planning and compositional techniques developed, which allowed the architect every time to find a solution that directly follows from the purpose of a given building.
- Spreading their style in the provinces of the empire and dependent countries, the Romans at the same time easily assimilated and implemented the artistic principles of other peoples: in the early period - Etruscans
Etruscan sarcophagus in the form of a bed
- and the Greeks, later - the peoples of the Hellenistic East and the conquered “barbarians”. Often, ancient Roman art gave new impetus to local creativity, resulting in the birth of syncretic artistic phenomena.
Architecture of Ancient Rome
- Wooden architecture reigned in Rome in the 3rd century. BC. and only in the 4th century. BC. stone buildings appeared. But the temples were built from soft volcanic tuff, because... Italy did not have its own marble. But it was not possible to carve long, strong beams from tuff; in addition, it was impossible to carve emphasized ornaments from soft tuff; it was necessary to decorate the buildings with plaster plastic. But then baked brick appeared, and this made it possible to build a frame of walls, and then line them with tuff.
City planning
- The architecture of this time is characterized by extensive urban planning measures, rectangular planning schemes repeating the layout of a military camp, based on 2 main highways - "cardo"(from north to south) and "decumanus"(from east to west).
By the end of the day's march, the Roman legionaries had laid out a large rectangle on flat ground, oriented along the cardinal points. A deep ditch was dug along its contours and an earthen rampart was poured. A gate was installed in the center of each of the walls thus formed. The geographical orientation of the camp was emphasized by two main roads crossing it - the cardo, directed from north to south, and the decumanus, running from east to west. At their intersection there was a square for a general meeting of soldiers, which served as the administrative and religious center of the camp. Here the tents of military leaders and priests were set up, a camp altar was erected and a room for the treasury was built.
The tents of individual military formations were located in compliance with strictly established intervals. In addition to the cardo and decumanus, the camp was intersected by a number of mutually perpendicular narrower streets. Thus, the Roman camp acquired a rational system of plan, composed of rectangular cells of different sizes
Diagram of the Roman camp (as described by Polybius)
- The first known city of the new type is the Roman fortress in Ostia, built in 340-335. BC. It arose at the mouth of the Tiber, at the sea gate of Rome, to protect this important strategic position
Ostia. City plan.
- As the composition is formed forum (from Latin - market square; area for the people's assembly, the administration of justice) the most important principles of the planning solution of ancient Roman complexes were formed: the tendency towards symmetry, axial construction, accentuation of the facade of the main building and the structure of the rise to it from the ceremonial entrance to the site.
Ancient Roman house
- Private houses at that time were very modest, continuing in their forms the traditions of the ancient Italian rural house with atrium . A fireplace was built in the atrium (from “ater” - black), so the room was black with smoke. The light fell through a hole in the thatched roof.
- Later, the hearth was removed from the atrium, and in its place they began to make a stone pool to collect water that flowed from the roof through the hole. So, from the darkest room in the house, the atrium turned into the brightest and most ceremonial.
Roman atrium with impluvium and compluvium.
Peristyle
Pompeii. House of Loreus Tiburtin, 1st century. AD Fragment of the garden, reconstruction
- A type developed in residential architecture atrium house , the center of whose composition was in the 2nd century. BC e. became a garden peristyle (from Greek - surrounded by columns), testifying to the craving for nature, which increased unusually with the urbanization of ancient society.
Diagram of an ancient Roman house
- 1.Vestibule
- 2. Taberna - room
- 3. Atrium - covered courtyard with a light well
- 4.Impluvium – pond in the atrium
- 5.Tablinum – owner’s office
- 6. Triclinium - banquet hall
- 7. Wings - open spaces on the sides of the tablinum
- 8. Cubes - bedrooms
- 9. Kukina - kitchen
- 10.Entrance for servants
- 11.Peristyle – open courtyard
- 12. Piscina - pond in the peristyle
- 13. Exedra - living room along the main axis of the house
- 14. Fauces - corridors connecting the atrium and peristyle
- 15.Ekus – living room
- 16. Compluvium - a quadrangular hole in the roof of the courtyard of an ancient Roman residential building
Domus - home of a rich Roman
Separate
guest room.
Atrium - open courtyard
Premises for rent
Rolling
atrium roof.
Living rooms.
Dining room-triclinium.
Cabinet.
Ancient Roman communal apartments - insula
- During the imperial period, Roman housing underwent significant changes caused by fundamental transformations in the socio-economic nature of Roman society. It was a time of increasingly progressive social stratification, rapid enrichment of some and impoverishment of other, more numerous groups of the population. The influx of people from the periphery of Italy and from the provinces to the cities has noticeably increased. The overcrowding of cities with a population with a low cost of living has also created a need for accelerated construction of cheap housing. This led to the creation of a new type of housing - insulins, a multi-storey residential building with apartments for rent.
Multi-storey buildings of Ancient Rome
- Insula (Latin insula, literally - island), a multi-story, usually brick, residential building in Ancient Rome, with rooms or apartments intended for rent. Appeared no later than the 3rd century. BC.
