Formation of an internal action plan. Each mental action goes through a number of stages in its development. This path begins with external, practical action with material objects, then the real object is replaced by its image, diagram, after which the stage of performing the initial action in terms of “loud speech” follows, then it becomes sufficient to pronounce this action “to oneself”, and, finally, at the final stage, the action is completely interiorized and, transforming qualitatively (collapses, occurs instantly, etc.), becomes a mental action, i.e., an action “in the mind” (Galperin P. Ya., 1978).
All mental actions (counting, reading, performing arithmetic operations, etc.) go through this sequence in their development.
The most obvious example is learning to count:
♦ first the child learns to count and add real objects;
♦ then he can give the correct answer, no longer counting each circle with his finger, but performing a similar action in terms of perception, only moving his gaze, but still accompanying the count with loud speech;
♦ after this the action is spoken in a whisper;
♦ and finally, the action finally moves to the mental plane, the child becomes capable of mental calculation.
306 _____________________________PartII. Children's practical psi xo LG|| -
It is noteworthy that mental calculation in mathematics lessons is one of the few techniques used in mass schools to form an internal plan of action. Basically, this skill develops spontaneously. Quite often you can observe individual first-graders at the end of the school year, and even individual students in grades P-III, who, during oral counting, actively count the fingers on their hands under their desks, and do this masterfully, outperforming children who actually count “in their heads” with the answer.
For such schoolchildren, the operation of counting has not been worked out internally, so it is necessary to conduct special classes with them to develop this skill.
The development of an internal plan of action ensures the ability to navigate the conditions of a task, identify the most significant among them, plan the course of a solution, provide and evaluate possible options, etc. “The more “steps” of his actions a child can foresee and the more carefully he can compare their different options, the more successfully he will control the actual solution of the problem. The need for control and self-control in educational activities, as well as a number of its other features (for example, the requirement for a verbal report, assessment) create favorable conditions for the formation in younger schoolchildren of the ability to plan and perform actions silently, on an internal level” (Davydov V.V. , 1973, p. 83).
The development of an internal plan of action in younger schoolchildren is also facilitated by various games (especially chess, tag, etc.) and exercises (Zaika E.V., 1994; Zak A. Z., 1982, 1997, etc.).
Development of reflection. Characterizing the thinking characteristics of a child at “first school age,” i.e., a junior schoolchild, L. S. Vygotsky noted that the child “is not yet sufficiently aware of his own mental operations and therefore cannot fully master them. He is still little capable of internal observation, of introspection... Only under the pressure of argument and objections does the child begin to try to justify his thought in the eyes of others and begins to observe his own thinking, that is, to look for and distinguish with the help of introspection the motives that guide him, and the direction he is following. Trying to confirm his thought in the eyes of others, he begins to confirm it for himself” (Vygotsky L. S., 1984, vol. 4, p. 88).
The younger schoolchild is just beginning to master reflection, that is, the ability to consider and evaluate his own actions, the ability to analyze the content and process of his mental activity.
Job on the development of cognitive processes in younger schoolchildren ______307
The ability to reflect is formed and developed in children when performing control and evaluation actions. A child’s awareness of the meaning and content of his own actions becomes possible only when he is able to independently talk about his action and explain in detail what he is doing and why. After all, it is well known: when a person explains something to someone else, he himself begins to better understand what he is explaining. Therefore, at the first stages of learning any action (mathematical, grammatical, etc.), it is necessary to require from the child not only independent and correct execution of this action, but also a detailed verbal explanation of all operations performed.
To do this, in the process of the child’s actions, you should ask him questions about what he is doing, why he is doing it this way and not otherwise, why his action is correct, etc. The child should be asked to do and tell it in such a way that “everyone understands.” It is recommended to ask the child such questions not only in cases where he has made a mistake, but constantly, teaching him to explain in detail and justify his actions.
It is also possible to use a situation of collective mental activity, when children analyze the solution to a problem in pairs, with one of the students playing the role of a “controller” who requires an explanation of each step of the solution.
The new formations discussed above (analysis, internal plan of action and reflection) are formed in younger schoolchildren in the process of educational activities. In the conditions of specially organized developmental education, the basis of which is the implementation by children of full-fledged, comprehensive educational activities leading to the formation of theoretical thinking, these new formations will take shape earlier than in the conditions of traditional education (Mental development of junior schoolchildren, 1990). This, of course, creates greater opportunities for mental development and use of the mental potential of younger schoolchildren.
With traditional education, these new formations develop mainly spontaneously and many children do not reach the required level of development by the end of primary school age. Therefore, in the context of a traditional mass school, the developmental work of a psychologist in this direction (with mandatory cooperation with teachers and parents) will be especially useful.
When directing efforts to develop children's thinking, one should focus on their individual characteristics (mindset, pace of thinking).
308 ________________________________PartII. Children's practical psych ol OG|
activity, learning ability, etc.). In addition, we must not forget about the qualitative uniqueness of a child’s thinking at primary school age.
For example, it has been shown that up to about 10 years of age, children primarily activate the right hemisphere and the first signaling system, so the vast majority of younger schoolchildren are not of the thinking type, but of the artistic type. This means that “physiologically younger schoolchildren are, in fact, all of them! - “artists”” (Petrunek V.P., Taran L. II, 1981, p. 65).
Therefore, the targeted development of children’s theoretical thinking should be combined with an equally targeted improvement of imaginative thinking. “The mind of a person who, in childhood, did not properly develop direct perception of the environment and visual-figurative thinking, may subsequently develop one-sidedly, acquire an overly abstract character, divorced from concrete reality” (Zaporozhets A.V., 1986, p. 257 ).
In this regard, the psychologist’s special attention should certainly be directed to the development of students’ imagination (Dubrovina I.V., 1975; Rodari J., 1990; etc.).
Chapter 4. Work on the development of motor skills
INTERNAL ACTION PLAN AS AN INDICATOR OF GENERAL PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
ON THE. PARSNIP
The presented work raises the question of the role of the internal plan of action (IAP) in the transition from one stage of development of generalizations to another. The subject of the experimental study was the peculiarities of generalization of individual words that characterize personal qualities, and the measure of generalization of concepts underlying the perception of subjects of different levels of development of HPA about the “proper” way of behavior. It has been shown that with the growth of the level of development of IAP, the features of mental generalizations change: from generalizations by similarity and contrast to differentiation of the meanings of individual words and their subsequent integration. As the level of development of HPA increases, the degree of generalization in the formation of the idea of the “proper” behavior increases. It is concluded that the level of development of a person’s HPA affects both the characteristics of his cognitive sphere and the formation of personal characteristics.
