History of the development of medical terminology. Professional language of medicine

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KAZAKHSTAN-RUSSIAN MEDICAL UNIVERSITY

ABSTRACT

PROFESSIONAL LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE

Completed by: KOZHAKHANOVA D

Student of group 206 A DENTISTRY

Professional language of doctors

The unchanging language of science

Literary sources

Professional language of doctors

Non est via in medicina sine lingua Latina

(There is no way in medicine without Latin)

To fully master any profession, a person must know the terminology of his specialty. The history of Europe has developed in such a way that the basic terminology of most sciences, including medicine, is based on words from Latin and Greek. But, perhaps, there is no other professional activity in which centuries-old world experience would be reflected so directly as in the composition of the professional language of a doctor, because one of the disciplines that is of great importance in the training of specialists in the field of medicine and pharmacy is undoubtedly Latin the language that one encounters in everyday work - when reading the names of diseases, anatomical and clinical terms, names of medicinal raw materials, botanical terms adopted in the International Nomenclature of the Names of Chemical Compounds and especially in the formulation.

A modern doctor, even when speaking Russian on a professional topic, uses more than 60% of words of Latin and Greek origin. And this is not surprising, because it is well known that the terminologies of a wide variety of sciences, including those that emerged relatively recently, have been and continue to be replenished due to the active involvement, direct or indirect, of the vocabulary and word-forming means of precisely these two classical languages of the ancient world.

History of medical terminology

The Latin language is one of the dead languages, since now there is no living people who speak this language. But for its creators, at one time it was alive. The history of the Latin language dates back to the beginning of the first millennium BC. and belongs to the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It is called just that: Lingua Latina because it was spoken by the Latins who inhabited the small region of Latium. The center of this area in the 8th century BC. became the city of Rome, so the inhabitants of Latium also began to call themselves “Romans” (Romani). To the northwest of the Romans lived the Etruscans, a people of an ancient, highly developed culture. They had a huge influence on the cultural development of all of Italy, especially Rome; many Etruscan words entered the Latin language, although Etruscan itself is much different from it. Other languages of Italy, the most important of which are Oscan and Umbrian, are related to Latin and were gradually supplanted by it.

Over time, the Roman language became the official language of the Roman Empire, which included until the 5th century AD. all countries of the Mediterranean Sea basin, including the territories of modern Italy, Spain, France, Greece, as well as parts of Britain, Germany, Romania, Hungary and other countries. Having conquered in the 2nd century BC. Ancient Greece, a country with a highly developed culture, was adopted by the Romans and the achievements of Greek science, including medicine. The Latin language included many Greek words that have survived to this day, mainly in medical names - anatomical, therapeutic, pharmacological, etc. Greek terms, while maintaining their basis, were Latinized and gradually received international recognition and distribution, for example: arteria - artery, aorta - aorta, etc.

This medicine was a model for the entire Roman state; it contains many names of outstanding doctors. The names of the ancient god of healing Asclepius (Aesculapius) and his daughters Hygieia and Panakia became symbols of ancient and then European medicine.

Greek mythology brought to us the story of his birth, life, heroic deeds, death and resurrection. Asclepius was the son of Apollo and Coronis, daughter of the fiery titan Phlegius. And since Apollo was a god, and Coronis was a mortal, she could not reveal the secret of her pregnancy and was forcibly married to her cousin the Titan Ischias. Having learned about this, Apollo, in a wild rage, struck Ischias with his arrows, and Coronis became a victim of the wrath of Artemis, the guardian of female chastity, who killed her. But Apollo managed to perform a “caesarean section” and snatch the newborn baby from the mother’s funeral pyre. He took his son to Mount Pelion and entrusted his upbringing to the centaur Chiron, with whom the further mythological fate of Asclepius is inextricably linked.

The centaur Chiron was an excellent musician and gymnast, a sharp shooter and a connoisseur of Nature, a soothsayer and a skilled physician. According to legend, he lived on Mount Pelion and taught young heroes, titans and demigod heroes in various branches of knowledge and arts: legislation, astronomy, hunting, music and medicine. Many heroes of Homer's works were considered Chiron's disciples: Nestor, Achilles, Patroclus, as well as the sons of Apollo Aristaeus and Asclepius.

He learned that the venom of a snake can bring not only death, but also healing. So the snake became the companion of Asclepius, and many centuries later people depicted the father of medicine with the dog that fed him and the snake. With the help of Chiron, Asclepius became a great healer of human suffering. His wife, Epione, bore him sons Machaon and Podalirius and daughters Hygieia and Panacea (Panacia). Asclepius learned to banish burning pain and ward off illnesses released from the casket by the unreasonable Pandora. But Chiron could not put into the soul of the student his own inherent selflessness. Asclepius was somehow seduced by gold and brought the deceased back to life. Zeus was not outraged by the extortion of the healer - he endured this evil, but he was overcome by the fear that Asclepius would give people immortality and make them equal to the gods. And Zeus struck him with his lightning. Thanks to the care of his loving father Apollo, the body of Asclepius was taken to Olympus - so after death he was deified and became a god. Subsequently, the Romans, who borrowed the pantheon of Greek gods, called Asclepius Aesculapius.

The Romans borrowed their scientific knowledge, along with scientific terminology, from the Greeks. When creating medical terminology in Latin, Greek words were Latinized and actively expanded the vocabulary of Rissky doctors.

Ancient Greek medicine is primarily associated with the name of its founder - the famous Hippocrates, who lived around 460-377. BC. He became the “father of scientific European medicine.” The name of this Greek doctor and teacher is associated in the minds of most people with the famous oath he wrote, which symbolizes the high ethical standards of European medicine. The work, entitled “The Hippocratic Corpus” (Corpus Hippocraticum), contains about 70 separate works, although it is clear that some of them are parts of once unified works. The collection contains both Hippocrates' own works and works by other authors written at different times. It has been suggested that the corpus represents the remains of a medical library rather than the works of authors belonging to the same school. Some of the writings demonstrate advanced scientific thought and skill in clinical observation and are therefore considered more “authentic” than others. But even on this issue there is no generally accepted opinion: there are researchers who generally doubt the existence of works belonging to Hippocrates himself. Apparently, the corps was formed and attributed to Hippocrates already in the 1st century. AD, when Erotian, a physician during the reign of Nero, compiled a dictionary of Hippocratic terms. Commentaries on the most important Hippocratic works written by Galen in the 2nd century have been preserved. AD Some treatises in the corpus date back to the lifetime of Hippocrates, others apparently date back to the 3rd-4th centuries. BC. Probably by the 5th century. BC. refers to the treatise On Ancient Medicine, which discusses the problem of teaching the art of healing. Its author (perhaps not Hippocrates) rejects the explanation of the disease by the interaction of natural philosophical “basic qualities” (warm, cold, wet, dry), points to the importance of diet and the role of certain “juices” of the body. He emphasizes that medicine deals with relative rather than absolute factors: what is beneficial to one may be harmful to another, or what is beneficial at one time may be harmful at another.

In the “Hippocratic Corpus”, the foundations of scientific medical terminology were laid, which relates to the field of physiology, pathology, symptoms and nosology. Most of these terms have passed into the specialized literature and have survived to this day without changing their original meaning: Brahion, gaster, derma, hiama, hepar, thorax, bronchus, urethra, herpes, urticaria, coma, symphysis and many others.