- 3-5-story insulae (the premises of which were usually arranged around a light courtyard, often occupying an entire block) constituted the massive development of Roman cities.
- It was they, and not temples and villas, that determined the appearance of ancient Rome - in 350 AD there were 1,782 individual houses (domus) and 46,020 insula - the latter clearly predominated.
Dear insulins
- The first insulas were 3-5-story stone houses on the first floors of which there were shops and workshops, and the remaining floors were residential.
- On the first floor of the luxury class there were analogues of the current fitness centers and thermal baths.
Dear insulins
- Insulas were very different, expensive insulas were close in comfort to modern apartments, they had glass windows (or mica), water supply and sewerage, ceilings up to 3.5 meters high, water heating boilers - hypocausteria , located in the basement and so on.
- Renting such an insula could cost 10,000 or more sesterces per year, which was clearly not cheap (for comparison, an ordinary legionnaire or artisan received about a thousand sesterces per year).
Cheap insulins
- In cheap apartments there was no glass in the windows and they were closed with shutters. In the cold season, they simply did not open - so as not to lose precious heat.
- The air was musty, and to make it somehow better, pieces of bread and sprigs of rosemary were burned in a brazier. The rooms were separated by walls made of woven reeds coated with clay, and the ceilings were no higher than 2 meters, and in some cases so low that residents walked crouched.
- Toilets in the basements of the insulas were available only from the middle class (renting such housing cost about 2,000 sesterces per year), residents of poor insulas were asked to solve the problem on their own (however, how it was solved - it is known that it poured out through the window onto the street).
Insulas - city buildings
Rooms of the poor.
Garbage and slops were thrown away
outside
Rich people's rooms.
Public
toilets.
Taverns.
Rooms for
nobility
- For the poorest inhabitants of Rome, who could not pay, free insulas existed since the time of Caesar. But if cheap insulins were terrible, then the appearance of free ones is generally scary to imagine.
- Of course, the problem was the quality of construction of the insula - the owners usually sought to save on materials and mortar, and in addition, build the highest possible insula - 9-story buildings were a record. Cases when the insula collapsed and buried the residents under the ruins were not rare. Therefore, at first Augustus limited the height to 20.7 meters (70 Roman feet), and then Nero after the great Roman fire to 17.8 meters and finally Trajan to 17 m.
- Insulas began to disappear only after the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century and the depopulation of Rome.
- The first insula was discovered by archaeologists completely by accident. In the 1930s, they set out to demolish the Renaissance Church of St. Rita (Santa Rita de Cascia) and during the work it was discovered that the church was simply an ancient Roman insula rebuilt in the 11th century.
Insuls – shopping malls
- Some insulas were real shopping complexes. For example, Trajan's Market is a five-story shopping complex built in 100-112. Apollodorus of Damascus in the form of terraces on the hillside. It contained about 150 shops, taverns, eateries, as well as points for free distribution of food to the population. Each shop had an exit (vitrina) to the street. The shops sold spices, fruits, wine, olive oil, fish, silk and other goods from the East. In the middle of the market was Via Biveracica, a street named after the taverns that lined it.
Concrete and brick
- Trajan's Market is interesting for its architectural design using concrete and brick: the base of the wall was a mixture of concrete and stones, which made it possible to increase the height of the structure to five floors; the walls were lined with brick. The market was separated from the Roman Forum by a fire wall.
- From the 2nd century. BC e. the use of concrete not only simplified and reduced the cost of laying massive load-bearing structures, but also provided flexibility and variety of their shape, creating opportunities for the construction of buildings that included large indoor spaces.
Basilica
- During the 2nd - 1st half of the 1st centuries. BC e. The most important types of Roman structures were formed and improved:
- Basilica (Greek royal house) - among the Romans it was a trading or courtroom. A rectangular room illuminated through window openings above the roofs of the side naves.
- Thermal Baths (Greek: hot baths) family and public baths. The thermal baths had several sections: a sports hall, a locker room, a hot bath, a warm bath, a cold bath, and a swimming pool. The best were the imperial baths, for example, the Baths of Caracalla.
Public baths
At the entrance there is
locker rooms with
storage chambers
clothes.
Public baths
In one of the rooms with high temperatures, a swimming pool was installed. In this humid atmosphere, visitors steamed and sweated.
Caldarium - hot pool.
Public baths
Visitors came to the steam room with their own accessories: a pot of oil, body scrubbers, a flat ladle for dousing.
Public baths
In one of the halls there was a large pool with cool water so that visitors could cool off after visiting the steam room.
Frigidarium-pool
with cool water.
Aqueducts
- Aqueduct (from Latin aqua - water and ductus - I lead) - grooved water pipelines, blocked from above to protect against pollution and evaporation, with arched spans in places where the level of the earth's surface is lowered.
