The Second State Duma, the Russian representative legislative body, acted from February 20 to June 2, 1907, during one session. The Second State Duma was convened in accordance with the electoral law of December 11, 1905. The Second State Duma included 518 deputies: 104 Trudoviks, 98 cadets, 65 Social Democrats, 37 Socialist Revolutionaries, 22 monarchists, 32 Octobrists, 76 autonomists, 17 representatives of the Cossacks, 16 people's socialists, 50 non-party members, one representative of the Democratic Reform Party. One of the leaders of the cadets, Fyodor Aleksandrovich Golovin, was elected chairman of the Duma.
In terms of the composition of the deputies, the Second Duma turned out to be much more radical than its predecessor, although according to the plan of the tsarist administration it should have been more loyal to the autocracy. The Cadets tried to create a Duma majority by aligning themselves with the Trudoviks, Octobrists, the Polish Kolo, the Muslim and Cossack groups. Having put forward the slogan of “saving the Duma,” the Cadets abandoned the slogan of a “responsible ministry” and began to reduce their program requirements. They removed from discussion the questions of the death penalty and political amnesty; achieved fundamental approval of the budget, thus strengthening the confidence in the tsarist government on the part of its Western European creditors.
As in the First State Duma, the agrarian question became central in the Second State Duma. Right-wing deputies and Octobrists supported the decree of November 9, 1906 on the beginning of the Stolypin agrarian reform. The Cadets tried to find a compromise on the land issue with the Trudoviks and autonomists, minimizing demands for the forced alienation of landowners' lands. Trudoviks defended a radical program of alienation of landowners and privately owned lands that exceeded the “labor norm” and the introduction of equal land use according to the “labor norm”. The Social Revolutionaries introduced a project for the socialization of the land, the Social Democratic faction - a project for the municipalization of the land. The Bolsheviks defended the program of nationalization of all land.
Most of the meetings of the Second State Duma, like its predecessor, were devoted to procedural issues. This became a form of struggle to expand the competence of Duma deputies. The government, responsible only to the tsar, did not want to take into account the Duma, and the Duma, which considered itself as the people's chosen one, did not want to recognize the narrow scope of its powers. This state of affairs became one of the reasons for the dissolution of the State Duma. The pretext for dispersing the Duma was the accusation of a military conspiracy against the Social Democratic faction, fabricated by secret police agents. On the night of June 3, the Social Democratic faction was arrested and then put on trial. The dissolution of the Second State Duma on June 3, 1907 and the publication of a new electoral law, which significantly curtailed the voting rights of the population, went down in history under the name of the “June Third Coup.”
Option 1.
The Byzantine Empire was formed by:
A) the entire territory of the Roman Empire;
B) territories of the Eastern Roman Empire;
C) the territory of the Western Roman Empire;
Peasant
A) had neither land, nor his own farm, nor tools;
B) had his own land, his own farm, tools;
B) was completely dependent on the feudal lord, who could buy, sell, severely punish and kill him;
D) was dependent on the feudal lord, but the feudal lord’s power over him was incomplete; The feudal lord could sell him along with the land, severely punish him, but did not have the right to kill him.
Cities in Western Europe arose as a result
A) revival of cultural traditions of the ancient world;
B) the struggle between feudal lords and dependent peasants;
C) separation of crafts from agriculture;
D) separation of agriculture from cattle breeding;
D) the activities of kings and feudal lords who sought to strengthen personal power.
Medieval workshops
A) contributed to the development of the craft;
B) guaranteed the transition of apprentices to masters;
C) led to increased inequality among artisans;
D) ensure, as far as possible, the same conditions for the production and sale of products for all craftsmen;
D) led to the weakening of city government;
E) by the end of the Middle Ages, the development of technology began to slow down.
Humanism is:
A) new science about man;
B) new religious teaching;
B) type of art;
D) the direction of cultural development, the focus of which is man.
The beginning of the reformation in Germany was:
A) congress of princes, representatives of knights and cities in Worms;
B) the speech of Thomas Münzer in 1517 with a call to destroy the feudal order;
C) Martin Luther's speech against the trade in indulgences.