At the end of the 4th century BC. the center of ancient Greek science moved to Alexandria (Egypt). The Alexandrian school, famous throughout the world, was formed here. She was especially glorified by the scientist-doctors Herophilus and Erasistratus. Herophilus was the first to study anatomy on human corpses, examined the meninges, blood vessels, membranes of the eye, milk vessels, prostate gland, and was the first to use Kolon dodekodakylon (duodenum).

Erasistratus (III century BC) enriched anatomy with many studies and described in his works the convolutions of the cerebral cortex, heart valves, chylous vessels, and introduced the following terms: anastomosis, bulimia and others. Several passages collected by Galen survive from the writings of Erasistratus.

Cornelius Celsus, a Roman philosopher and physician of the 1st century BC, created a kind of medical encyclopedia, from which eight books have survived to this day, containing information about the state of medicine for a period of about three centuries BC. The vocabulary used by Celsus has almost completely entered the vocabulary of world scientific medicine. The name of Celsus is associated with such terms as: septum transversum (diaphragm), linea alba. In the works of Celsus and other Roman scientists and doctors who wrote after him, very many terms were used borrowed from the Greeks, and at the same time Latin and Greek terms were used as synonyms. Therefore, medical terminology was formed on a bilingual basis: Greek-Latin. This bilingualism of medical terminology has become traditional for many centuries.

From the 2nd century AD. The legacy of Claudius Galen (131-c.201), who wrote more than a hundred works in Greek, mainly devoted to the nervous system, had an exceptional influence on the subsequent development of ancient and post-ancient medicine. Anatomy owes him acquaintance with the state of the level of knowledge among doctors of antiquity and his contemporaries. (vena cerebri magna, glandula innominata, ventriculus larynges, ramus anastomoticus). Galen paid a lot of attention to terminological problems, achieving accuracy and unambiguity in the use of certain names. In his main work “De usu partium” Galen writes that the task of anatomists is to explain the benefits for a person of each of the parts of his body, the essence and appearance of which depend on their role in the whole organism. Over the next thirteen centuries, no one enjoyed such unshakable authority as Galen.

The life of educated Europe in the next millennium continued to be conducted mainly in Latin. Medicine in the Middle Ages developed in complex contradictions with the superstitions and dogmas of the church; studies of the human body and autopsies were prohibited.

One of the most famous and recognized Arab doctors was Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980 -1037), a Persian scientist, philosopher, doctor, poet, musician, mathematician, representative of Eastern Aristotelianism.

During Ibn Sina’s lifetime, the extensive work of the founder and head of the hospital in Baghdad, Ali ibn Abbas, entitled “The King’s Book,” enjoyed great fame. One of the immediate predecessors of the “Canon” was the 30-volume work of Abu Bakar al-Razi, “A Comprehensive Book of Medicine.” However, these works suffered from common shortcomings. The information presented in them was not sufficiently systematized, the results of observations were intertwined with obvious fiction, and the recommendations were supplemented with mystical interpretations. The structure of the books was very unclear, and the presentation was so complex that only a sufficiently experienced doctor could use them.

Ibn Sina, while working on the book, set himself the task of avoiding the mistakes of his predecessors and coped with it, creating one of the largest encyclopedic works in the history of medicine - “The Canon of Medical Science”. professional language terminology Latin

The Canon of Medicine is one of the most famous books in the history of medicine. Essentially, this is an entire medical encyclopedia, examining with great completeness (within the limits of knowledge of that time) everything that relates to human health and illness.

This major work, which includes about 200 printed sheets, was already translated from Arabic into Latin in the twelfth century and circulated in many manuscripts. When the printing press was invented, the Canon was among the first printed books, and rivaled the Bible in the number of editions. The Latin text of the Canon of Medicine was first published in 1473, and the Arabic text in 1543.

The exact date for the completion of work on "Canon" has not been established. Presumably this is 1020. "The Canon of Medical Science" is an extensive work consisting of 5 books.

Book 1 describes theoretical medicine. The book is divided into four parts. The first part defines medicine, the second deals with diseases, the third deals with maintaining health, and the fourth deals with methods of treatment.

Book 2 describes “simple” medicines and sets out Ibn Sina’s teachings about medicines, their nature, and their testing. 811 products of plant, animal and mineral origin are arranged alphabetically, indicating their action, methods of use, rules of collection and storage.

Book 3, the most extensive, is devoted to pathology and therapy - a description of individual diseases and their treatment. Each section is provided with an anatomical and topographical introduction.

Book 4 is devoted to surgery, the treatment of dislocations and fractures, and the general doctrine of fever (crises in illness). It talks about tumors, purulent inflammation of the subcutaneous tissue, as well as infectious diseases. The main issues of the doctrine of poisons are covered.

Book 5 contains a description of “complex” medicines, as well as poisons and antidotes.

Pharmacy and pharmacology represent an attempt to combine the collected numerous materials into a system and connect them with clinical observations. The medicines recommended in the “Canons of Medical Science” are varied, many of them later became part of scientific pharmacology.

Systematicity and logic were noted as great advantages of the “Canon” even by those who were inclined to downplay the importance of Ibn Sina in the history of medicine. The success of the “Canon of Medical Science” was due to the clarity, persuasiveness, simplicity of describing the clinical picture of diseases, and the accuracy of therapeutic and dietary prescriptions. These features quickly created enormous popularity for the Canon, and ensured its author “autocratic power for five centuries throughout the medical world of the Middle Ages.”

Many medical works were translated from Arabic into Latin by the famous scientist Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187).

After the opening of the first medical school in Western Europe in the city of Salerno (Italy), the revival of medicine begins. Here, Arabic translations from Greek into Latin were used as textbooks; as a result, the medical terminology of that time was a mixture of Latinized Arabic, Hebrew words, Arabized Greekisms and Latinisms of different eras. A huge number of different synonyms have formed.

A favorable period for the development of medicine was the Renaissance, when Latin became the international language of science. During this period, an active struggle began to cleanse classical Latin from vulgar Latin, eliminate Arabic words, and unify and systematize medical terminology by sections.

Paracelsus (1493-1541), a Swiss chemist and physician, a major reformer in medicine, introduced a number of terms, including synovia.

The legacy of Leonardo da Vinci, the great Italian artist (1452-1519), contains more than 200 sheets of anatomical drawings, which he needed in the process of depicting human nature in painting or sculpture. Leonardo da Vinci wanted to be as believable as possible - this would allow him to be not only just a very realistic artist, but also a famous anatomist. Paolo Giovio, a contemporary of Leonardo, wrote about him and the research work done by Leonardo da Vinci: “He indulged in inhumanly hard and disgusting work in anatomical schools, dissecting the corpses of criminals in order to trace the paths of nature... He depicted in tables every finest particle, not excluding the smallest veins and internal tissue of bones, with the greatest precision, and thus, from his many years of work, an infinite number of samples should have remained for the benefit of art."

At the same time, the great reformer of anatomy Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), the author of “Anatomical Tables” and the catalogous work “De humani corporis fabrica libri septem” (“Seven books on the structure of the human body”) lived and worked. His works are distinguished by the presence of a large number of illustrations and the systematization of Latin anatomical terminology.