Key words: internal plan of action, voluntary regulation of behavior.
The distinction between laws that describe typical human behavior from laws that describe unique cases of individual behavior is one of the problems that has not yet been resolved. This division had a serious impact on the emergence of a gap between the psychology of individual differences and the psychology of personality.
Back in the 30s. L.S. Vygotsky said that the development of affect and intelligence should be considered in dynamic unity. In his opinion, “every stage in the development of thinking corresponds to its own stage of development of affect, or, in other words, every stage of mental development is characterized by a special, inherent structure of dynamic, semantic systems as an integral and indecomposable unity.”
B.G. Ananiev also pointed out the underestimation of the importance of intelligence in personality theory: “The mutual isolation of personality and intelligence seems to us to be contrary to the real development of a person, in which social functions, social behavior and motivation are always associated with the process of a person’s reflection of the surrounding world, especially with the knowledge of society, other people and oneself. That is why the intellectual factor turns out to be so important for the structure of the personality."
It should be noted that the creators of the methodological apparatus for personality research have repeatedly set themselves the task of taking into account the role of the intellectual factor in certain personal manifestations. Thus, in the well-known multifactor questionnaire by R. Cattell there is a special scale for measuring intelligence (scale B), but there is no correction of the results of other scales in accordance with the readings of this scale.
In this work, an attempt is made to consider the problem of mutual isolation of intelligence and personality within the framework of a more general issue - the issue of human mental development. A general methodological approach to solving this issue was proposed by L.S. Vygotsky, who showed that the development of mental processes cannot occur otherwise than in the form of assimilation of socio-historical experience, and assimilation itself passes through stages that naturally follow one another. At the same time, L.S. Vygotsky and his school established that the stages of word development differ from each other both in content and in the way the generalizations are formed.
The issue of psychological mechanisms of personality development was subsequently studied by Ya.A. Ponomarev, who showed that the internal plan of action (IPA) is one of the most important indicators of the overall development of the human psyche.
Initially, the VPD study was undertaken by Ya.A. Ponomarev to identify psychological factors that contribute to increasing the effectiveness of school education. These studies were supposed to answer the question: does any intellectual ability develop during training that is not reducible to the simple accumulation of knowledge and skills?
The basis of the study was the following methodological scheme: the subject was taught a certain objective action and then given a task, for the solution of which it was necessary to build a system of actions consisting of identical elements. Any element of this system was the action for which the subject was trained at the beginning of the experiment, but he was not taught how to construct the system of actions itself.
The proposed problems were solved differently at different stages of the experiment. At first, the solution had to be found based on visual images of the conditions of the problem, then - “in the mind.” In this case, the field of actions was coded, and the subject, learning the code offered to him, had to “mentally” move an imaginary object in the imaginary field verbally. During the experiment, several series of tasks were offered, each subsequent series made increasing demands on the ability to act “in the mind.”
Experimentally (on preschoolers and schoolchildren of IIX grades) the existence of a number of stages in the development of HPA was revealed.
Subsequently, summarizing the results of research into HPA by many authors, Ya.A. Ponomarev identified HPA as one of the most important indicators of the overall development of the human psyche. "The development of the HPA is based on a genetically inherent potency and occurs in the process of mastering the content of experience, representing its invariant. The limits of such development are genetically predetermined. However, the HPA does not develop spontaneously - it must be “pulled out”, for example, by assimilation of knowledge, the content of knowledge and the conditions for it assimilation is extremely important for the success of development.The development of HPA is completed at approximately 12 years of age (further development, in particular, of intelligence occurs due to enrichment and improvement of the content of the acquired experience).
According to the results of modern experimental studies, VPD reaches optimal development (the optimum here coincides with the maximum) in only 5% of the population. Among those who are “underdeveloped,” there are relatively many who are pedagogically neglected. Attempts to further develop the VPD after reaching the so-called physical maturity have so far been unsuccessful.
It should be noted that Ya.A. Ponomarev in his latest works replaced the term VPA with the term “ability to act in the mind” (AC). In his early works, using the term HPA, he meant by it a specific feature of human intelligence. Subsequently, having decided that the term VPD denotes a narrower mental reality than SDS, he changes the name, defining SDS as the central link of the psychological mechanism of behavior. Since for most psychologists the term VPD is more familiar, it will be used in this work.
The main premise of this study was the following statement: the development of a person’s HPA and the peculiarities of his assimilation of social experience are interrelated processes. Proof of this statement will make it possible to identify the stages of assimilation of experience, which will deepen the understanding of the general mental development of a person and will help bridge the gap between intellectual and personal characteristics.
In order to outline the main directions of empirical research, it is necessary to pose the question: what is the role of HPA in a person’s everyday life? To answer it, it is necessary to identify those life situations in which behavior is associated with this feature of human intelligence.
It is safe to say that these are situations when a person needs to play out “in his mind” the options for proposed actions. This happens when it is necessary to avoid actions committed under the influence of random circumstances, for example, overwhelming emotions. If mental modeling is difficult, a person, without thinking about the consequences, submits to momentary desires and inclinations.
If it is necessary to perform an action that is not related to an urgent need, to overcome external or internal obstacles, to choose between two seemingly equivalent motives, a person must show will, but the development of will itself largely depends on the person’s ability to correctly assess the situation, his capabilities, the consequences of his actions, which presupposes the presence of an internal intellectual plan. In addition, in order to obey existing norms, rules, patterns, it is necessary to create “in the mind” an image of the proposed actions, while the image of behavior “acts as its regulator, the behavior is compared with the image and the latter acts as a model.”
The mediation of behavior in any way, by representation, can occur in two ways: the image can be given in the form of the behavior of a specific person or in the form of a general rule of relationships, and the assimilation of images that guide behavior passes a certain path from specific, visual to increasingly generalized and abstract.
What factors can influence the process of forming an ideal idea of what should be? These are, of course, individual conditions of upbringing, but, in addition, there are also features of the subjective assessment (analysis) of a life situation associated with a person’s mental activity. Thus, the moral regulation of behavior, on the one hand, can be carried out in the form of ready-made recipes (a person is guided by a certain social model), but, on the other hand, it can acquire a more generalized - abstract character, implying a conscious hierarchization of social norms and rules, the choice of that model, which is most acceptable under the given conditions.