The highest achievements of ancient Roman architecture
- The highest achievements of ancient Roman architecture date back to the heyday of the empire (20s of the 1st century BC - 2nd century AD). The distinctive features of the buildings of this time are the monumental plasticity of powerful masses, the dominant role of the arch and its derivative forms (vault, dome), huge, dynamically subordinate spaces of interiors or open spaces, rapidly improving cladding of concrete walls with stone and brick with increasingly abundant inclusions of marble, widespread use of painting and sculpture.
Triumphal arches
- Architecture is increasingly becoming a means of glorifying the personality of the emperor and promoting the power of the empire, which is already noticeable in the buildings of the time of Augustus in Rome (Forum of Augustus, late 1st century BC - early 1st century AD). The main type of architectural memorial monument is Triumphal Arch , which was installed on roads and squares, had one or three passages, an attic on which the one in whose honor it was installed was depicted in a chariot. The reason for its construction was victory in a military campaign, the election of someone to a high post, etc.
Triumphal Column
Triumphal Column – decorated with a frieze-like image, an ornament of roses (Troyan, Marcus Aurelius).
Columns were built at many Forums to glorify emperors.
On the column itself there were bas-reliefs with scenes of the life of emperors, and the columns were crowned with multi-meter statues of emperors
Trojan's Column
"Meal'n'Real"
The growing power of the empire meant that the poor people of Rome did not want to work.
They demanded from the state the free distribution of bread and the organization of mass spectacles.
The most favorite spectacle was the chariot races, which attracted tens of thousands of spectators.
Chariot racing.
Amphitheater
- Under the Flavians, the largest of the ancient Roman amphitheaters was built - Coliseum .
- Amphitheater – architectural form of the Roman theater; the stepped rows were not located in a circle as in the Greek, but in an ellipse. The Greek theater is a natural hill, a rock, and the Roman theater is an artificial structure.
- Pantheon(ancient Greek πάνθειον - temple or place dedicated to all gods, from ancient Greek πάντες - everything and θεός - god) - “temple of all gods” in Rome. Its height is 43.3 m, diameter = 40 m. The thickness of its walls is 6 m, and its domes are 1.5 - 2 m. A portico with a gable roof serves as a passage to the central cylindrical structure, which is divided by niches in which stood statues of gods. Light enters through a hole in the dome.
- The shape of the Pantheon is carefully calibrated and built in such a way that its internal space forms an ideal spherical figure.
- In particular, the uniqueness of the building’s architecture concerns the windows. The fact is that the Pantheon has no windows in the usual sense. Light enters the structure through a single opening located at the top of the dome. The diameter of the hole is 9 meters.
- On the lower level there are seven large niches, alternately trapezoidal and rounded. The niches are dedicated to the five planets that the Romans knew about, as well as to the luminaries - the Sun and the Moon. Previously, the Pantheon contained statues of seven gods, which were later replaced by statues of saints. It is noteworthy that the statues of the gods were located in the ancient Pantheon in such a way that the light from the “oculus” alternately fell on each of them depending on the location of the sun at different times of the year.
- Currently, in place of the statues of gods that once personified pagan culture, there are paintings and sculptures from the Renaissance.
- Starting from the Renaissance, the Pantheon, like all churches, began to arrange burials of outstanding people of their time. Many famous artists, sculptors and musicians are buried here: painters Perino del Vaga, Annibale Carracci, Taddeo Zuccari, Giovanni da Udine, Rafael Santi and his bride Maria Bibbiena, architect Baldassare Peruzzi, sculptor Flaminio Vacca, musician Arcangelo Corelli.
- There are also tombs of crowned persons from the Savoy dynasty. One of the first to be buried in the Pantheon was the first king of united Italy, Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy, a great fighter for the unity of his country, as evidenced by the inscription on his tombstone: “PADRE DELLA PATRIA” (Father of the Fatherland). Here is also the tomb of his son and successor, King Umberto I and his wife Margaret.
- Thus, the pagan temple turned into a tomb of prominent people of Italy, and the word “pantheon” acquired a common meaning - over time, pantheons appeared in other countries.
Review questions
oligarchy
- What type of government did Rome have?
- In what year did Carthage fall?
- What did the Romans learn from the Greeks?
- What are private houses?
- What was the name of a multi-storey house for the poor in ancient Rome?
- What kind of layout did the cities have?
- How many hills was Rome located on?
- Why was the Greek post-and-beam structure replaced by an arched structure in Rome?
- How is the word "basilica" translated?
- What are thermals?
- How did water get to Rome?
- What is the difference between Greek theater and Roman theater?
in 146 BC
culture
atrium house
insula
repeating the layout of a military camp
at seven
The Romans didn't have marble
royal house
baths
by aqueduct from the mountains
The Greek theater is a natural hill, while the Roman theater is an artificial structure.
Sources
- Dmitrieva N.A. A Brief History of Art. – M.: Art. – Vol. 1, 1985, pp. 97–109;
- Mason Anthony. Ancient civilizations. Illustrated atlas for children. Per. from English E. B. Shchabelskaya. – M.: Onyx, 1997, pp.46–48;
- Kumanetsky K. History of culture of Ancient Greece and Rome: Trans. from floor VC. Ronina. – M.: Higher. School, 1990.