The Frankish Empire broke up into separate states:
A) in 1000
B) in 962
B) in 843
8. Pope Gregory VII is famous for the fact that:
A) organized the first crusade;
B) proclaimed the right of popes to depose emperors;
C) tried in every possible way to reconcile the Roman and Orthodox churches;
D) sought to subjugate all the sovereigns of Europe to his power;
D) broke the resistance of the German king Henry IV.
The Crusades ended:
A) the loss of all the possessions of the crusaders in Muslim countries;
B) the creation of new crusader states in the East;
C) the capture of all Arab states and the conversion of a significant part of the Arab population to Christianity;
D) the complete defeat of the crusaders and the conversion of many participants in the crusades to the Muslim faith.
In the XIII – XIV centuries. Czech Republic:
A) was an independent state;
B) was part of the Holy Roman Empire;
B) was part of the Ottoman Empire;
Characteristic features of developed feudalism:
A) craft is separated from agriculture;
B) exchange between city and countryside is increasing;
C) peasants are freed from feudal dependence;
D) feudal fragmentation is intensifying;
D) royal power is strengthened and feudal fragmentation is eliminated;
E) the class struggle weakens;
G) class struggle intensifies;
H) the influence of the church on state affairs is decreasing;
I) the decomposition of the feudal system and the emergence of capitalist relations.
2. Answer the questions:
What is the Reformation? Describe the main beliefs of the Reformation era.
What were the characteristic features of absolutism? What prerequisites for strengthening central power have developed in Western European countries?
List the Great Geographical Discoveries.
Test on the topic: “Europe and Asia in the V-XVII centuries.”
Option 2.
1. Choose the correct answer(s):
The Early Middle Ages is the period from:
A) III - X centuries.
B) IV – XI centuries.
B) V-XII centuries.
D) V – XI centuries.
D) VI – X centuries.
The workshop is:
A) the union of students and apprentices of one city;
B) association of students and apprentices of the same specialty;
C) a union of artisans living in the same city;
D) a union of artisans of the same specialty living in the same country;
D) a union of master craftsmen of the same specialty living in the same city.
The division of the Christian Church into Orthodox and Catholic occurred:
A) 986
B) 1044
B) 1147
D) 1054 g.
D) 1225
Labor in factories was more productive than labor in a craftsman’s workshop because:
A) workers in the factory worked under pain of punishment;
B) machines were used in the manufactory;
C) factory workers earned more than artisans;
D) in the manufactory, division of labor was used between workers.
Martin Luther is
A) small knight;
B) a major scientist of the Middle Ages;
B) wandering monk;
D) famous doctor and traveler;
D) learned monk, university professor, founder of the Reformation in Germany.
Revival is;
A) restoration by the Catholic Church of lost positions;
B) the period and process of the emergence of a completely new culture;
C) the period and process of restoring the cultural traditions of antiquity;
D) strengthening the power of the bourgeoisie;
D) a period of temporary strengthening of the feudal system.
The reasons for the collapse of the early feudal states were:
A) depending on the feudal lords from the king;
B) the independence of the feudal lords from the king;
B) in wars between feudal lords.
Check the composition of the feudal ladder and write it down correctly:
A) knights;
B) peasants;
B) king;
D) barons;
D) counts and dukes.
Jacquerie is:
A) religious movement;
B) a peasant uprising caused by increased payments and the distress of the people;
C) popular movement for the liberation of France from the British;
D) a war between two groups of feudal lords in France.
Jan Hus is:
A) a large Czech feudal lord;
B) an impoverished Czech knight;
B) village priest;
D) Catholic monk;
D) professor at the University of Prague.
2. Answer the questions:
What types of manufactures do you know? What were their advantages over the guild associations of the Middle Ages?
What was the significance of the Counter-Reformation? How have the policies of the Roman Catholic Church changed?
List the main bodies of class representation in Western European countries.