The degree of generality of the concepts underlying people’s ideas about “should” can also be different: in one case, it is a subjective assessment of which social norms are most
preferable in a specific sociocultural situation; in another, a subjective assessment of which social norms are most preferable in a specific social situation. To identify the role of the level of development of a person’s HPA in this process is the task of our research (it is assumed that with an increase in the level of development of a person’s HPA, the measure of generalization in the assimilation of social experience increases).
Thus, the possibilities of generalizing material of any type, which we associate with the development of a person’s HPA, cannot but manifest themselves in the peculiarities of assimilation of social experience, more specifically, in the construction of an image of proper behavior. That is why we set the following research objectives:
1. Prove that the methods of forming generalizations are different for subjects of different levels of development of HPA.
2. Prove that as the level of development of HPA increases, the degree of generalization in the formation of an image of proper behavior increases.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental study involved 180 students from one of the Moscow universities at the age of 1922. It took place in two stages. At the first stage, the level of development of each student's HPA was diagnosed. Based on the results of this stage, six groups of 30 people each (15 boys and 15 girls) were formed: two groups - students with a low level of development of HPA, two - with an average level, two - with a high level of development of HPA.
At the second stage of the experimental study, subjects from each three groups (low, medium and high VPD) assessed themselves on one of the personality questionnaires described below.
Diagnosis of the development of VPD was carried out as follows. The subject was shown a square drawn on paper, divided into nine cells. Each cell had its own designation: a1, a2, a3, b1, b2, b3, c1, c2, c3. Then the subject was informed of the rules of the experiment: you can “jump” through two cells to the third, starting from the cell on which you are standing (in chess terminology - “knight’s move”), without using the middle square.
The experiment was carried out like this: the drawing was removed, and the subject was asked to “in his mind” get from cell a1 to cell c1 (the course of the solution was spoken out by the subject). If the problem was solved, similar problems were offered (from a1 to a3, from a3 to c3, from c1 to c3, etc.) If the subjects solved similar problems with errors (or did not cope with them at all), the level of development of their IAP was qualified how low.
After correctly solving similar problems, tasks for three and four moves were given (for example, to get from a1 to a2, from a1 to c3). Accurate solution of only the second series of problems indicated an average level of development of HPA, while error-free solution of all problems indicated a high level.
To achieve the first goal of the study - to prove that the methods of forming generalizations are different in subjects of different levels of development of ICP - we used a method for diagnosing the cognitive complexity of the individual conceptual system of the subject (ICS), developed by A.G. Shmelev.
The simplest conceptual system is one-dimensional and based on one classification basis; when the second basis appears, concepts can form a grid of several categories; The higher the dimension of the semantic space, the higher the differentiation of the individual conceptual system, the greater the potential for accuracy and content it has.
This technique uses 11 words; differentiation indicator
measured by analyzing matrices of subjective judgments about the similarity and contrast of a sample of the most important supporting concepts in the selected problem area.
For this experiment, adjectives were chosen that characterize personal properties: in this area, the role of learning is minimal, and it is possible to trace the formation of spontaneous (rather than scientific) concepts depending on the level of development of VPD.
The result of the DCS technique is the data of cluster analysis - a picture of the semantic space of each subject. The characteristics of a subject’s generalization of experimental material can be assessed by the pattern of connections between words: they can be combined into several large clusters, many small clusters, etc.
To solve the second objective of the study - to identify differences in the construction of an image of proper behavior by subjects of different levels of development of the IAP - we used a checklist of adjectives (CLP), developed by A.G. Shmelev for diagnosing the “real self” and the “ideal self”. The list consists of 240 adjectives, forming 15 factors, including “altruism”, “intelligence”, etc.
RESULTS AND ITS DISCUSSION
When solving the first problem of the study, the following results were obtained (recall that at this stage of the experiment, subjects of three groups - with a low, medium and high level of development of the IAP - were tested using the DKS method): cluster analysis of the responses of the first group of subjects - with a low level of development of the IAP - showed the following: in the individual self-awareness of the subjects, adjectives related to personal properties are combined with each other relative to other groups into the largest groups (the number of elements in one clique is greater than that of subjects of other groups), and almost each clique consists of similar ones in meaning adjectives and their opposites. For example, a “typical” like of a representative of this group of subjects can be described as follows: the words “kind”, “sociable”, “trusting” make up one like with the opposite meanings of the words “calculating” and “vindictive” (the opposite meanings are indicated by the fact that the subject contrasts these words with each other). The spread in the total number of likes allocated to each subject across the entire group is minimal: almost all subjects in this group had four-five likes allocated (see Table 1).
Cluster analysis of the responses of the second group of subjects - with an average level of development of VPD - showed the following: in individual self-awareness, words related to personal adjectives are combined with each other into significantly smaller groups (the number of elements in one like is less than that of the subjects of the first group, see. Table 1), and the share of likes with opposite values in the total number of likes decreases (Table 2). For example, a “typical” like of a representative of this group can be described as follows: the words “kind” and “sociable”, which are similar in meaning, make up one like, the words “sociable” and “gullible” - another. Dispersion of the total number of likes allocated for each subject compared to the first
the group is large: it ranges from three to seven likes. In this case, in the second group we can conditionally distinguish two types of subjects: those whose likes are similar to the likes of the first group of subjects, and those whose picture of word generalization changes significantly (the total number of likes increases, the number of words (elements) in each like decreases).
Cluster analysis of the results of the third group of subjects - with a high level of development of VPD - showed the following: compared with the two previous groups, with a small number of likes for each subject, the number of words (elements) contained in them is small, and the proportion of likes with opposite meanings compared to the previous groups decreases again (see Tables 1, 2). A “typical” clique of a representative of this group can be described as follows: words of similar meaning “sociable, kind, trusting” are combined with each other (they constitute a separate clique).
When analyzing all the data obtained, cases were identified when, in the individual minds of the subjects, adjective words were combined into three likes, in which there were no words with opposite meanings. These are likes like: “kind, sociable, trusting”, “strong-willed, calculating, patient”, “prudent, vindictive”; or similar likes: “kind, sociable, patient”, “strong-willed, patient”, “calculating, vengeful”. It should be noted that such cases were extremely rare, approximately one protocol out of twenty; This single protocol belonged to a subject with a high level of VPD development.
The results obtained for the third group were conventionally called
standard, and all results were compared with it. It turned out that subjects with a low level of VPD development demonstrated only one of the elements of the identified standard, while subjects with an average level of VPA development demonstrated one or two, i.e. In our experiment, not a single result was obtained when the standard distinguished a subject who did not have a high level of development of VPD.