Fallopius (1523-1652) - a student of Vesalius, surpassed the accuracy of the descriptions of his great teacher, was a professor of anatomy in Ferrara and Pisa, a professor of botany in Padus and one of the many-sided educated doctors of his century. He was especially interested in the skeleton and organ of hearing, and created the terms: ligamentum inguinale, canalis facialis, tuba uterina.

Evsakhios (?-1574) - practicing physician, professor of medicine and anatomy in Rome. He corrected the inaccuracies of Vesalius and Galen, made many independent discoveries, and studied the history of development and the study of pathological changes in the kidneys and teeth. Eustachius was one of the first comparative anatomists (vaivula venae cavae inferioris Eustachii, tuba auditiva Eustachii).

William Harvey (1578-1657) - English physician, discovered blood circulation. He wrote the famous treatise “Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus” (“Anatomical study on the movement of blood in animals”). The embryological work of Harvey, who was the first to express the position “omne vivum ex ovo” (“Everything that lives from the egg”), is also important.

The greatest philosophers and natural scientists, Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Leibitz, and Linnaeus, also wrote their scientific works in Latin.

Lower, a famous English physician (1631-1691), who practiced in London in 1668, published “A Treatise on the Heart, and on the Movement and Temperature of the Blood and the Transition of Chyle into It.” He was one of the first to perform a blood transfusion in humans. The tuberculum intervenosum Loweri is named after him.

Silvus (1614-1672) - described tubercles in tuberculous lesions, discovered the epiphysis of the long process of the incus Ossiculum Sylvii, in addition: fissure et fossa latereles cerebri Sylvii, caro quadrata Sylvii.

Highmore (1613-1685) - sinus maxillaries s. antrum, mediastinum testis s. corpus (Highmori).

Ferrein (1692-1769) - pars radiaata lobulorum corticalium renis s. processus Ferreinii, pyramides Ferreinii.

Albinus (1697-1770), professor of anatomy and surgery in Leiden, republished the works of Vesalius, Fabricius, the anatomical tables of Eustachius, and with additions and illustrations. The most outstanding works: “Libellus de ossibus corporis humani”, “Histotia musculorum corporis Humani” and others.

Zinn (1727-1759) - German scientist, professor of medicine, director of the botanical garden in Berlin, known for his work on the anatomy of the eye (“Anatomical description of the human eye, illustrated with drawings”), where for the first time a stronger curvature of the lens in children was noted, the shape of the bulbus oculi was described et corpus ciliare.

Arnold (1803-1890) - Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in Zurich, wrote a thesis "A Dissertation for the Degree Presenting Some Neurological Observations Concerning the Head Part of the Human Sympathetic Nerve."

In Russia, the beginning of medical science is associated with the study of the heritage of Greek, Latin and late European scientists, which required an exorbitant knowledge of Latin and Greek. The example of the scientific activity of M. V. Lomonosov is well known. Using, as a rule, the Latin language in his works not only on medicine, but also on physics, chemistry, astronomy, mineralogy, Lomonosov himself translated many of these works into Russian and these translations, as well as the translation of “Experimental Physics” by Christian Wolff , lays a solid foundation for the development of Russian natural science terminology. For obvious reasons, he gives preference to the Russian language in works on Russian history, but conducts scientific polemics in this area addressed to the academic community in Latin. He also resorted to the Latin language in scientific correspondence in the most important addresses to foreign scientists - Euler, Formei, in a letter of gratitude to the Swedish Academy of Sciences. For Lomonosov, the Latin language was in the full sense of the word a living language, a carrier and engine of creative scientific thought, thereby containing an inexhaustible source for the development of new and new expressive possibilities. The study of the Latin language should lead to the same conclusion not only of many of Lomonosov’s contemporaries, but also of many scientists of a later time, who, even at the first acquaintance with their works, amaze the reader with the bright expressiveness and individual coloring of their Latin style - it is enough to name the names of the largest representatives of classical philology late XVIII - early XX centuries. Friedrich August Wolf, Lachmann, Phalen, Zelinsky.

And in the 19th century, many works on medicine in Russia were written in Latin. The great Russian surgeon N.I. Prirogov (1810-1881) defended his dissertation “Num vinctura aortae abdominalis in aneurismate inguinali adhibita facile actutum sit remedium.” The dissertation of the outstanding Russian pharmacologist I.E. Dyadkovsky “On the way drugs act on the human body” was also written in Latin.

The unchanging language of science

Each language has its own terminology - the language of science, where the meaning of words should not change, because in a term, a word denoting an exact scientific concept, the main thing is immutability. Even if, with the development of science, it turns out that the term is not correct, its meaning does not reflect the essence of the object, the tradition is not interrupted, and over subsequent generations the term is preserved. An example is the word “atom”, the prefix “a-” means “not-”, and the root “-tom-” means “division”, that is, it is the smallest indivisible particle of matter. But the atom has long been divided, but still continues to be called that way. The term, the word of science, does not change; it is strict and conservative. This unity of terminology, which underlies the modern scientific terminology of a number of sciences, facilitates the understanding and communication of people in the field of science, the translation of scientific literature from one language to another, and the Latin language has not lost this meaning to this day.

Even though both the ancient Greek and Latin languages are considered dead, because those peoples who spoke them no longer exist, and these languages do not develop, the meaning of their words will never change: if the Latin word “aqua” meant “water” 2000 years ago, then now and after another 2000 years it will also be “water”.

It is very convenient for modern sciences, whose basic terminology consists of terms of ancient Greek and Latin origin, to continue the tradition and use already known Greek and Latin words to form new terms.

There is also an unconscious use of these languages in everyday life. There is no person of any nationality who does not know the prefix “anti-”, “anti-”. Although few people remember the authorship of the Greeks: “against, on the contrary, a contrary action.” Based on the model of the Greek term “book depository, library”, “card index”, “record library”, “disco” are formed, in which discs are no longer simply stored, but action with music and dancing takes place.

This is how living languages use the heritage of dead ancestors.

The preservation of scientific Latin terminology attaches special importance to the study of the Latin language as necessary in practical work, and not just as the language of one of the most ancient cultures. Therefore, although Latin and Greek are usually called “dead”, for medical workers these are living languages necessary for everyday work.

Structure of medical terminology

The terminology of modern medicine is one of the most complex terminological systems. The total number of medical terms is unknown - according to experts, the terminological fund of modern medicine exceeds 500 thousand medical terms. If a hundred years ago an educated doctor was well versed in contemporary terminology, now it is almost impossible to master several hundred thousand medical terms (historical information: in the 10th century there were 1 thousand medical terms, in 1850 - about 6 thousand, in 1950 - about 45 thousand) and no one has ever been able to simply memorize them, therefore, in Latin, as in any other language, one cannot do without taxonomy and rules for word formation of terms from certain elements. If you master these rules, you can learn to understand even new terms.

Medical terminology differs in three areas:

Anatomical terminology. It is an integral part of medical education, since all anatomical terms are studied in Latin, in parallel at the Department of Anatomy and Latin. Here the two departments are considered from two points of view:

A) from the point of view of anatomy, the term is important for a real connection with the object, the anatomical formation named by this term (where the cut is located, its functions).

B) from the point of view of the Latin language, the term is important in connection with the language (what emphasis, ending, phrase).

Therefore, we can say that the anatomist deals with the content, and the Latinist deals with the form of the term.