Attached files
Knowledge Hypermarket >>History >>History 10th grade >>History: Western Europe: a new stage of development
Western Europe: a new stage of development
In the fifteenth, and especially in the sixteenth century, the appearance of most European countries underwent significant changes. They were caused by the development of manufacturing production, changes in social and political life. There was a spiritual revolution associated with the Renaissance and Reformation. These changes paved the way for bourgeois revolutions and the industrial revolution. It is no coincidence that the later Middle Ages, when qualitatively new realities began to affect the lives of European peoples, are often characterized as the early modern era.
Transition to manufacturing production
The development of profitable colonial trade (for example, spices in Indian markets cost about 100 times less than in Europe) contributed to the rapid growth of trading capital. Large joint-stock companies, such as the East India Company, conducted operations in the markets of dozens of countries, had not only a merchant fleet, but also equipped military expeditions. Trade required the creation of a system of bank credit, transactions with shares of trading companies, bills of exchange, non-cash payments, money transfer and exchange services. All this contributed to the development of banking and the emergence of the first exchanges. Antwerp, Amsterdam, Genoa. Lyon and London became the largest centers of financial activity in the 16th century. Leading banking and trading houses became the main creditors of the monarchs, providing them with loans at high interest rates, acquiring the right to collect taxes, and taking land and real estate as collateral.
In an effort to expand the scale of their operations, trading companies invested in the development of production. Its guild organization, although it persisted for about two centuries, had largely outlived its usefulness. Strict regulation of the work of masters and apprentices, the quantity of products produced, and craft techniques hindered the increase in labor productivity and the introduction of new technology.
Despite the fact that in these conditions technical progress developed very slowly, it gradually led to the emergence new technologies and types of products.
In the 15th century, instead of the traditional furnace, a blast furnace began to be used, which used coal rather than charcoal. This increased the smelting of metal, improved its quality, and new alloys were created. The development of metallurgy made it possible to improve artillery and small arms and create complex metal products. Water and windmills were improved. In mining, pumps began to be used to pump out water and trolleys to lift ore to the surface. the depth of the mines and adits was now measured in hundreds of meters.
After the invention of printing in 1445 by the German artisan J. Gutenberg (1399-1468), printing became widespread. By 1500, large printing houses already existed in 12 European countries; about 40 thousand titles of books were published. With the invention of mechanical (spring) watches, the watch industry began to develop.
New, more productive technologies have appeared in traditional European textile and glass production. The new, manufacturing, production partially absorbed the old, workshop production, and partially replaced it.
Initially, the so-called scattered manufactories arose. Top trading houses, trying to bypass workshop restrictions and get more products at lower prices, began to distribute orders to urban and rural artisans, taking upon themselves all the worries about purchasing raw materials, semi-finished products, and selling products. This type of manufacture prevailed in the textile industry.
Mixed manufactories have become widespread in the manufacture of more complex products, such as watches. Some of their parts were made by artisans with a narrow specialization or guild masters. and the assembly was carried out in the entrepreneur’s workshop.
Finally, centralized manufactories arose, in which all labor operations were carried out in one room using machines and tools belonging to the entrepreneur and the labor of hired workers. In centralized manufactories, due to the clear organization of labor and the division of the labor process into a number of relatively simple operations, labor productivity was achieved an order of magnitude higher than in workshops and individual artisans. Centralized weapons manufactories were usually created under the auspices of monarchs, at the expense of the state.
The emergence of manufactories in many European countries, gradually replacing workshop production, had a great influence on the development of European society.
First of all, an increase in production volumes, an increase in the range of products became a source of accelerated development of commodity-money relations. Landowners sought to replace duties peasants-tenants with cash rent. In conditions when manufactories showed increasing demand for raw materials, a significant part of the land began to be allocated for industrial crops and sheep breeding.
In England, the practice of so-called enclosure became widespread in the 16th century. Landlords drove tenants off their lands. By decision of parliament, communal lands were allocated for pastures. Land plots of small owners were bought up by entrepreneurs and were also used for livestock raising or commercial production of agricultural products. Over the course of several decades, the small peasantry, leading subsistence or semi-subsistence farming, disappeared in England. The phrase “the sheep ate the people” became widespread.