Summarizing all of the above, we can conclude that in our experiment the following pattern was obtained: words in the individual self-awareness of subjects with a low level of VPD development are united among themselves into large heterogeneous groups when generalizations based on the principle of opposite meanings dominate; words in the individual self-awareness of subjects with an average level of development of VPD are combined predominantly into small groups, where not opposite, but similar meanings dominate; words in the individual self-awareness of subjects with a high level of VPD development are combined into medium-sized (relative to the other two) groups, where similar meanings also dominate (this tendency is most pronounced in this group). Of course, the indicated pattern is rather arbitrary; for example, in a group with a high level of development of the HPA one can find any types of associations, but this is the general trend.
From our point of view, the results obtained can be explained by comparing the identified patterns with the stages of concept development described by L.S. Vygotsky. Let us briefly look at his description of this process.
According to L.S. Vygotsky, the path of development of concepts consists of three main stages: syncretic image, thinking in complexes and thinking in concepts. Each of these stages, in turn, consists of a number of stages reflecting the course of development of this process.
The first stage in the development of concepts was called by L.S. Vygotsky a syncretic image, when any association is unformed and disordered, it is accomplished by chance, with the help of trial and error.
The second major stage in the development of concepts is thinking in complexes, when “incoherent coherence” is replaced by actual connections discovered in direct experience. A complex, in contrast to a syncretic image, is a generalization, but the connection with the help of which this generalization is built can be of a very different type. L.S. Vygotsky identified five main forms of such a connection: associative complex, collection complex, chain complex, diffuse complex, pseudo-concept.
The first type of complex - associative - is characterized by the fact that it is based on any associative connection, and these are associations by similarity; the second - a collection - in that the basis of this connection is mutual complementarity on any one attribute, and here, instead of associations by similarity, associations by contrast operate. According to the observations of L.S. Vygotsky, these forms of thinking often coexist with each other, and then a collection is obtained, made up of various features.
The first type of liking, identified in all of our subjects, but predominant in subjects with a low level of development of VPD, is very similar to the described complexes (remember that these are generalizations of the type: similar words “kind, sociable, trusting” are contrasted with the words “calculating, vindictive”) . It can be assumed that this form of complex thinking is most characteristic of subjects with a low level of development of HPA.
The next type of complex thinking is a chain complex, characterized by the transfer of meanings through individual elements of a single chain, when
each link is connected, on the one hand, to the previous one, and on the other, to the subsequent one, and the nature of the connection of the same link with the previous and subsequent ones can be completely different.
In our experiment, we encountered the following types of likes: “kind, sociable” and “sociable, trusting,” identified in the same subject. Comparing L.S. Vygotsky’s descriptions of the types of complex thinking with what we received, it is legitimate to classify the thinking of those of our subjects in whom claiks of this type predominated (and this is part of the subjects with an average level of development of VPD) to the type of chain complex.
The last two types of complex thinking: a diffuse complex, which, unlike the previous complexes, is vague and blurred, and a pseudo-concept - a whole group of signs that is not sufficiently dissected within itself, did not appear in our study as clearly as the previous types of complex generalizations.
The uniformity of the connections underlying generalizations is characteristic of thinking in concepts. With this type of thinking, there is no overabundance of connections (which is typical for thinking in complexes); the concept in its developed form presupposes not only the generalization of individual elements of experience, but also their abstraction and separation from each other.
Analyzing the likes of all our subjects, we were convinced that in terms of the number of “connections” (the number of likes, the number of elements in one like), subjects with a high level of development of HPA differ from the other two groups - they have less number of “connections”. In addition, it was from these subjects that it was possible to identify “standards” - uniform likes, “extra” generalizations of opposite meaning.
The subjects with an average and low level of VPD development in our experiment also differed from each other: in the former, connections of the “collection” type predominated, in the latter – “chain complex”. These facts, from our point of view, indicate that we were faced precisely with the stages of development of thinking during the development of HPA, and also made sure that with an increase in the level of development of HPA, the likelihood of the formation of conceptual thinking increases.
When solving the second objective of the study, the following results were obtained (on three groups of subjects of different levels of development of the HPA, tested with the KSP questionnaire): personal characteristics were identified, for which the groups gave statistically significantly different answers. They were grouped into three factors, conventionally called “social undesirability” (the factor included the personal characteristics “ill-mannered”, “bungler”, “stupid”, etc.), “enterprising spirit” (the factor included such characteristics as “enterprising ", "nimble", "dexterous", etc.), "bungler, buffoon" (at one pole of the characteristic factor "tramp", "bungler", "ill-mannered", "clown", at the other - "cruel", "selfish", etc.). When analyzing the ideal self, a different scatter of scores on the selected scales was revealed between subjects of different levels of development of HPA (see Table 2).
From the presented results it is clear that the smallest range of opinions and the most typical ideas are characteristic of subjects with a low level of development of HPA: when assessing an ideal person, they are guided by very specific models.
Subjects with a high level of HPA development demonstrate a greater range of opinions; they believe that various life relationships require a wide variety of manifestations from a person,
even such as recklessness and rashness, carelessness and impracticality, and sometimes even simplicity, ingenuity, absurdity in behavior and stupidity.
How to explain the differences obtained? It is likely that the assimilation of those norms that do not correlate with a person’s actions in specific life situations is difficult when the HPA is insufficiently developed. In other words, if the task of integrating and hierarchizing social values in relation to one’s own life is complex, a person is more inclined to evaluate as an “ideal” a “typical” pattern of behavior that does not require analysis of the entire variety of life relationships.
Thus, the results obtained indicate that the assessment of “proper behavior” itself can be different, in one case it is based on previous life experience, learned norms and values, in the other - on taking into account those personal qualities that can become valuable under certain life circumstances. In addition, the data obtained indicate the dynamics of the process of formation of the “ideal self” during the development of the HPA - with the growth of the level of development of the HPA, an increasing number of personal characteristics are perceived as socially valuable.
It should be noted that the results of the empirical study can be combined into a holistic picture of a structured system of knowledge if they are explained from the perspective of L.S. Vygotsky’s cultural-historical concept of development. The legitimacy of this approach is evidenced, first of all, by the data presented above on the dominance of different types of mental generalizations in the self-awareness of subjects at different levels of development of HPA.
In the works of Ya.A. Ponomarev there is no indication that each stage of development is characterized by its own characteristics of mental generalizations, so the question arises about the need to compare the views of these two scientists.