Despite the fact that the Roman Empire is more than 2000 years old, its contribution to the development of human civilization is still felt today. We usually assume that ancient people were backward and down-to-earth, but this is not the case. We owe much of our technology to the Roman people. From architecture to entertainment, Roman customs, knowledge and designs were passed down from generation to generation over the centuries. It's interesting to see what Roman miracles we take for granted? Here are 25 examples of the irreplaceable contributions of the Romans to our civilization.
Arches
The Romans weren't the ones who invented the arch, but they certainly perfected it. Showing respect for the Greek architectural order in construction, Roman architects took this knowledge into account, began to build buildings using it and developed it further, improving the technology. Their new arch-building techniques made it possible to build aqueducts, the Colosseum, basilicas and amphitheaters without fear of their destruction. Not only have many of these structures stood for thousands of years, but the methods used to construct them are still used today.
Roman Republic
Before Rome grew into a major empire, it existed on the Italian peninsula as a budding Republic with two elected consuls who acted as a sort of president and senate. This was very different from other countries where kings ruled at that time. Years later, the Roman model of the Republic would be used as a model by the United States and other countries.
Concrete
The Romans also knew how to make hard, durable forms of concrete that modern concrete cannot compare to. While today's concrete deteriorates in 50 years or less, Roman concrete is still standing. The Roman engineer Marcus Vitruvius is said to have created this super-strong solution from volcanic ash, lime and sea water. The Romans mixed these three ingredients with volcanic rock and immersed them in large amounts of sea water. After 10 years, a rare mineral called aluminum tobermorite had formed inside the concrete, allowing the concrete to maintain its strength.
Entertainment
The Romans loved entertainment. Realizing that it could help maintain their grip on power, many Roman leaders and emperors encouraged entertainment by providing it free of charge. From chariot racing and gladiator battles to staged plays in the theatre, many forms of popular entertainment are still in demand today.
Roads and highways
Once the Romans realized that paved roads could help them maintain a strong army and empire, they built them everywhere. Over the course of 700 years, they laid 88,000 kilometers of roads throughout Europe. These roads were well designed, well timed, and allowed for rapid travel throughout the empire. Even after 2000 years, many Roman roads still exist today.
Julian calendar
In Roman history there were many different calendars that were in use until the Julian calendar, which was the best calendar in Ancient Rome. Most of our Gregorian calendar is based on the Julian calendar, including months, days and leap years. The Gregorian calendar was established in order to solve some of the problems of the Julian calendar.
Gourmet dinner
The Romans loved good food, and the dining room was a major part of their living space. A typical Roman dinner, which resembles most modern dinners, consisted of three courses: an appetizer, a main course, and a dessert. Wine was also served throughout the meal, which distinguished the Romans from the Greeks, who served wine after meals.
Bound books
Before we started binding books, human civilization primarily used stone tablets or scrolls. However, by the first century AD, the Romans had developed a codex, the parts of which were bound together using papyrus or parchment. But real books did not appear until the fifth century AD.
Water pipes
The ancient Romans developed a revolutionary plumbing system that began with aqueducts to transport running water to developed areas and ended with the development of a complex system of lead piping. The Romans are one of the first civilizations to do this and thus contributed to the further development of this technology.
Courier service
The Roman Emperor Augustus founded the first courier service in the Roman Empire called Cursus Publicus. She helped transmit messages and tax information from one place to another. The service was based on the Persian system, but the emperor changed it so that only one person carried the information from one place to another, rather than conveying it to many people. This was a slower process, but provided greater security and first-hand information.
Coliseum
The Roman Colosseum, known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, was a gift to the Roman people when it opened in 80 AD. In honor of this event, 100-day games were held. The Colosseum became a symbol of Rome's achievements in architecture and entertainment.
Legal system
Roman law covered every facet of life in the Roman Empire. The Romans helped shape best practices in the legal system, ranging from citizenship, crimes and punishments, obligations and property damages, to prostitution, liberties and local politics. An important Roman contribution to the legal system was the Twelve Tables, which allowed all Romans to be treated as equals and granted them certain legal rights.
Newspapers
Newspapers have a very long history. Initially, the Romans began keeping a record of Senate meetings called the Acta Senatus, which was accessible only to senators. However, later, after 27 BC. BC, "Acta diurna" appeared, which was similar to a daily newspaper for the public and became the very first newspaper.
Graffiti
Believe it or not, graffiti is not a modern art form, but an art that originated in Rome. We know that the graffiti exists because Pompeii was mothballed by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. One of the many phrases written on the walls read: “I wonder, oh walls, how you haven’t collapsed yet, so many of the writers’ clichés you carry.”