Clinical terminology. This is the terminology used in clinical practice. Most clinical terms are complex words formed from derivational elements. The main role in the assimilation of clinical terminology is played by Greek-Latin term-forming elements - term elements. Mastering the system of Greek-Latin term elements is, in a way, the terminological key to understanding basic medical clinical terminology. For example, knowledge of the term elements -rrhagia (bleeding), -pexia (surgical operation: fixation of an organ), entero- (intestines), nephro- (kidney) allows you to understand such clinical terms as enterorrhagia, nephrorrhagia, enteropexia, nephropexia, etc. . The total number of clinical term elements (TE) is over 1500, but they have varying degrees of frequency. The number of the most active term elements is about 600. The core of clinical terminology consists of 150 term elements, from which the main part of the medical dictionary is formed.

Pharmaceutical terminology. It also uses mainly Greek and Latin words or parts thereof, from which artificially new terms and names are created. The names of medicines are formed from standard Latin and Greek word elements (TE), which allows one to obtain information about the principle of its action, chemical composition, main components, and so on, from the name of the medicine alone.

Latin terms in our time

Over time, doctors and other medical workers in professional communication switched to national languages, but the dominance still belongs to Greek-Latin elements, words and phrases, primarily due to their universal national character, so the names of diseases, diagnoses and treatments are recognized in any language .

Latin is now used as an international scientific language in a number of biomedical disciplines and nomenclatures, which are studied and used by doctors and medical professionals from all over the world. Therefore, it is absolutely obvious that any specialist working in the field of medicine should have the principles of education and understanding of Latin medical terminology.

In all medical sciences: anatomy, histology, embryology, microbiology, microbiology, pathological anatomy and clinical disciplines, as well as pharmacology, this tradition of nomination has never been interrupted and continues to this day.

But not only in medicine, Latin words have retained their function as an international means for terminology and nomination. Latin and Latinized Greek words and elements of words are used by all languages in all areas of life - from the everyday names “BonAqua” and “automatic” to the highly scientific terms “Tomograph”, “Synchrophasotron” and socio-political terminology.

The Latin language is also of great general educational importance, as it helps to better and more deeply analyze the Russian language, into which many Latin roots have passed, creating a number of new words, for example: communism, presidium, consultation, quorum, university, etc.

Bibliography

Latin terminology in medicine: sparv.-textbook. Manual/Petrova V.G., V.I. Ermicheva. - 2nd edition, rev. and additional - M: Astrel, AST, 2009, pp. 1-9

Latin language and basics of medical terminology: textbook., A.Z. Tsisyk, E.S. Shvaiko, - M.: Medicine, 2009, pp. 9-10.

Latin: N.L. Katsman, Z.A. Pokrovskaya, building 1

Latin language and basics of medical terminology: educational literature for students of medical universities, M.N. Chernyavsky, 2000, pp. 3-9.

Collier's Internet Encyclopedia, http://dic.academic.ru/contents.nsf/enc_colier/

Aphorisms from all over the world. Encyclopedia of Wisdom, www.foxdesign.ru

Latin terminology in medicine: sparv.-textbook. Manual/Petrova V.G., V.I. Ermicheva. - 2nd edition, rev. and additional - M: Astrel, AST, 2009, pp. 9-11

Latin terminology in medicine: sparv.-textbook. Manual/Petrova V.G., V.I. Ermicheva. - 2nd edition, rev. and additional - M: Astrel, AST, 2009, pp. 11-16.

Latin language. Anatomical nomenclature, pharmaceutical terminology and formulation, clinical terminology: educational and methodological manual for students of medical, pediatric, medical-psychological and medical-diagnostic faculties / D.K. Kondratiev [etc.]; under general ed. D.K. Kondratiev - 2nd ed. - Grodno: GrSMU, 2009. - 416 p.

Greek mythology about healing and healers, http://www.samsebedoctor.ru/10113/

Medical Information Network, Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna), http://www.medicinform.net/history/ludi/avicenna.htm

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1. History of the Latin language

Latin belongs to the group of Italic dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or “golden” Latin. He was distinguished by his rich vocabulary, ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific, philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology.

This period was followed by post-classical, or “silver” Latin (I-II centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally strengthened, and spelling rules were determined. The last period of the existence of Latin in ancient times was the so-called Late Latin (III-VI centuries AD), when the gap between written, book, Latin and colloquial Latin began to intensify.

In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Latin gained the position of the official state language.

Since 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome.

If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its spoken form spread, almost without encountering resistance from tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages that had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language became widespread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture.

From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced the ever-increasing influence of highly developed Greek culture in the economic, state, social and spiritual areas of life.

Educated Romans tended to read and speak Greek. Borrowed Greek words entered the colloquial and literary Latin language, especially actively after the rule of Rome in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. Greece and the Hellenistic countries were included. From the 2nd century. BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts the terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them.

At the same time, another process developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, i.e. terms.

When comparing the two classical languages, their significant differences are visible.

The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-formation potential to the Greek, which had a remarkable ability to put into linguistic forms the first discovered, described phenomena, facts, ideas of biological and medical content, to easily create more and more new names, almost transparent in meaning, through various methods of word formation, especially by bases and suffixations.

2. Term and definition

The word “term” (terminus) is Latin in origin and once had the meaning “limit, boundary.” A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common noun, a term has content, or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - “denoting”), and a form, or sound complex (pronunciation).

Unlike all other common nouns, which denote everyday, everyday, so-called naive ideas, terms denote special scientific concepts.

The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines the concept as follows: “A thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationships between them.” A concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is the totality of the characteristics of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has characteristics that make up the content of the concept.

Unlike ordinary everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact of a scientific concept, the result of a theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, scientific theories, concepts, provisions, principles, and laws are formulated. The term is often a herald of a new scientific discovery or phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a determination that is necessarily attributed to it.

Definition(lat. definitio) is the formulation in a concise form of the essence of the terminable, i.e., denoted by the term, concept: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - “existent”, “being” + genesis - “generation”, “development”) - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of the organism from its origin to the end of life; aerophiles (Latin aёr - “air” + philos - “loving”) are microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation reaction of oxygen in the environment.

As we see, the definition not only explains the meaning of the term, but establishes this meaning. The requirement to determine what a particular term means is equivalent to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, and textbooks, a concept (term) introduced for the first time is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in the curriculum of the disciplines is a mandatory requirement for the student.

3. Medical terminology

Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macroterminal system. The entire set of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The content plan of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body normally and in pathologies at various stages of their development; human diseases and pathological conditions; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and carriers of diseases; environmental factors that positively or negatively affect the human body; indicators of hygienic standardization and assessment; methods of diagnosis, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; surgical approaches and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and sanitary and epidemiological services; apparatus, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, furniture for medical purposes; medicines grouped according to their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicines, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc.

Each term is an element of a certain subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each subterminal system reflects a certain scientific classification of concepts adopted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relationships and connections at the level of the macroterm system.

This reflects a dual trend of progress: further differentiation of the medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the 20th century the number of highly specialized subterminal systems expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases affecting primarily individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, neurosurgery, etc.) has increased significantly. Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and hygienic sciences have reached impressive sizes.

Within the framework of the macroterm system, almost the leading role belongs to the following subsystems:

1) anatomical and histological nomenclature;

2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical terminology systems;

3) pharmaceutical terminology.

It is these subsystems that are the objects of study in the course of the Latin language and the basics of medical terminology.

4. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language

Studying a Latin language course at a medical institute has a purely professional goal - to prepare a terminologically literate doctor.

However, to master any language, it is necessary to improve your cultural and educational level and broaden your horizons.

In this regard, Latin aphorisms and sayings that express a generalized, complete thought in a laconic form are useful, for example: Fortes fortuna juvat - “Fate helps the brave”; Non progredi est regredi - “Not going forward means going backward.”

Also interesting are proverbs like: Omnia mea mecum porto - “I carry everything that is mine with me”; Festina lente - “Hurry slowly”, etc. Many aphorisms are individual lines, statements of famous ancient writers, philosophers, and politicians. Of considerable interest are aphorisms in Latin belonging to modern scientists: R. Descartes, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov, C. Linnaeus and others.

Most of the Latin aphorisms, sayings and proverbs, included in the material for individual lessons and presented in a list at the end of the textbook, have long become catchphrases. They are used in scientific and fiction literature, and in public speaking. Some Latin aphorisms and sayings relate to issues of life and death, human health, and the behavior of a doctor. Some of them are medical deontological (Greek deon, deonios - “ought” + logos - “teaching”) commandments, for example: Solus aegroti suprema lex medkorum - “The good of the patient is the highest law of doctors”; Primum noli nocere! - “First of all, do no harm!” (the first commandment of a doctor).

In the international vocabulary of many languages of the world, especially European ones, Latinisms occupy a significant place: institute, faculty, rector, dean, professor, doctor, associate professor, assistant, graduate student, laboratory assistant, preparator, student, dissertation candidate, audience, communication, credit, discredit, decree, credo, course, curator, supervise, prosecutor, cadet, ply, competitor, competition, excursion, excursionist, degree, gradation, degradation, ingredient, aggression, congress, progress, regression, lawyer, legal adviser, consultation, intelligence, intellectual, colleague, collegium, collection, petition, appetite, competence, rehearsal, tutor, conservator, conservatory, preserve, observatory, reserve, reservation, reservoir, valence, valerian, currency, devaluation, disabled, prevail, equivalent, statue, monument, ornament, style, illustration, etc.

Only over the past few years, on the pages of newspapers and magazines, in the speeches of deputies, new words of Latin origin for our political life have appeared: pluralism (pluralis - “multiple”), conversion (conversio - “transformation”, “change”), consensus (consensus - “consent”, “agreement”), sponsor (sponsor - “trustee”), rotation (rotatio - “circular motion”), etc.

5. Alphabet

The Latin alphabet, used in modern textbooks, reference books and dictionaries, consists of 25 letters.

Table 1. Latin alphabet

In Latin, proper names, names of months, peoples, geographical names and adjectives derived from them are written with a capital letter. In pharmaceutical terminology, it is customary to capitalize the names of plants and medicinal substances.

Notes.

1. Most letters of the Latin alphabet are pronounced the same as in various Western European languages, but some letters in these languages are called differently than in Latin; for example, the letter h is called “ha” in German, “ash” in French, “eich” in English, and “ga” in Latin. The letter j in French is called "zhi", in English - "jay", and in Latin - "yot". The Latin letter "c" in English is called "si", etc.

2. It must be borne in mind that the same letter can mean a different sound in these languages. For example, the sound indicated by the letter g is pronounced in Latin as [g], and in French and English before e, i - as [zh] or [jj]; in English j is read as [j].

3. Latin spelling is phonetic, it reproduces the actual pronunciation of sounds. Compare: lat. latina [Latin], English. latin - Latin.

The difference is especially noticeable when comparing vowels in Latin and English. In Latin, almost all vowels are always pronounced the same way as the corresponding vowels in Russian.

4. As a rule, names not from the Latin language, but from other languages (Greek, Arabic, French, etc.) are Latinized, that is, they are formatted in accordance with the rules of phonetics and grammar of the Latin language.

6. Reading vowels (and consonant j)

In Latin, “E e” is read as [e]: vertebra [ve"rtebra] - vertebra, medianus [media"nus] - median.

Unlike Russians, no Latin consonants are softened before the sound [e]: anterior [ante"rior] - front, arteria [arte"ria] - artery.

“I i” is read as [and]: inferior [infe"rior] - lower, internus [inte"rnus] - internal.

At the beginning of a word or syllable before vowels i is read as a voiced consonant [th]: iugularis [yugulya "rice] - jugular, iunctura [junktu"ra] - connection, maior [ma"yor] - large, iuga [yu"ga] - elevation.

In the indicated positions in modern medical terminology, instead of i, the letter J j - yot is used: jugularis [jugulya "rice", juncture [junktu"ra], major [ma"yor], juga [yu"ga].

The letter j is not written only in words borrowed from the Greek language, since it did not have the sound [th]: iatria [ia "tria] - healing, iodum [io "dum] - iodine.

To convey the sounds [ya], [yo], [ie], [yu], combinations of letters ja, jo, je, ju are used.

Y y (upsilon), in French “y”, reads like [and]: tympanum [ti"mpanum] - drum; gyrus [gi"rus] - gyrus of the brain. The letter "upsilon" is used only in words of Greek origin. It was introduced by the Romans to represent the letter upsilon of the Greek alphabet, which was read as German [i]. If the Greek word was written with i (Greek iota), read as [and], then it was transcribed into Latin with i.

In order to correctly write medical terms, you need to know some of the most common Greek prefixes and roots in which “upsilon” is written:

dys- [dis-] - a prefix that gives the term the meaning of a disorder, a disorder of function: dysostosis (dys + osteon - “bone”) - dysostosis - a disorder of bone formation;

hypo- [hypo-] - “under”, “below”: hypoderma (hypo + + derma - “skin”) - hypodermis - subcutaneous tissue, hypogastrium (hypo- + gaster - “belly”, “stomach”) - hypogastrium - hypogastrium;

hyper- [hyper-] - “above”, “over”: hyperostosis (hyper + + osteon - “bone”) - hyperostosis - pathological growth of unchanged bone tissue;

syn-, sym- [sin-, sim-] - “with”, “together”, “jointly”: synostosis (syn + osteon - “bone”) - synostosis - connection of bones through bone tissue;

mu(o)- [myo-] - the root of a word indicating the relationship to muscles: myologia (myo + logos - “word”, “teaching”) - myology - the study of muscles;

phys- [physical-] - the root of the word, indicating in anatomical terms the relationship to something growing in a certain place: diaphysis - diaphysis (in osteology) - the middle part of the tubular bone.

7. Diphthongs and features of reading consonants

In addition to the simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [and], in the Latin language there were also two-vowel sounds (diphthongs) ae, oe, ai, e.

The digraph ae is read as [e]: vertebrae [ve "rtebre] - vertebrae, peritonaeum [peritone "um] - peritoneum.

The digraph oe is read as [e], more precisely, like the German o or French oe: foetor [fetor] - bad smell.

In most cases, the diphthongs ae and oe, found in medical terms, served to convey the Greek diphthongs ai and oi in Latin. For example: oedema [ede "ma] - swelling, oesophagus [eso" phagus] - esophagus.

If in the combinations ae and oe the vowels belong to different syllables, that is, they do not constitute a diphthong, then a separation sign (``) is placed above the “e” and each vowel is pronounced separately: diploе [diploe] - diploe - spongy substance of the flat bones of the skull ; аёr [aer] - air.