In general, the different features of the assimilation of social experience by people of different levels of development of HPA determine the wide range of individual differences necessary in the conditions of a social way of life.
A wide range of individual properties of a person, such as inclinations, temperament, level of development of high-functioning skills, is necessary in a diverse and ever-changing world: under some conditions, any type of personality can gain an advantage over any other.
1. In the individual self-awareness of subjects with a low level of VPD development, the meanings of individual words characterizing a certain personal quality are combined with each other into large heterogeneous groups; in the individual self-awareness of subjects with an average level of development of VPD, differentiation of these values occurs; in the individual self-awareness of subjects with a high level of development of VPD - their integration. This fact indicates that one of the psychological mechanisms that ensures the transition from one stage of development of generalization to another is the human VPD.
2. With an increase in the level of development of HPA, the number of personal characteristics assessed as socially valuable increases, which indicates an increase in the measure of generalization in the assimilation of social experience in the process of development of HPA.
These data, from our point of view, indicate the role of HPA in the assimilation of socio-historical experience: each stage of this assimilation is characterized by its own characteristics of mental generalizations.
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Received by the editors on December 7, 1999.
source unknown
The central concept that determines the direction of modernization of the education system in the modern world is competence, which combines knowledge, skill and intellectual components. Representing an opposition to traditional authoritarian-reproductive teaching methods, the competency-based approach is focused on the formation of such characteristics of the student’s thinking as initiative, innovation, mobility, flexibility, dynamism and constructivity.
In personal and activity terms, the goals are considered to be: developing the desire for self-education throughout life, the ability to make independent decisions, expanding adaptive capabilities and increasing the communicative level of the individual. An important feature of the competency-based approach is also that, within its framework, educational activities acquire a research and practice-oriented character and themselves become the subject of assimilation.
key, formed on the meta-subject content of education;
interdisciplinary and general subject related to a specific group of academic subjects and educational areas;
subject, having a private nature associated with the characteristics of specific objects.
The key ones are multifunctional and universal in nature and degree of applicability; they are cross-disciplinary and interdisciplinary. Mastering them allows you to solve various problems when carrying out activities in the field of education, in everyday, professional or social life.
The application of a competency-based approach in a specific educational institution requires certain organizational decisions. Thus, an indispensable condition is the development of school-wide methodological standards for the development of educational and cognitive competence within the boundaries of basic and specialized general education disciplines. It is necessary to look differently at the process of planning a lesson system on an educational topic. Thematic planning allows teachers to record the process of development of general educational skills within the boundaries of traditional academic disciplines.
The competency-based approach, like other innovative approaches to training, requires phased implementation. To begin with, you can form the elementary general educational competencies of schoolchildren:
extracting the main content of what was read or heard;
precise formulation of thoughts, construction of original statements on a given question or topic;
researching various options for solving problems, choosing the best one, taking into account various criteria;
cooperation with other people (students and teacher) in completing a common task;
planning activities and time;
assessment of the results of their activities, etc.
The listed characteristics of the competency-based approach to teaching make it possible to identify the psychological foundations and mechanisms for the formation of students’ competencies. Developed by domestic psychologists D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov’s theory of educational activity (AL) takes into account, first of all, the subjectivity of the child.
The idea of educational learning (as opposed to didactic concepts) contains the prerequisites for understanding the student as a subject of knowledge. The educational process itself is interpreted not as the transmission of scientific knowledge, its assimilation, reproduction, but as the development of cognitive abilities. The subjective activity of a schoolchild is determined by the way of organizing cognitive activity. The child is assigned the role of exploring the world in conditions specially organized for this.
According to Davydov and his followers, the organization of training based on a theoretical type is most favorable for mental development, which is why the authors call it developmental. Indicators characterizing theoretical thinking are taken as the standard of development:
reflexivity, goal setting, planning;
the ability to act internally;
the ability to exchange products of knowledge.
As research shows, the systematic implementation of properly organized educational activities contributes to the intensive development of theoretical thinking among its subjects, the main components of which are meaningful abstractions, generalizations, analysis, planning and reflection.
From a psychological point of view, the essence of UD is that its result is a change not in the object with which the student is dealing (be it a piece of paper or a mathematical problem), but in the child himself. If yesterday he did not know, did not know how, did not perform, then today he has become different: now he knows something new or performs certain new actions.
Davydov described the structure of UD as follows:
learning situations (or tasks);
learning activities;
control and evaluation activities.
One of the most important components of educational activity is the student’s understanding of educational tasks (TL). Children’s acceptance of them “for themselves” and their independent production are closely related to the motivation of learning, to the child’s transformation into a subject of activity.
The next component is the implementation of educational activities. They should be aimed at identifying universal relations, leading principles, key ideas of a given field of knowledge, at modeling these relations, at mastering ways of moving from the general to the specific and back.
No less important, as V.V. believed. Davydov, has the student himself perform the actions of control and evaluation. At the same time, the child monitors the progress of execution, compares the results obtained with given samples and, if necessary, ensures correction of both the indicative and executive parts of the action.
We emphasize that the described patterns make it possible to develop in the student the ability to independently determine the possibility of applying one or another general principle and to freely move from one method of solving a problem to another. This is considered one of the goals of education, as formulated within the competency-based approach.
According to the description of A.N. Leontyev, the specificity of KZ is that it is not just a task that a student performs in class or at home, but a task that is set before students in the form of a problem. The goal of its implementation is to master the general method of solving all problems of a given type, while the goal of a specific practical task is to obtain a result-answer.
In the concept under consideration, the main means of developing educational attainment is a set of special educational tasks that require research, analysis, independent study of certain phenomena, construction of methods for studying or recording results in the form of models of these phenomena and methods for studying them.
In order to develop learning skills among students, it is necessary that their work becomes an activity aimed at solving educational problems, and at the same time, the children realize that they are not only completing the teacher’s tasks, writing, drawing, counting, but also solving the next educational problem. “The most important thing in the formation of educational activities,” noted D.B. Elkonin, is to transfer the student from focusing on obtaining the correct result when solving a specific problem to focusing on the correct application of the learned general method of action.”
At the same time, it is recognized that it is necessary to structure the educational process in such a way that gradually the elements of self-study, amateur performance, self-development, and self-education begin to occupy more and more of a place in it. “The formation of educational activity,” wrote Elkonin, “is the process of gradually transferring the implementation of individual elements of this activity to the student himself for independent implementation without the intervention of a teacher.” The activity that should be handed over to the students themselves to perform independently is assessment, i.e. establishing whether a certain learning action has been mastered or not. Thus, one of the fundamental provisions of the competency-based approach – the focus on the formation of independence and initiative – finds its justification in the psychological theory of UD.