Welfare
The working class in Rome were called "plebeians" and had very little power except when the working people gathered in large numbers. Recognizing this, Roman emperors such as Trajan created welfare systems where the poorest could turn to the authorities for help. Emperor Augustus distributed "bread and circuses" to keep the masses happy and avoid unrest.
Central heating
One of the first known climate systems was created by the Romans. It was called "hypocaust" and was found mainly in large public baths. The system included a raised floor above the ground and a constantly burning fire, which made it possible to heat the room and the water entering the bathhouse.
Military medicine
In ancient times, most soldiers had to fend for themselves if they were injured. However, during the time of Emperor Trajan in the second century, the Roman military began to employ "medici," or doctors, who could dress wounds and perform minor operations. Soon field hospitals were created, and better trained doctors walked next to the Roman soldiers.
Roman numerals
Roman numerals were originally used to help the Romans estimate the value of goods and services. During the Roman Empire, they were commonly used by everyone. Today, however, they are mainly used only in formal situations such as the Super Bowl, the Olympics, when talking about the royal family or numbering during the construction of a building.
Sewers
Roman sewers were built on the Italian peninsula during Etruscan rule in 500 BC. After this, the Romans expanded the sewer system. However, it was mainly used not to remove wastewater, but to reduce the impact of floods.
C-section
According to Roman Law, Caesar ordered the cutting of all women who died or were dying during childbirth in order to save the child. This procedure was never intended to save the mother's life because there was no medicine available to do so. However, today the procedure has changed dramatically and has become more routine than emergency.
Medical instruments
Thanks to the "conservation" of Pompeii, we have a better understanding of the types of medical instruments that the ancient Romans used. Many of them were in use until the 20th century. The instruments found included a vaginal speculum, a rectal speculum and a male catheter.
Urban planning
The Romans were admired for their principles of city planning, having created some of the first cities built according to a plan. Many of these cities became early models for later traffic and trade projects. By designing cities, the Romans discovered that they could control the flow of traffic and make trade and manufacturing more efficient.
Apartment buildings
Roman residential buildings were very similar to ours today. Landlords rented out the lower rooms to shop owners and businesses while maintaining apartments on the upper levels. They were called "insulae" and were almost always inhabited by poor working class people who could not afford a house. Some scholars estimate that in the city of Ostia alone, 90% of people lived in apartment buildings.
Road signs
Traffic and road signs are not modern inventions. The Romans also used them. On their many roads and highways they used large "landmarks" to give travelers information about the direction and distance to Rome and other cities.
Fast food
McDonald's may like to think that it invented fast food, but that's not true at all. For example, in the ancient city of Pompeii, no one liked to cook, or most simply did not have the necessary amenities for this, since only a few kitchens were found in the houses. Instead, citizens went to "popinae" or ancient take-out restaurants. Eating on the go was quite common.
In artistic skill, of course, the ancient Greek school dominated, but in
forms of art in each province of the Roman state were influenced by local traditions. A particularly large contribution to the creation of Roman culture was made by Greek colonists in the South
Italy and Sicily, their rich cities were centers of scientific life and artistic culture of antiquity.
The breadth of urban planning, which developed not only in Italy, but also in the provinces, distinguishes Roman architecture. Having received from the Etruscans and
The Greeks had a rationally organized, strict layout, the Romans improved it and implemented it in larger cities. These
the layouts corresponded to the conditions of life: trade on a huge scale, the spirit of the military and strict discipline, the attraction to entertainment and pomp. In Roman cities, to a certain extent, the needs of the free population and sanitary needs were taken into account; ceremonial streets with colonnades, arches, and monuments were erected here. Ancient Rome gave humanity a real cultural environment:
well-planned, comfortable cities for living with paved roads, bridges, buildings of libraries, archives, nymphaeums (sanctuaries, sacred nymphs), palaces, villas and simply good houses with solid beautiful
furniture - everything that is typical for
civilized society. The Romans first began to build “standard” cities, the prototype of which were Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid - cardo and decumanum, at the crossroads of which
built the city center. The urban layout followed a strictly thought-out scheme.
Practical warehouse of Roman culture
was reflected in everything - in sobriety of thinking, a normative idea of what is expedient
world order, in the scrupulousness of Roman law, which took into account all life situations, in its attraction to accurate historical facts, in
the high flowering of literary prose, in the primitive concreteness of religion. In Roman art of its heyday, the leading role
architecture played, the monuments of which even now, even in ruins, captivate with their power. The Romans ushered in a new era
world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings,
embodying the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people.
Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures,
the richness of compositional forms, the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors,
fortresses) as architectural objects in the urban, rural ensemble and landscape. The beauty and power of Roman architecture are revealed in reasonable expediency, in
the logic of the structure of the structure, in artistically precisely found proportions and scales,
laconicism of architectural means, and not in lush decorativeness. The enormous achievement of the Romans was the satisfaction of practical everyday and social needs not only of the ruling class, but also of the masses of the urban population.