The au diphthong is read as: auris [au "rice] - ear. The eu diphthong is read as [eu]: ple"ura [ple"ura] - pleura, neurocranium [neurocranium] - brain skull.

Features of reading consonants

A double reading of the letter “С с” is accepted: as [k] or [ts].

How [k] is read before the vowels a, o, and, before all consonants and at the end of the word: caput [ka "put] - head, head of bones and internal organs, cubitus [ku "bitus] - elbow, clavicula [beak" ] - collarbone, crista [kri "sta] - ridge.

How [ts] is read before the vowels e, i, y and the digraphs ae, oe: cervicalis [cervical fox] - cervical, incisure [incizu "ra] - notch, coccyngeus [kokzinge "us] - coccygeal, coelia [tse "lia ] - abdomen.

"H h" is read as a Ukrainian sound [g] or German [h] (haben): homo [homo] - man, hnia "tus [gna" tus] - gap, crevice, humerus [gume "rus] - humerus.

“K k” is found very rarely, almost exclusively in words of non-Latin origin, in cases where it is necessary to preserve the sound [k] before the sounds [e] or [i]: kyphosis [kypho"sis] - kyphosis, kinetocytus [kine"to -citus] - kinetocyte - mobile cell (words of Greek origin).

"S s" has a double reading - [s] or [z]. As [s] is read in most cases: sulcus [su"lkus] - groove, os sacrum [os sa"krum] - sacrum, sacral bone; back [fo"ssa] - pit, ossa [o"ssa] - bones, processus [protse"ssus] - process. In the position between the vowels and consonants m, n in words of Greek origin, s is read as [z]: chiasma [chia"zma] - cross, platysma [platy"zma] - subcutaneous muscle of the neck.

"X x" is called a double consonant, since it represents the sound combination [ks]: radix [ra "dix] - root, extremitas [extra "mitas] - end.

“Z z” is found in words of Greek origin and is read as [z]: zygomaticus [zygomaticus] - zygomatic, trapezius [trapezius] - trapezoidal.

8. Letter combinations. Accents. Rule of brevity

In Latin, the letter "Q q" is found only in combination with cu before vowels, and this letter combination is read as [kv]: squama [squa "me] - scales, quadratus [quadra "tus] - square.

The letter combination ngu is read in two ways: before vowels as [ngv], before consonants - [ngu]: lingua [li "ngva] - language, lingula [li "ngulya] - tongue, sanguis [sa "ngvis] - blood, angulus [angu" luc] - angle.

The combination ti before vowels is read as [qi]: rotatio [rota "tsio] - rotation, articulatio [article "tsio] - joint, eminentia [emine "ntsia] - elevation.

However, ti before vowels in the combinations sti, xti, tti is read as [ti]: ostium [o"stium] - hole, entrance, mouth, mixtio [mi"xtio] - mixture.

In words of Greek origin there are digraphs ch, рh, rh, th, which are graphic signs for conveying the corresponding sounds of the Greek language. Each digraph is read as one sound:

сh = [x]; рh = [ф]; rh = [p]; th = [t]: nucha [nu"ha] - neck, chorda [chord] - chord, string, phalanx [fa"lanks] - phalanx; apophysis [apophysis] - apophysis, process; thorax [to "raks] - chest entrance, rhaphe [ra" fe] - seam.

The letter combination sch is read as [сх]: os ischii [os and "schii] - ischium, ischiadicus [ischia "dicus] - ischial.

Rules for placing stress.

1. The stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words it is placed on the first syllable.

2. In three-syllable and polysyllabic words, the stress is placed on the penultimate or third syllable from the end.

The placement of stress depends on the duration of the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end.

Therefore, to place stress in words containing more than two syllables, it is necessary to know the rules for the length or shortness of the penultimate syllable.

Two rules of longitude

Longitude of the penultimate syllable.

1. A syllable is long if it contains a diphthong: peritona"eum - peritoneum, perona"eus - peroneal (nerve), dia"eta - diet.

2. A syllable is long if a vowel comes before two or more consonants, as well as before double consonants x and z. This longitude is called positional longitude.

For example: colu"mna - column, pillar, exte"rnus - external, labyri"nthus - labyrinth, medu"lla - brain, medulla, maxi"lla - upper jaw, metaca"rpus - metacarpus, circumfle"xus - circumflex.

Rule of brevity

The vowel that comes before a vowel or the letter h is always short. For example: tro"chlea - block, pa"ries - wall, o"sseus - bone, acro"mion - acromion (brachial process), xiphoi"deus - xiphoid, peritendi"neum - peritendinium, pericho"ndrium - perichondrium.

9. Cases and types of declensions

The inflection of nouns by case and number is called declension.

Cases

There are 6 cases in Latin.

Nominativus (Nom.) - nominative (who, what?).

Genetivus (Gen.) - genitive (who, what?).

Dativus (Dat.) - dative (to whom, to what?).

Accusativus (Acc.) - accusative (who, what?).

Ablativus (Abl.) - ablative, instrumental (by whom, with what?).

Vocativus (Voc.) - vocative.

For nomination, i.e. for naming (naming) objects, phenomena and the like, only two cases are used in medical terminology - nominative (nominative) and genitive (genitive).

The nominative case is called direct case, which means there is no relationship between words. The meaning of this case is the naming itself.

The genitive case has a characterizing meaning.

There are 5 types of declensions in the Latin language, each of which has its own paradigm (a set of word forms).

A practical means of distinguishing declension (determining the type of declension) is the genitive singular in Latin.

Genus forms p.un. hours are different in all declensions.

Distribution of nouns by types of declension depending on gender endings. p.un. h.

Genitive endings of all declensions

10. Defining the practical basis

Nouns are listed in the dictionary and learned in dictionary form, which contains 3 components:

1) the form of the word in them. p.un. h.;

2) end of birth. p.un. h.;

3) designation of the gender - masculine, feminine or neuter (abbreviated by one letter: m, f, n).

For example: lamina, ae (f), sutura, ae (f), sulcus, i (m); ligamentum, i(n); pars, is (f), margo, is (m); os,is(n); articulatio, is (f), canalis, is (m); ductus, us (m); arcus, us (m), cornu, us, (n); facies, ei (f).

Some nouns have III declension before the gender ending. p.un. h. -is is also assigned to the final part of the stem.

This is necessary if the stem of the word is in gender. p.un. h. does not coincide with the basis of them. p.un. h.:

Full form of the genus. p.un. h. in such nouns are found as follows:

corpus, =oris (= corpor - is); foramen, -inis (= fora-min - is).

For such nouns, the practical basis is determined only from the form of the word to its gender. p.un. h. by discarding its ending.

If the basics are in them. p.un. hours and birth p.un. h. coincide, then in the dictionary form only the ending gender is indicated. etc., and the practical basis in such cases can be determined from them. p.un. hours without ending.

Examples

The practical basis is the basis to which, during inflection (declension), the endings of oblique cases are added; it may not coincide with the so-called historical basis.

For monosyllabic nouns with a changing stem, the entire word form gender is indicated in the dictionary form. etc., for example, pars, partis; crus, cruris; os, oris; cor, cordis.

11. Determining the gender of nouns

In Latin, as in Russian, nouns belong to three genders: masculine (masculinum - m), feminine (femininum - f) and neuter (neutrum - n).