Research psychologists have described some age-related features of the formation of UD. So, at the first stage of training, in junior school, the main components of UD arise and form for the first time, since the child entering school simply does not have them. However, the development of a fully-fledged UD in its structure is possible only with the creation of special conditions that take into account the described psychological patterns.
Already in the 1st grade, the assimilation of elementary theoretical concepts in the process of collective solving educational problems contributes to children’s entry into the system of educational activities, allows them to master the methods and norms of participation in disputes and discussions, and take the initiative in inviting peers and teachers to educational dialogue. Throughout primary education, in conditions of a full-fledged and expanded educational learning, it remains collectively distributed, however, at the same time, the majority of junior schoolchildren develop the ability, on their own initiative, to pose various meaningful questions to peers and teachers, the ability not only to participate in discussions, but also to be their initiators and even organizers.
Children develop stable and generalized educational and cognitive motives. This indicates the formation of the very need for UD. By the end of initial training, the ability to consciously control one’s learning activities and critically evaluate their results appears.
It can be seen that in the concept under consideration, the communicative component is both a condition and a product of the development of a full-fledged UD. Consequently, communicative competencies can be considered as components of general educational skills developed in primary school.
Another topic that may be of interest when discussing psychological aspects is related to the system of psychological assessment of the level of development of students’ learning activity developed within the framework of the concept of educational activity. A.K. Markova suggests using several diagnostic indicators.
State of the learning task and indicative basis:
the student’s understanding of the teacher’s task, the meaning of the activity and active acceptance of the teaching for himself;
the child’s independent setting of educational tasks;
independent choice of action guidelines in new educational material.
Status of training activities:
what UD the student performs (change, comparison, modeling, etc.);
in what form does he do this (material, materialized, loud-speech, mental plane), expanded (in the full range of operations) or collapsed, independently or after promptings from an adult;
whether individual actions are combined into larger blocks - methods, techniques, methods; does the student distinguish between the method and the result of actions;
Does he know several techniques to achieve one result?
State of self-control and self-esteem:
whether the child knows how to check himself after finishing work (final self-control);
can he check himself in the middle and during work (step-by-step self-control);
is he able to plan work before it begins (planning self-control);
has adequate self-esteem;
is a differentiated self-assessment of individual parts of his work available to the student or can he assess himself only in general terms?
What is the result of the educational activity:
objective (correctness of the solution, number of actions to achieve the result, time spent, solving problems of varying difficulty);
subjective (significance, meaning of this educational work for the student himself, subjective satisfaction, psychological cost - expenditure of time and effort, contribution of personal efforts).
In our education center, competency-based approach strategies are implemented in accordance with the psychological mechanisms that determine the effectiveness of developmental education. The task of forming an integral system of primary education is methodically solved through participation in experimental programs using integrative methodological complexes - for example, the educational complex “Planet of Knowledge”.
Such forms as group work and interaction in pairs, focused, in particular, on the development of communicative competencies, are actively being introduced into educational activities. Much attention is paid to student projects and the development of subjectivity in relation to the material being studied. As part of the development of the English language using the educational complex “English in Focus”, thanks to the features of the program, the task of developing intercultural competencies of junior schoolchildren is achieved.
In organizational terms, the systematic nature of educational work acquires a new quality thanks to the transition of primary schools to electronic journals, which make it possible to quickly collect and analyze information regarding the effectiveness of individual educational activities and their complex as a whole. An in-school set of requirements for teachers has been developed, which includes general parameters of the educational process, including criteria for assessing oral and written answers, rules for conducting tests, etc.
The center is introducing a unified system of psychological diagnostics for students using L.A. programs. Yasyukova, ensuring integrativeness and continuity of diagnostic criteria throughout the entire period of training.
We think it is important and useful to include in the discussion on the characteristics and effectiveness of the competency-based approach in education some ideas from the field of psychological science, since they make it possible to take into account aspects that are often present in a hidden form in the real pedagogical process.
It should be emphasized that the competency-based approach turns out to be the most psychologically justified means of achieving the goals facing the modern education system: the formation of a mature personality capable of making and implementing independent responsible decisions in rapidly changing conditions, having a pro-social orientation and highly valuing the spiritual, moral and intellectual spheres life.
1.5 Development of an internal action plan for younger schoolchildren.
Internal action plan is the ability to carry out actions in the mind. This skill is one of the universal characteristics of human consciousness and represents a key condition for the development of intelligence. From the point of view of the classification of mental phenomena, the internal plan of action does not belong to any of the traditionally distinguished mental processes, but represents an indissoluble unity, an alloy of attention, thinking, imagination and memory.
Despite the exceptional importance of the internal plan of action for the human psyche, this ability in the conditions of traditional school education is formed only mainly through oral calculation in mathematics lessons and oral analysis of words and sentences in Russian language classes.
The internal plan of action is closely related to the imagination. The condition for the development of an internal plan of action is communication with people, during which the assimilation of social experience and the means of understanding it occurs. Like any mental action, the formation of an internal action plan goes through several stages in its development. At first it is external, practical action with material objects. Then the real object is replaced by its diagram, image. At the final stage, after the phase of pronouncing an action with an object “to oneself,” a mental action follows, that is, an action “in the mind.”
In their development, all mental actions (counting, reading, performing arithmetic operations, etc.) go through this sequence. The most obvious example is learning to count: 1) first the child learns to count and add real objects, 2) learns to do the same with their images (for example, counting drawn circles), 3) can give the correct answer without counting each circle with his finger, and performing a similar action in terms of perception, only moving his gaze, but still accompanying the count with a loud pronunciation; 4) after this, the action is spoken out in a whisper and, finally, 5) the action finally moves to the mental plane, the child becomes capable of mental calculation.
The development of an internal plan of action ensures the ability to navigate the conditions of a task, identify the most significant among them, plan the course of a solution, provide and evaluate possible options, etc. “The more “steps” of his actions a child can foresee and the more carefully he can compare their different options, the more successfully he will control the actual solution of the problem. The need for control and self-control in educational activities, as well as a number of its other features (for example, the requirement for a verbal report, assessment) create favorable conditions for the formation in younger schoolchildren of the ability to plan and perform actions silently, on an internal level.”