Description of the presentation by individual slides:
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ART OF ANCIENT ROME. THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE ROMANS TO THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE DIVERSITY OF TYPES OF ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES IN ANCIENT ROME The presentation was prepared by an Fine Arts teacher from the Moscow State Budgetary Institution to the Children's School of Art. Takhtamukai Saida Yurievna Jaste, 2nd grade
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Who and when founded Rome Rome was founded by Romulus. He was the first king of the Roman Empire (although it was not yet an empire). Here's how it happened.
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In ancient times, a tribe of Latins lived on the territory of modern Italy. In one of the Latin city-states of Alba Longa (in Latium), King Numitor Silvius ruled.
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Wanting to ascend the throne in his place, Numitor’s younger brother, Amulius, overthrew his brother.
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He did this with the children: Numitor’s son disappeared during a hunt, and made his daughter Rhea a vestal. Amulius was afraid that Numitor's children would grow up and demand that their right to rule the state be returned by law, so he tried to get rid of them.
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Vestals were the name given to the servants of Vesta, the patron goddess of the hearth. They settled in the temple like nuns and kept the fire going. The Vestals had no right to get married, having taken a 30-year vow of celibacy, and therefore they could not have children. The Vestal Virgin had to strictly observe the vow of celibacy and chastity, for violation of which she was condemned to a terrible execution - she was buried alive in the ground.
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One day, Rhea Silvia went down to the Tiber River, which flowed near the Temple of Vesta, in order to get water. When she was returning back to the temple, a very strong thunderstorm broke out. But there were many caves around the temple of the goddess Vesta, and Rhea Silvia took refuge in one of them from the weather. Suddenly, the god of war, Mars, appeared in the light of lightning and told Rhea that the gods themselves had chosen her to be his wife. And nine months later, Rhea Silvia gave birth to twins - Romulus and Remus. But in the fourth year of service, Rhea gave birth to two sons. How did the Vestal Rhea Silvia, who was not supposed to have children, give birth to twins?
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Having learned about this, Amulius took her into custody, and ordered the children to be put in a basket and thrown into the Tiber River. Their mother was executed, but the boys were “forgotten.”
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Amulius ordered to drown them, but the basket in which the babies were placed did not drown. In their basket, they sailed safely to the foot of the Palatine Hill.
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They had a woodpecker and a lapwing as nannies. Subsequently, the wolf, woodpecker and lapwing became the most sacred animals of Rome.
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The boys did not live with the she-wolf for long - they were picked up and taken to his home by the royal shepherd Faustulus, whose child had previously died. Faustulus's wife, Akka Larentia, took the twins into her home. The twins were named Romulus and Remus.
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They grew up, returned to Alba Longa and learned who they were and how Amulius became king. Romulus and Remus killed him and returned the throne to Numitor, their grandfather.
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The brothers decided to found their own city, but argued over not knowing what to call it. Everyone wanted to become a king in it and give it their name. In the end, Romulus killed Remus and put an end to the feud. The city, built later, was called Rome (Roma in Latin) and Romulus became its king No. 1. This happened in 753 BC.
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ROME - THE “HEART” OF THE EMPIRE Rome is the capital of the Roman Empire and its largest city (up to 1 million people). Rome amazed everyone with its majesty and beauty: both visitors and the townspeople themselves. Model of Ancient Rome
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In parallel with the prosperity of the Hellenistic centers in the West, the military power of Rome increased - first a small oligarchic republic, then the master of all of Italy and, finally, a huge power that absorbed the entire Mediterranean, the entire ancient world. Fall of Carthage in 146 BC was a turning point: from that moment on, Rome took possession of Greece.
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Roman Pantheon Proud Rome, unyielding and stern in the struggle for world domination, obediently bowed its head before the great Greek culture. The Romans' own artistic traditions were rather meager. They adopted the entire pantheon of Greek gods, giving them different names:
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The Art of Rome The art of Rome represents the last, final stage in the development of ancient artistic culture. For the Roman, more than for the Greek, art was one of the means of rational organization of life; Therefore, in Rome, the leading place was taken by architecture, engineering research, a sculptural portrait characterized by an interest in a specific person, and a historical relief that tells in detail about the actions of citizens and rulers. The real element prevails over fiction in ancient Roman art, and the narrative principle prevails over philosophical generalization. In addition, in Rome there was a clear division of art into official and meeting the needs of private consumers. Official art played an important role in Roman politics, being an active form of establishing state ideology in conquered areas. The importance of architecture, which combined ideological functions with the organization of public life, was especially great; In Roman construction practice, a system of constructive, planning and compositional techniques developed, which allowed the architect every time to find a solution that directly follows from the purpose of a given building.