The grammatical gender of Latin nouns cannot be determined from the gender of equivalent Russian words, since often the gender of nouns with the same meaning in Russian and Latin does not coincide.

It is possible to determine whether a Latin noun belongs to one gender or another only by the characteristic endings in the noun. p.un. h.

For example, words starting with -a are feminine (costa, vertebra, lamina, incisura, etc.), words starting with -um are neuter (ligamentum, manubrium, sternum, etc.).

The declension sign of a noun is the gender ending. p.un. h.; a sign of gender - a characteristic ending in them. p.un. h.

Determination of the gender of nouns ending in the nominative singular in -а, -um, -on, -en, -и, -us

There is no doubt that nouns ending in -a are feminine, and nouns ending in -um, -on, -en, -u are neuter.

All nouns ending in -us, if they belong to the II or IV declension, are necessarily masculine, for example:

lobus, i; nodus, i; sulcus, i;

ductus, us; arcus, us; meatus, us, m - masculine.

If a noun ending in -us belongs to the III declension, then its belonging to a certain gender must be clarified using such an additional indicator as the final consonant of the stem in gender. P.; if the final consonant of the stem is r, then the noun is neuter, and if the final consonant is different (-t or -d), then it is feminine.

tempus, or-is; crus, crur is;

corpus, or-is - neuter, juventus, ut-is - feminine.

12. III declension of nouns

Nouns of the III declension were extremely rare, for example: os, corpus, caput, foramen, dens. This methodological approach was absolutely justified. III declension is the most difficult to master and has a number of features that distinguish it from other declensions.

1. The III declension includes nouns of all three genders ending in gender. p.un. h on -is (sign of III declension).

2. In them. p.un. including words not only of different genders, but even of the same gender have different endings characteristic of a certain gender; for example, in the masculine gender -os, -or, -o, -er, -ex, -es.

3. Most nouns of the third declension have stems in them. n. and gen. items do not match.

For such nouns, the practical basis is not determined by them. n., and by birth. n. by dropping the ending -is.

1. If in the dictionary form of any noun there is a gender before the ending. p.un. h. -is is assigned to the end of the stem, which means that in such a word the stem is determined by gender. P.:

2. If in the dictionary form before the ending gender. p.un. h. -is there is no postscript, which means that the basis of such a word can be determined by them. p.un. h., discarding the ending with them. p.: pubes, is the basis of pub-.

3. Nouns of III declension depending on the coincidence or discrepancy of the number of syllables in them. n. and gen. p.un. h. there are equisyllabic and non-equisyllabic, which is important for the precise determination of the genus in a number of cases. Equisyllabic Nom. pubes canalis rete Gen. pubis canalis retis. Irregular Nom. pes paries pars Gen. pedis parietis partis.

4. Monosyllabic nouns in the dictionary form have gender. n. the word is written in full: vas, vasis; os, ossis.

The gender is determined by the endings. p.un. h., characteristic of a certain gender within a given declension. Therefore, in order to determine the gender of any noun of the III declension, 3 points must be taken into account:

1) know that this word refers specifically to the III declension, and not to any other;

2) know what endings are in them. p.un. h. are characteristic of one or another gender of the III declension;

3) in some cases, also take into account the nature of the stem of a given word.

13. Adjective

1. Adjectives in Latin, as in Russian, are divided into qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote a feature of an object directly, that is, without relation to other objects: true rib - costa vera, long bone - os longum, yellow ligament - ligamentum flavum, transverse process - processus transversus, large hole - foramen magnum, trapezoid bone - os trapezoideum, sphenoid bone - os sphenoidale, etc.

Relative adjectives indicate the attribute of an object not directly, but through its relationship to another object: spinal column (column of vertebrae) - columna vertebralis, frontal bone - os frontale, sphenoid sinus (cavity in the body of the sphenoid bone) - sinus sphenoidalis, sphenoid crest (section anterior surface of the body of the sphenoid bone) - crista sphenoidalis.

The predominant mass of adjectives in anatomical nomenclature are relative adjectives, indicating that a given anatomical formation belongs to a whole organ or to another anatomical formation, such as the frontal process (extending from the zygomatic bone upward, where it connects with the zygomatic process of the frontal bone) - processus frontalis .

2. The categorical meaning of an adjective is expressed in the categories of gender, number and case. The category of gender is an inflectional category. As in Russian, adjectives change according to gender: they can be in the masculine, feminine or neuter form. The gender of an adjective depends on the gender of the noun with which it is agreed. For example, the Latin adjective meaning “yellow” (-aya, -oe) has three gender forms - flavus (m. p.), flava (f. p.), flavum (w. p.).

3. Inflection of adjectives also occurs according to cases and numbers, i.e. adjectives, like nouns, are declined.

Adjectives, unlike nouns, are declined only in the I, II or III declension.

The specific type of declension by which a particular adjective is modified is determined by the standard dictionary form in which it is written in the dictionary and in which it should be remembered.

In the dictionary form of the vast majority of adjectives, the endings characteristic of one type or another are indicated. p.un. h.

Moreover, some adjectives have endings in them. items for each gender are completely different, for example: rectus, recta, rectum - straight, straight, direct; other adjectives for the masculine and feminine gender have one common ending, and for the neuter gender - another, for example: brevis - short and short, breve - short.

Adjectives are also given in dictionary form in different ways. For example: rectus, -a, -um; brevis, -e.

Ending -us m.r. replaced in w. R. to -a (recta), and in cf. R. - on -um (rectum).

14. Two groups of adjectives

Depending on the type of declension in which adjectives are declined, they are divided into 2 groups. Group membership is recognized by standard dictionary forms.

The 1st group includes adjectives that are declined according to the 1st and 2nd declension. They are easily recognized by their endings. n. -us (or -er), -a, -um in dictionary form.

The 2nd group includes all adjectives that have a different dictionary form. Their inflection occurs according to the third declension.

Memorizing the dictionary form is necessary in order to correctly determine the type of declension and use the appropriate endings in oblique cases.

Adjectives of the 1st group

If there is a dictionary form with endings in them. p.un. Part -us, -a, -um or -er, -a, -um adjectives in the form w. R. Declined according to the first declension, in the form of m.r. and Wed R. - according to II declination.

For example: longus, -a, -um - long; liber, -era, -erum - free. In the family etc., they have, respectively, the endings:

Some adjectives that have a m.r. ending -er, the letter “e” appears in the m.r., starting with gender. p.un. h., and in w. R. and on Wed. R. - in all cases without exception. This does not happen with other adjectives. For example, the dictionary forms ruber, -bra, -brum, liber, -era, -erum.

Adjectives of the 2nd group

Adjectives of the 2nd group are declined according to the 3rd declension. Their dictionary form differs from adjectives of the 1st group.

According to the number of gender endings in the dictionary form, adjectives of the 2nd group are divided into:

1) adjectives with two endings;

2) adjectives of the same ending;

3) adjectives with three endings.

1. Adjectives with two endings are most common in anatomical-histological and in medical terminology in general. They have it in them. p., units only two generic endings - -is, -е; -is - common for m.r. and f. r., e - only for Wed. R. For example: brevis - short, short; breve - short.

The predominant number of adjectives with two endings found in the nomenclature is characterized by the following word-formation model.