In addition to mental calculation and analysis of sentences, various games, especially chess, tag, and checkers, contribute to the development of an internal plan of action in younger schoolchildren.
Chapter 2. Experimental study of the connection between the academic performance and educational success of junior schoolchildren and the development of attention properties.
2.1 Research methods.
A high level of development of attention properties has a positive effect on the success of learning in younger schoolchildren. The majority of underachieving primary school students are characterized by a low level of development of stability, distribution and switching of attention. The accuracy of attention distribution plays a particularly important role in mastering the Russian language, and stability of attention when learning to read. . As a rule, students who perform well in school disciplines have a higher degree of integration of the basic properties of attention - volume, stability, concentration, distribution and switching.
The more developed the properties of attention, the more effectively the student usually copes with educational tasks. But even among low-performing students there are children with objectively high attention properties. Therefore, in this study, two groups of children were tested: those who performed well and those who performed poorly in school subjects. Third grade students were tested using the “Yes and No” method. A proof test was also used: the Bourdon table (5-minute filling option). When working with Bourdon's proof test, the goal of the work was to measure the quantitative characteristics of attention. The work used the Bourdon test form in a modification proposed by the Soviet psychologist P.A. Rudik. During the work, each subject was given sheets with the Bourdon test. This work was preceded by an exercise carried out in a special part of the test form. The subject always had to cross out four letters on the form: A, M, K, Z. The work proceeded line by line. The time allotted to complete the task is five minutes.
The “Yes and No” technique, also used to identify the level of development of voluntary attention, is a kind of modification of the well-known children’s game “Don’t say Yes and No, don’t take black and white.” As the game progresses, the presenter asks the participants questions that can most easily be answered with “Yes” and “No”, as well as using the names of white and black colors. But this is exactly what the rules of the game cannot do. For the proposed methodology, it is prohibited to answer questions with “Yes” and “No”. The subjects were asked questions, among which were those that provoked the child to express his attitude towards school and learning. The subject is asked the following questions:
1. Do you want to go to school?
2. Do you like it when people read fairy tales to you?
3. Do you like watching cartoons?
4. Do you want to go to school not in the fall, but only in a year?
5. Do you like to walk?
6. Do you like to play?
7. Do you want to study?
8. Do you like to get sick?
Then the children were offered a game of questions and answers similar to the game of forfeits with prohibitions: “Don’t say ‘Yes’ and ‘No’, don’t take white and black.” As the game progressed, the child was asked a series of questions. The child had to answer as quickly as possible and at the same time follow the instructions:
1) do not name prohibited colors, for example black and white;
2) do not name the same color twice;
A methodology was also carried out to study attention in schoolchildren in grades 3-4. Here the subjects had to correct errors in the proposed text. The text given to the students contained ten errors:
The old swans bowed their proud necks before him. In winter, apple trees bloomed in the garden. Adults and children crowded on the shore. An icy desert grew below them. In response, I nod my hand at him. The sun reached the tops of the trees and hovered behind them. The weeds are effervescent and prolific. There was a map of our city on the table. The plane is here to help people. I soon succeeded by car.
Communication environments. In this case, a general environmental maladjustment of the child arises, indicating his social isolation and rejection. Chapter 2. Characteristics of the psychological readiness of a primary school student for secondary school 2.1 Content-based characteristics of the concept of “readiness to study in secondary school” The following components of the concept of “readiness to study in secondary school” can be distinguished: ...
A system of interpersonal and business relationships in the classroom. 1.4 Features of communication and manifestations of school maladaptation in younger schoolchildren. The main means of training and education, the leading factor in the formation and development of personality, is communication. In the process of educational activity, the child acts as a subject and as an object of communication. In the process of training...
Development of an internal action plan in younger schoolchildren.
Internal action plan is the ability to carry out actions in the mind. This skill is one of the universal characteristics of human consciousness and represents a key condition for the development of intelligence. From the point of view of the classification of mental phenomena, the internal plan of action does not belong to any of the traditionally identified mental processes, but represents an indissoluble unity, an alloy of attention, thinking, imagination and memory. Despite the exceptional importance of the internal plan of action for the human psyche, this ability in the conditions of traditional school education is formed only mainly through oral calculation in mathematics lessons and oral analysis of words and sentences in Russian language classes. The internal plan of action is closely related to the imagination.
The condition for the development of an internal plan of action is communication with people, during which the assimilation of social experience and the means of understanding it occurs.
Like any mental action, the formation of an internal action plan goes through several stages in its development. At first it is external, practical action with material objects. Then the real object is replaced by its diagram, image. At the final stage, after the phase of pronouncing an action with an object “to oneself,” a mental action follows, that is, an action “in the mind.” In their development, all mental actions (counting, reading, performing arithmetic operations, etc.) go through this sequence. The most obvious example is learning to count: 1) first the child learns to count and add real objects, 2) learns to do the same with their images (for example, counting drawn circles), 3) can give the correct answer without counting each circle with his finger, and performing a similar action in terms of perception, only moving his gaze, but still accompanying the count with a loud pronunciation; 4) after this, the action is spoken out in a whisper and, finally, 5) the action finally moves to the mental plane, the child becomes capable of mental calculation. The development of an internal plan of action ensures the ability to navigate the conditions of a task, identify the most significant among them, plan the course of a solution, provide and evaluate possible options, etc. “The more “steps” of his actions a child can foresee and the more carefully he can compare their different options, the more successfully he will control the actual solution of the problem.
The need for control and self-control in educational activities, as well as a number of its other features (for example, the requirement for a verbal report, assessment) create favorable conditions for the formation in younger schoolchildren of the ability to plan and perform actions silently, on an internal level.” In addition to mental calculation and analysis of sentences, various games, especially chess, tag, and checkers, contribute to the development of an internal plan of action in younger schoolchildren.
Chapter 2. Experimental study of the connection between the academic performance and educational success of junior schoolchildren and the development of attention properties. 2.1 Research methods.
A high level of development of attention properties has a positive effect on the success of learning in younger schoolchildren. The majority of underachieving primary school students are characterized by a low level of development of stability, distribution and switching of attention. The accuracy of attention distribution plays a particularly important role in mastering the Russian language, and stability of attention when learning to read. . As a rule, students who perform well in school disciplines have a higher degree of integration of the basic properties of attention - volume, stability, concentration, distribution and switching. The more developed the properties of attention, the more effectively the student usually copes with educational tasks.
But even among low-performing students there are children with objectively high attention properties. Therefore, in this study, two groups of children were tested: those who performed well and those who performed poorly in school subjects.