Bo-second, changes were taking place in the social structure of society. The importance of entrepreneurs - bankers, merchants, and owners of factories - increased. At the same time, the number of poor people increased - artisans ruined by competition with manufacturing, peasant tenants whose lands were taken away for
pastures, The population of Europe almost doubled from 1500 to 1600 - from 80-100 million to 180 million people. Cities developed especially quickly. In the largest of them (Antwerp, Brussels, Hamburg, Lyon, Lisbon, London, Naples, Paris, Prague, Rome, Florence, Seville, etc.) the population exceeded 100 thousand people.
All this has aggravated the problem of the rural and especially urban poor, creating an explosive mass of people deprived of the minimum amenities of life. In London at the beginning of the 17th century, about 1/4 of the population were poor and unemployed.
Thirdly, the development of production and trade contributed to the formation of common domestic markets. They were based on the division of labor between individual regions and cities of large European states. At the same time, the division of labor began to develop on a pan-European scale. Copper, silver, and zinc were smelted in Germany, Tyrol, and Hungary. France, England and Sweden became centers of metallurgy. Centers for the production of glassware, porcelain, lace, satin and brocade, and weapons arose of pan-European importance.
Renaissance
Changes in the outlook and nature of the activities of Europeans had a huge impact on their worldview and attitude towards the surrounding reality.
A look at the lives of most people in the classical Middle Ages determined mainly by the routine of everyday life. The life path and outlook of each person was connected with his class origin and the profession of his parents. For the bulk of the population, submission to circumstances and the will of the lord was considered a virtue. There were few literate people, their number included church ministers whose interests were limited to the study of theological literature and theological debates.
It was no coincidence that the development of a new, secular culture began in Italy in the 14th - 15th centuries. In its large cities, the importance of trade increased, the first manufactories arose, and a layer of literate, educated people not associated with the church emerged. The coming time gave birth to new heroes - people who were enterprising, enterprising, not afraid of risks, adventures associated with trade, investment, and travel to overseas countries.
The era of the Renaissance (Renaissance) is considered to be time. When the emerging interest in a person’s personality, his individuality, his achievements was realized in turning to the spiritual culture and art of antiquity. The works of thinkers and historians of antiquity, lost in monastery libraries, began to be republished. The creations of ancient sculptors, previously forgotten and buried under the ruins of the palaces of the Roman nobility and pagan temples, began to evoke admiration. There is an idea, largely illusory, that the ancient era was a time of heroes, the flowering of culture and the triumph of human genius. Many artists, sculptors, writers, poets of the Renaissance, creating genuine masterpieces, considered themselves only imitators of the masters of antiquity.
In literary work, the Renaissance began with the Florentine poets and writers - Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), Francesca Petrarch (1304-1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1373). Their traditions were continued in England by the poet D. Chaucer (1340-1400) and playwright W. Shakespeare (1564-1616), in the Netherlands by E. Rotterdam (1466-1536), in France by F. Rabelais (1494-1553).
With all the variety of genres of their work, it also had common features. This is, first of all, a new look for the heroes of their works - people not necessarily of noble origin, but inquisitive, striving to realize their aspirations, to understand the world around us in all its diversity. Often treating the existing order with irony and skepticism. It was during the Renaissance that the term “humanism” was born, which initially meant not “philanthropy”, but “the study of man.”
Appeal to man, the beauty of the human body is characteristic of artists and sculptors of the Renaissance - S. Botticelli (1445-1510), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564), Raphael Santi (1483-1520).
Beginning of the Reformation. The first religious wars in Europe
New realities and the formation of a humanistic view of the world affected the religious foundations of the medieval worldview.