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Spreading their style in the provinces of the empire and dependent countries, the Romans at the same time easily assimilated and implemented the artistic principles of other peoples: in the early period - the Etruscans and Greeks, later - the peoples of the Hellenistic East and the conquered “barbarians”. Often, ancient Roman art gave new impetus to local creativity, resulting in the birth of syncretic artistic phenomena. Etruscan sarcophagus in the form of a bed
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Architecture of Ancient Rome Wooden architecture reigned in Rome in the 3rd century. BC. and only in the 4th century. BC. stone buildings appeared. But the temples were built from soft volcanic tuff, because... Italy did not have its own marble. But it was not possible to carve long, strong beams from tuff; in addition, it was impossible to carve emphasized ornaments from soft tuff; it was necessary to decorate the buildings with plaster plastic. But then baked brick appeared, and this made it possible to build a frame of walls, and then line them with tuff.
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City planning The architecture of this time is characterized by broad urban planning measures, rectangular planning schemes repeating the layout of a military camp, which are based on 2 main highways - “cardo” (from north to south) and “decumanus” (from east to west). Diagram of the Roman camp (as described by Polybius) By the end of the day's march, the Roman legionaries laid out a large rectangle on flat ground, oriented along the cardinal points. A deep ditch was dug along its contours and an earthen rampart was poured. A gate was installed in the center of each of the walls thus formed. The geographical orientation of the camp was emphasized by two main roads crossing it - the cardo, directed from north to south, and the decumanus, running from east to west. At their intersection there was a square for a general meeting of soldiers, which served as the administrative and religious center of the camp. Here the tents of military leaders and priests were set up, a camp altar was erected and a room for the treasury was built. The tents of individual military formations were located in compliance with strictly established intervals. In addition to the cardo and decumanus, the camp was intersected by a number of mutually perpendicular narrower streets. Thus, the Roman camp acquired a rational system of plan, composed of rectangular cells of different sizes
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The first known city of the new type is the Roman fortress at Ostia, built in 340-335. BC. It arose at the mouth of the Tiber, at the sea gate of Rome, to protect this important strategic position of Ostia. City plan.
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As the composition of the forum (from Latin - market square; area for the people's assembly, administration of justice) was formed, the most important principles of the planning solution of ancient Roman complexes took shape: a tendency towards symmetry, axial construction, accentuation of the facade of the main building and the arrangement of the rise to it from the ceremonial entrance to the site .
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Initially, the forum was located outside the city between the Capitol, Palatine and Esquiline (Rome was located on seven hills, the rest of the Roman hills are Viminal, Quirinal, Aventine, Celia), but it constantly grew. From the 5th century BC. it was decorated with temples, monuments and triumphal arches.
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Ancient Roman house Private houses at that time were very modest, continuing in their forms the tradition of the ancient Italian rural house with an atrium. A fireplace was built in the atrium (from “ater” - black), so the room was black with smoke. The light fell through a hole in the thatched roof. Later, the hearth was removed from the atrium, and in its place they began to make a stone pool to collect water that flowed from the roof through the hole. So, from the darkest room in the house, the atrium turned into the brightest and most ceremonial. Roman atrium with impluvium and compluvium.
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Peristyle In residential architecture, the type of atrium house developed, the center of its composition in the 2nd century. BC e. became a peristyle garden (from Greek - surrounded by columns), testifying to the craving for nature, which increased unusually with the urbanization of ancient society. Pompeii. House of Loreus Tiburtin, 1st century. AD Fragment of the garden, reconstruction
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Diagram of an ancient Roman house 1. Vestibule 2. Taberna - room 3. Atrium - covered courtyard with a light well 4. Impluvium - pond in the atrium 5. Tablinum - owner's office 6. Triclinium - banquet hall 7. Wings - open rooms on the sides of the tablinum 8 .Cubicles - bedrooms 9. Kukina - kitchen 10. Entrance for servants 11. Peristyle - open courtyard 12. Piscina - pond in the peristyle 13. Exedra - living room along the main axis of the house 14. Fauci - corridors connecting the atrium and peristyle 15. Ecus – living room 16. Compluvium - a quadrangular hole in the roof of the courtyard of an ancient Roman residential building 16.
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Domus - the home of a wealthy Roman Cabinet. Living rooms. The sloping roof of the atrium. Separate room for guests. Premises for rent Dining room-triclinium. Atrium - open courtyard
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Ancient Roman communal apartments - insula During the imperial period, Roman housing underwent significant changes caused by radical transformations in the socio-economic nature of Roman society. It was a time of increasingly progressive social stratification, rapid enrichment of some and impoverishment of other, more numerous groups of the population. The influx of people from the periphery of Italy and from the provinces to the cities has noticeably increased. The overcrowding of cities with a population with a low cost of living has also created a need for accelerated construction of cheap housing. This led to the creation of a new type of housing - the insula, a multi-storey residential building with apartments for rent.
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Multi-storey buildings of Ancient Rome Insula (Latin insula, literally - island), a multi-storey, usually brick, residential building in Ancient Rome, with rooms or apartments intended for rent. Appeared no later than the 3rd century. BC. 3-5-story insulae (the premises of which were usually arranged around a light courtyard, often occupying an entire block) constituted the massive development of Roman cities. It was they, and not temples and villas, that determined the appearance of ancient Rome - in 350 AD there were 1,782 individual houses (domus) and 46,020 insula - the latter clearly predominated.