Third grade students were tested using the “Yes and No” method. A proof test was also used: the Bourdon table (5-minute filling option). When working with Bourdon's proof test, the goal of the work was to measure the quantitative characteristics of attention.
The work used the Bourdon test form in a modification proposed by the Soviet psychologist P.A. Rudik.
During the work, each subject was given sheets with the Bourdon test. This work was preceded by an exercise carried out in a special part of the test form. The subject always had to cross out four letters on the form: A, M, K, Z. The work proceeded line by line. The time allotted to complete the task is five minutes. The “Yes and No” technique, also used to identify the level of development of voluntary attention, is a kind of modification of the well-known children’s game “Don’t say Yes and No, don’t take black and white.” As the game progresses, the presenter asks the participants questions that can most easily be answered with “Yes” and “No”, as well as using the names of white and black colors.
But this is exactly what the rules of the game cannot do. For the proposed methodology, it is prohibited to answer questions with “Yes” and “No”. The subjects were asked questions, among which were those that provoked the child to express his attitude towards school and learning.
The subject is asked the following questions: 1. Do you want to go to school? 2. Do you like it when people read fairy tales to you? 3. Do you like watching cartoons? 4. Do you want to go to school not in the fall, but only in a year? 5. Do you like to walk? 6. Do you like to play? 7. Do you want to study? 8. Do you like to get sick? Then the children were offered a game of questions and answers similar to the game of forfeits with prohibitions: “Don’t say ‘Yes’ and ‘No’, don’t take white and black.” As the game progressed, the child was asked a series of questions.
The child had to answer as quickly as possible and at the same time follow the instructions: 1) not name prohibited colors, for example, black and white; 2) do not name the same color twice; A methodology was also carried out to study attention in schoolchildren in grades 3-4. Here the subjects had to correct errors in the proposed text. The text given to the students contained ten errors: The old swans bowed their proud necks before him. In winter, apple trees bloomed in the garden.
Adults and children crowded on the shore. An icy desert grew below them. In response, I nod my hand at him. The sun reached the tops of the trees and hovered behind them. The weeds are effervescent and prolific. There was a map of our city on the table. The plane is here to help people. I soon succeeded by car. 1.2 Results obtained When processing the results of the proofreading test - the Bourdon table, the indicator of concentration of attention k was calculated. To do this, it was necessary to calculate: - the total number of correctly crossed out letters - n1; - number of omissions of letters A M K Z - n2; number of letters crossed out by mistake - n3; - the total number of letters A, M, K, Z in the viewed lines to be crossed out - n. The indicator of concentration of attention k is calculated as the ratio: Depending on the value of this coefficient, it was possible to obtain a qualitative assessment.
Very good - 81 100% Good -61 80% Average -41 60% Poor -21 40%. The coefficient of accuracy and precision of attention A was calculated using the formula: The results obtained show that children with good academic performance, as a rule, have a fairly high level of concentration and accuracy.
Most low-performing children have an average or low attention level. Although among the second group of students there are also schoolchildren with a fairly high level of attention. When answering the questions asked in the “Yes and No” technique, the subjects had to constantly remember the rules of the game and answer in a certain way, controlling their answers.
At the same time, they were also required to simultaneously think about their answers so as not to utter forbidden words. These actions would be impossible without a certain development of volition. Some children tried to make the task easier in various ways and, for example, gave a repeated monosyllabic answer (for example, “I want”). This action took away the meaning of their answers. For such children, the most important thing was only to comply with the formality of the rules of the game. Some simply replaced the words “yes” and “no” with corresponding head movements.
Thus, they complied with the conditions of the game and did not bother themselves with finding an adequate answer, which is quite difficult. Many children were silent for quite a long time and thought about their answer before giving a meaningful answer that did not include forbidden words. Processing of the results is carried out by counting points awarded for errors, which mean only the words “yes” and “no”, “black”, “white”. Children’s use of colloquial vocabulary (words “aha”, “no-a”, etc.) is not considered an error.
Also, a meaningless answer is not considered an error if it satisfies the formal rules of the game. Each error was scored 1 point. If the child answered all questions correctly, his result is scored 0 (zero). Thus, the worse the task is completed, the higher the total score. When processing the results of the study method, students in the third and fourth grades received the highest marks who did not miss a single error in the text or did not notice one or two errors.
The average level was shown by students who missed 3-4 errors in the text. Low level of attention among students who did not detect more than five errors. The data obtained make it possible to find out whether there is a connection between academic performance and the level of development of voluntary attention. The correlation coefficient between academic performance and the level of development of voluntary attention was calculated using the following formula: , where r is the rank correlation coefficient d is the difference in ranks, n is the number of proposed ones.
The resulting correlation value (r=0.94, p<0,05) является показателем умеренной тесноты связи. Как видно из полученных данных, внимательные дети учатся лучше, чем невнимательные, не означает, что уровень развития произвольного внимания линейно связан с успеваемостью во всем диапазоне изменчивости этих показателей. Корреляционный анализ взаимосвязи свойств внимания и успеваемости отдельно в группах хорошо успевающих и слабо успевающих учеников обнаружил у невнимательных учеников большую зависимость успеваемости от уровня развития произвольного внимания.
Considering that the level of these indicators in inattentive students is significantly lower compared to attentive ones, it can be assumed that this significantly limits the possibilities of successfully completing educational tasks. However, among the underachieving students there are guys with a fairly good level of attention. Consequently, sufficiently developed voluntary attention cannot guarantee the success of learning.
The experimental study confirmed the hypothesis and allowed us to draw the following conclusions: 1. Well-performing students usually have a fairly high level of attention. 2. Thanks to correlation analysis, the relationship between the properties of attention and academic performance was revealed. Children with a higher level of development of voluntary attention generally have higher academic performance. 3. But, taking into account the fact that even among poorly performing students there are those who have a fairly high level of voluntary attention, we can conclude that some other psychological factors influence the learning process of these students (for example, weak motivation to study, laziness). 4. In the process of schooling, insufficient and very chaotic development of voluntary attention occurs (mainly during oral calculations in mathematics lessons). Therefore, additional classes are needed to develop voluntary attention.
End of work -
This topic belongs to the section:
Study and work, their place in the mental development of a primary school student, neoplasms of primary school age
The younger schoolchild begins to assimilate human experience, presented in the form of scientific knowledge. Also, the junior school period is characterized by further improvement. After all, at this time, mental development is carried out mainly in the process of educational activity and, therefore..
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