The “Avignon captivity” of the popes, who were forced to move their residence to France, which lasted 70 years, significantly weakened the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. churches on secular sovereigns. Only in 1377. Thanks to the failures of France in the Hundred Years' War, Pope Gregory XI managed to return the residence of the head of the church to Rome. However, after his death in 1377. The French bishops chose their pope, and the Italian bishops chose theirs. Church council convened in 1409 deposed both popes and elected his own candidate. The false popes did not recognize the decisions of the council. So the Roman Catholic Church found itself with three chapters at the same time: Schism, i.e., a split in the church, which lasted until 1417 and significantly weakened its influence in the largest countries of Europe - England, France and Spain.
In the Czech Republic, which was part of Roman Empire, a movement arose for the creation of a national church with a more democratic order of services, conducted in the Czech language. The founder of this movement, professor at the University of Prague Jan Tus (1371-1415), was accused of heresy at a church council in Constance and burned at the stake. However, his followers in the Czech Republic, led by the knight Jan Zizka (1З60-14ЗО), rose up in armed struggle. The Hussites demanded that the clergy observe ascetic standards of life and denounced Roman Catholic clergy for committing mortal sins. Their demands were widely supported by the peasantry and townspeople. The Hussites captured almost the entire territory of the Czech Republic and carried out secularization (confiscation) of church lands, which mostly passed into the hands of secular feudal lords.
In 1420-1431 Rome and the empire undertook five crusades against the Hussites, whom they declared heretics. However, the crusaders failed to achieve a military victory. Hussite detachments launched counterattacks on the territory of Hungary, Bavaria, and Brandenburg. At the Council of Basel in 1433, the Roman Catholic Church made concessions, recognizing the right to exist in the Czech Republic of a church with a special order of service.
The massacre of J. Hus did not stop the spread of skepticism towards the Roman Catholic Church. The most serious challenge to her was the teaching of the monk of the Augustinian order, professor at the university in Wittenbach (Germany) M. Luther (1483-1546). He opposed the sale of indulgences, i.e. remission of sins for money, which was an important source of income for the church. Luther argued: this makes repentance meaningless, which should contribute to the spiritual cleansing of a person.
The Word of God, Luther believed, is set out in the Bible, and only the Holy Scriptures, which are accessible to every person, open the way to revelation and the salvation of the soul. The decrees of councils, statements of the church fathers, rituals, prayers, veneration of icons and holy relics, according to Luther, have nothing to do with the true faith.
In 1520, Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther from the church. Imperial Reichstag. in 1521, having examined Luther's views, he condemned him. However, the number of supporters of Lutheranism increased. In 1522-1523. In Germany, an uprising of knights broke out, demanding reform of the church and the secularization of its land holdings.
In 1524-1525. The German lands were engulfed in the Peasants' War, which began under religious slogans. Among the rebels, the ideas of the Anabaptists were especially popular. They denied not only the official Catholic Church, but also the Holy Scriptures, believing that every believer can receive the revelation of the Lord by turning to him with soul and heart.
The main idea of the uprising, which swept Swabia, Württemberg, Franconia, Thuringia, Alsace and the Alpine lands of Austria, was the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth. As one of its spiritual leaders, T. Münzer (1490-1525), believed, the path to this kingdom lies through the overthrow of monarchs, the destruction of monasteries and castles, and the triumph of complete equality. The main demands were the restoration of communal land ownership, the abolition of duties, and the reform of the church.
Neither Luther nor the residents of the cities supported the demands of the rebels. The troops of the German princes defeated the poorly organized peasant armies. During the suppression of the uprising, about 150 thousand peasants died.
This victory significantly increased the influence of the princes, who increasingly took into account the opinion of the Roman Catholic Church and emperors. In 1529, many princes and free cities protested against the prohibition of the new, Lutheran, faith by the Imperial Reichstag. In the possessions of the protesting (Protestant) princes, monasteries and Catholic churches were closed, their lands passed into the hands of secular rulers.
The seizure of the Church's lands and the subordination of the church to secular rulers became inevitable. For these purposes, in 1555, a religious peace was concluded in the empire, and the principle “whose power, whose faith” was adopted. Even princes loyal to Catholicism supported her.