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Dear insulas The first insulas were 3-5-story stone houses on the first floors of which there were shops and workshops, and the remaining floors were residential. On the first floor of the luxury class there were analogues of the current fitness centers and thermal baths.
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Expensive insulas Insulas were very different, expensive insulas were close in comfort to modern apartments, they had glass windows (or mica), water supply and sewerage, ceilings up to 3.5 meters high, water heating boilers - hypocausters located in the basement, and so on . Renting such an insula could cost 10,000 or more sesterces per year, which was clearly not cheap (for comparison, an ordinary legionnaire or artisan received about a thousand sesterces per year).
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Cheap insula The air was musty, and to make it somehow better, pieces of bread and sprigs of rosemary were burned in a brazier. The rooms were separated by walls made of woven reeds coated with clay, and the ceilings were no higher than 2 meters, and in some cases so low that residents walked crouched. Toilets in the basements of the insulas were available only from the middle class (renting such housing cost about 2,000 sesterces per year), residents of poor insulas were asked to solve the problem on their own (however, how it was solved - it is known that it poured out through the window onto the street). In cheap apartments there was no glass in the windows and they were closed with shutters. In the cold season, they simply did not open - so as not to lose precious heat.
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Insulas - city buildings Public toilets. Taverns. Rooms for the nobility. Rich people's rooms. Rooms of the poor. Garbage and slop were thrown into the street
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Insula Of course, the problem was the quality of construction of the insula - the owners usually sought to save on materials and mortar, and in addition, build the highest possible insula - 9-story buildings were a record. Cases when the insula collapsed and buried the residents under the ruins were not rare. Therefore, at first Augustus limited the height to 20.7 meters (70 Roman feet), and then Nero after the great Roman fire to 17.8 meters and finally Trajan to 17 m. The insula began to disappear only after the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century and the depopulation of Rome. For the poorest inhabitants of Rome, who could not pay, free insulas existed since the time of Caesar. But if cheap insulins were terrible, then the appearance of free ones is generally scary to imagine.
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Insula The first insula was discovered by archaeologists completely by accident. In the 1930s, they set out to demolish the Renaissance Church of St. Rita (Santa Rita de Cascia) and during the work it was discovered that the church was simply an ancient Roman insula rebuilt in the 11th century.
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Insulas - shopping complexes Some insulas were real shopping complexes. For example, Trajan's Market is a five-story shopping complex built in 100-112. Apollodorus of Damascus in the form of terraces on the hillside. It contained about 150 shops, taverns, eateries, as well as points for free distribution of food to the population. Each shop had an exit (vitrina) to the street. The shops sold spices, fruits, wine, olive oil, fish, silk and other goods from the East. In the middle of the market was Via Biveracica, a street named after the taverns that lined it.
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Concrete and brick Trajan's Market is interesting for its architectural design using concrete and brick: the base of the wall was a mixture of concrete and stones, which made it possible to increase the height of the structure to five floors; the walls were lined with brick. The market was separated from the Roman Forum by a fire wall. From the 2nd century. BC e. the use of concrete not only simplified and reduced the cost of laying massive load-bearing structures, but also provided flexibility and variety of their shape, creating opportunities for the construction of buildings that included large indoor spaces.
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During the 2nd - 1st half of the 1st centuries. BC e. The most important types of Roman buildings were formed and improved: Basilica (Greek royal house) - among the Romans it was a trading or court hall. A rectangular room illuminated through window openings above the roofs of the side naves. Basilica
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Thermae Thermae (Greek hot baths) are family and public baths. The thermal baths had several sections: a sports hall, a locker room, a hot bath, a warm bath, a cold bath, and a swimming pool. The best were the imperial baths, for example, the Baths of Caracalla.
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Public baths At the entrance there were changing rooms with lockers for storing clothes.
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In one of the rooms with high temperatures, a swimming pool was installed. In this humid atmosphere, visitors steamed and sweated. Caldarium - hot pool. Public baths
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Public baths Visitors came to the steam room with their own accessories: a pot of oil, body scrubbers, a flat ladle for dousing.
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Public Baths In one of the halls there was a large pool with cool water so that visitors could cool off after visiting the steam room. Frigidarium-swimming pool with cool water.
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Aqueduct (from Latin aqua - water and ductus - I lead) - grooved water pipelines, blocked from above to protect against pollution and evaporation, with arched spans in places where the level of the earth's surface is lowered. Aqueducts
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The highest achievements of ancient Roman architecture The highest achievements of ancient Roman architecture date back to the heyday of the empire (20s of the 1st century BC - 2nd century AD). The distinctive features of the buildings of this time are the monumental plasticity of powerful masses, the dominant role of the arch and its derivative forms (vault, dome), huge, dynamically subordinate spaces of interiors or open spaces, rapidly improving cladding of concrete walls with stone and brick with increasingly abundant inclusions of marble, widespread use of painting and sculpture.