The weakening of the position and influence of the Catholic Church was observed not only in Germany, but also in the Swiss church reformer. A native of France, Jean Calvin (1509-1564), created a doctrine that gained great popularity in cities, especially among entrepreneurs. According to his views, if a person is lucky in life, in earthly affairs, in particular in trade and entrepreneurship, then this is a sign , testifying to God's favor towards him. Moreover, it is a sign that, subject to righteous behavior, he will gain the salvation of his soul. Calvinism strictly regulated the daily life of man.
Thus, in Geneva, which accepted Calvin’s views, entertainment, music, and wearing fashionable clothes were prohibited.
England also broke with the Catholic Church. The reason for this was the conflict between the pope and King Henry VIII (1509-1547). Having not received permission from Rome for divorce, in 1534 he achieved from Parliament the adoption of a law according to which a new, Anglican, church was established in England. The king was proclaimed its head. The right to carry out church reforms, eradicate heresy, and appoint clergy passed to him. Monasteries were closed, church lands were confiscated, worship began to be conducted in English, the cult of saints and the norms requiring the clergy to observe a vow of celibacy were abolished.
The Catholic Church could not resist the ideas of the Reformation. The Jesuit Order became a new instrument of her policy. Founded by Itatius Loyola (1491-1556). The order was built on the principles of strict discipline, its members took vows of non-covetousness, celibacy, obedience and unconditional obedience to the pope. The basic principle of the order was that any action is justified if it serves the true religion, i.e. Roman Catholic Church. The Jesuits penetrated the power structures and Protestant communities and sought to weaken them from within, identifying heretics. They created schools where preachers were trained who could argue with supporters of the Reformation.
Convened in 1545 The Council of Trent confirmed the basic dogmas of the Catholic Church, condemned the principle of freedom of religion, and tightened the requirements for compliance by Catholic priests with the norms of righteous life. This council marked the beginning of the Counter-Reformation - the struggle of the Catholic Church to maintain its influence. The scale of the Inquisition's activities increased. Thus, she regarded as heretical the teaching of the Polish astronomer N. Copernicus (1473-1543), who proved that the Earth is not the center of the Universe. The Inquisition sentenced his follower D. Bruno (1548-1600), who refused to renounce the ideas he expressed, to be burned. A wave of persecution of witches, sorcerers, and people accused of collaborating with evil spirits and heretical views arose.
Questions and tasks
1. Name the prerequisites for the transition to manufacturing production.
2. What types of manufactories do you know? What were their advantages over the guild associations of the Middle Ages?
H. Determine the consequences of the spread of manufacturing in Europe.
4. Name the main features of the worldview of the Renaissance man.
5. List the factors that contributed to the weakening of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in European countries.
What beliefs of the Reformation era do you know? What did they have in common, what was special? Why did the secular authorities of many countries support the Reformation?
Answers:
Catholicism, Protestantism, Calvinism. The common thing is the Christian faith, the difference is in rituals and some dogmas. Protestants wanted to cleanse the church of money-grubbing and worldly power, sought to simplify rituals and denied the power of the Pope. Calvinists are the most radical wing of Protestants
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1. Name the prerequisites for the transition to manufacturing production.
Prerequisites:
Colonial trade helped merchant capital grow rapidly;
Thanks to this, new financial instruments appeared that made doing business easier;
In an effort to obtain greater profits and having financial instruments at their disposal, trading companies also invested in production;
The guild organization of medieval craft interfered with the free circulation of capital, which contributed to the emergence of its alternative;
Technical innovations also contributed to the emergence of manufactories (printing press, blast furnace, etc.).
2. What types of manufactories do you know? What were their advantages over the guild associations of the Middle Ages?
With dispersed manufacturing, merchants placed orders with a large number of urban and rural artisans, taking upon themselves the purchase of raw materials and the sale of finished products. This type of manufacture did not differ in production method from a workshop, but brought more profit to the merchant who organized it.
In mixed manufacturing, the product was assembled simultaneously in several workshops. At the first stage, parts were made in different workshops; at the final stage, they were assembled into a single product in a separate workshop. This method of production required great qualifications only from the artisan who made the finished product; the parts could be made by his less skilled colleagues. This method increased the mass production of products and made them cheaper. But all the work still took place in workshops, which were subject to shop regulations.
With centralized manufacturing, all production was carried out in one place. It turned out to be divided into many simple operations that even unskilled workers who did not need many years to learn the skill could handle. In addition, such production could be organized anywhere if the necessary capital was available, outside the city, outside of workshop restrictions. It was centralized manufacturing that made production much more widespread and goods cheaper, pointing the way to industrialization.
3. Determine the consequences of the spread of manufacturing in Europe.
Consequences:
Gradually the workshops were relegated to the background;
Production volumes have increased;
The range of products has increased;
The desire to obtain initial capital stimulated the development of commodity-money relations;
The role of bankers and merchants in society increased, entrepreneurs appeared;
The desire of influential people to participate in the process (to open manufactories themselves or supply them with raw materials) often led to further oppression of the poor, for example, to enclosure in England;
The number of poor people who joined the ranks of hired workers increased
The unemployed poor have become socially dangerous;
Cities developed rapidly, the role of the urban class in the state grew;
The development of production and trade helped the emergence of single internal markets, which strengthened the centralization of their countries;
The division of labor began among countries and regions of Europe;
Manufactures prepared the demand for technical innovations in production, which contributed to the industrial revolution.
4. List the factors that contributed to the weakening of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in European countries.
The numerous frequently denounced sins of the Catholic clergy;
Overtly political games of the papal throne that had nothing to do with faith;
Blatant sale of church positions and indulgences;
A clear weakening of the influence of the popes on the political life of Europe due to the emergence of centralized states.
5. What beliefs of the Reformation era do you know? What did they have in common, what was special? Why did the secular authorities of many countries support the Reformation?
Lutheranism denies the possibility of mediation between man and the Lord. According to this teaching, only repentance and faith can save a person’s soul. At the same time, the clergy is assigned only the role of an advisor in the interpretation of sacred texts, but the believer still must decide for himself. Lutheranism opposed the luxury of the church, the monastic movement and reduced the number of church sacraments to a minimum.
Zwinglianism went even further. It sought to purge the faith of everything that was not confirmed in the New Testament. Therefore, in particular, it denied the church sacraments as such - they are not described in any of the books of Holy Scripture.
Calvinism also opposed monasticism, the luxury of the church, unnecessary sacraments and the role of the clergy as a mediator in a person’s conversation with God. However, Calvinism places more emphasis on human predestination. The theme of predestination in Christianity, dating back to St. Augustine, was fully expressed in this teaching. According to it, it was initially predetermined who was destined for heaven and who was destined for hell. A person does not know his purpose, but God gives him hints, for example, in the form of success in business. Calvinism approves of business activity, like any work, considering it a godly work. On the contrary, idleness, like the monks, is considered a sin.
Monarchs often supported Protestantism in order to weaken the Pope or another monarch who fought against the Protestants. An important incentive was also the confiscation of church lands and other property, which passed to the secular authorities. Sometimes other motives also played a role. For example, Henry VIII of England was attracted by the idea of becoming the head of a new church himself. Besides everything else, he saw no other way to dissolve his marriage, which he really wanted.
6. What was the significance of the Counter-Reformation? How have the policies of the Roman Catholic Church changed?
The Counter-Reformation officially began with the Council of Trent in 1545. On the one hand, it tightened and systematized punitive measures against heretics. In particular, the powers of the Inquisition were expanded, the Index of Prohibited Books was published and periodically updated - a list of books that could not be published or even read in Catholic countries. The Jesuit order played a major role in this matter with its famous principle of the end justifying the means.
But at the same time, the Counter-Reformation also marked the beginning of the fight against heresies through persuasion. In response to the arguments of heretics, not only punishments were presented, but also counter-arguments. In particular, the Jesuits were widely involved in the education of young people in order to direct this education in the right direction. It was this direction of the Counter-Reformation that enriched European spiritual life in many of its manifestations. In many ways, Baroque culture grew out of it.