2. Adjectives of the same ending have one common ending in them for all genders. p.un. h. Such an ending can be, in particular, -x, or -s, etc. For example: simplex - simple, -aya, -oe; teres - round, -aya, -oe; biceps - two-headed, -aya, -oe.

3. Adjectives of three endings have the endings: m.r. - -er, f. p. - -is, cf. R. - -e. For example: ce-ler, -eris, -ere - fast, -aya, -oe; celeber, -bris, -bre - healing, -aya, -oe.

All adjectives of the 2nd group, regardless of the dictionary form, are declined according to the 3rd declension and have a single stem in oblique cases.

15. Adjective - agreed definition

Another type of subordinating connection, when the function of definition in a noun phrase is performed by a non-noun in gender. n., and the adjective is called agreement, and the definition is called agreed.

When agreed, a grammatically dependent definition is likened in gender, number and case to the main word.

As the grammatical forms of the main word change, the forms of the dependent word also change. In other words, as in Russian, adjectives agree with the noun in gender, number and case.

For example, when agreeing the adjectives transversus, -a, -um and vertebralis, -e with the nouns processus, -us (m); linea, -ae (f); ligamentum, -i (n); ca-nalls, -is (m); incisura, -ae, (f); foramen, -inis (n) the following phrases are obtained:

As in Russian, Latin qualitative adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive (gradus positivus), comparative (gradus comparativus) and superlative (gradus superlativus).

The comparative degree is formed from the stem of the positive degree by adding to it the suffix -ior for m.r. and f. r., suffix -ius - for cf. R. For example:

1. The main grammatical features of adjectives in the comparative degree are: for m.r. and f. R. - suffix -ior, for cf. R. - suffix -ius.

For example: brevior, -ius; latior, -ius.

2. For all comparative adjectives, the base coincides with the m.r. form. and f. R. in them p.un. h.:

3. Adjectives are declined in the comparative degree according to the III declension. Genus form p.un. h. is the same for all three genders: it is formed by adding the ending -is to the stem.

4. Adjectives agree comparatively with nouns in gender, number and case, that is, they are agreed upon definitions: sutura latior; sulcus latior; foramen latius.

16. Nominative plural

1. Any case endings, including endings named after. p.m. h., are always attached to the base.

2. For the formation of word forms named after. p.m. including different declinations, the following provisions must be adhered to.

If the noun refers to Wed. r., then it declines in accordance with the rule cf. r., which reads: all words cf. R. (both nouns and adjectives of all degrees of comparison), regardless of which declension they belong to, end in them. p.m. h. on -a. This applies only to the words cf. r., for example: ligamenta lata - broad ligaments, crura ossea - bone legs, ossa temporalia - temporal bones, cornua majora - large horns.

Word endings in m.r. and f. R. in them p.m. h. it is easier to remember taking into account each individual declination. In this case, it is necessary to remember the following correspondences: nouns of I, II, IV declensions have in them. p.m. h. exactly the same ending as in gen. p.m. h. The same correspondence is observed with adjectives of the 1st group, because they are declined like nouns of the 1st and 2nd declensions, for example:

Nouns of the III and V declensions, as well as adjectives of the III declension and adjectives in the comparative degree (they are also declined in the III declension) have in them. p.m. h.. the same ending -es.

Generalization of data on the endings of nouns and adjectives in them. p.m. h.

17. Genitive plural

Continuing the study of inflection of nouns and adjectives in the plural, it is necessary to note the genitive plural.

To learn how to quickly and accurately form terms in the gender form. p.m. h., you must be able to:

determine by the dictionary form of a noun its belonging to a certain declension; highlight the basis;

recognize the genus by its characteristic endings. p.un. h.; determine by dictionary form whether the adjective belongs to the 1st or 2nd group; establish which of the three declensions (I-II or III) the given adjective agrees with the noun in gender, number and case is inclined to.

Genitive plural endings (Genetivus pluralis)

The ending -um is:

1) unequally syllabic nouns of all three genders, the stem of which ends in one consonant: tendinum (m), regionum (f), foraminum (n); 2) adjectives in the comparative degree of all three genders (they also have a stem of one consonant): majorum (m, f, n).

The ending -ium is:

1) all other nouns with a stem of more than one consonant; equisyllabic in -es, -is; nouns cf. R. on -e, -ai, -ar: dentium (m), partium (f), ossium (n), animalium, avium, retium;

2) adjectives of the 2nd group of all three genders: brevi-um (m, f, n).

Notes.

1. Noun vas, vasis (n) - vessel in singular. h. is inclined according to the third declension, and in the plural. Part - according to II; Gen. pl. - vasorum.

2. The term os ilium (ilium) uses the form genus. p.m. h. from the noun ile, -is (n) (lower abdomen); them. p.m. h. - ilia (iliac region). Therefore, it is incorrect to change the form of ilium to ilii (ossis ilii).

3. The noun fauces, -ium - pharynx is used only in plural. h.

4. Nouns of Greek origin larynx, pharynx, meninx, phalanx end in im.p. pl. h. on -um.

18. Morphemic analysis

In a linear sequence, the composition of a word is divided into minimal parts, indivisible neither in form nor in meaning: prefix (prefix), root, suffix and ending (inflection). All these minimal meaningful parts of a word are called morphemes (Greek morphe - form). The core of the meaning is contained in the root, for example: sweaty, sweaty, sweating, effusion, etc. The prefix and suffix, distinguished by their position to the root, are together called word-forming affixes (Latin affixus - “attached”).

By adding them to the root, derivatives - new - words are formed. Ending - an affix with a grammatical meaning is not used for word formation, but for inflection (in cases, numbers, genders). Dividing a word into morphemes is called compositional analysis, or morphemic analysis.

The entire unchanging part of the word preceding the ending, which carries the main lexical meaning, is called the stem of the word. In the words vertebr-a, vertebral-is, intervertebral-is, the stems are, respectively, vertebr-, vertebral-, intervertebral-.

The stem can in some cases be represented only by the root, in some others - by the root and word-forming affixes, i.e. root, suffix and prefix.

Morphemic analysis shows what minimal significant parts (morphemes) the word being studied consists of, but does not answer the question of what the actual mechanism of word formation is. This mechanism is revealed using word-formation analysis. The point of analysis is to isolate two immediate components in a word: that single segment (generative stem) and that affix(s), thanks to the combination of which the derivative word is formed.

The difference between derivational and morphemic analyzes can be illustrated by the following example.

From the standpoint of morphemic analysis, the adjective interlobularis (interlobular) consists of five morphemes: inter- (prefix), -lob- (root), -ul-, -ag- (suffixes), -is (ending); from the standpoint of word-formation analysis, two immediate components are isolated: inter- - between (prefix) + -lobular(is) - lobular (generative base, or word).

The real mechanism of formation: inter- (prefix) + -lobular(is) (generative base, not divisible in this case into morphemes).

Consequently, the generating stem is the one from which another, more complex derivative stem is formed by adding affix(s) to it.

The derived stem is at least one morpheme larger than the producing one.

19. Generative stem of the word

To identify the generating stem in the word in question, you should compare it with two rows of words:

a) cholecyst-itis, cholecyst-o-graphia, cholecyst-o-pexia;

b) nephr-itis, vagin-itis, gastr-itis, etc. The productive basis constitutes not only the material backbone of the derived word, but also motivates, i.e. determines its meaning. In this sense, one can judge the words motivating and motivated or the motivating and motivated bases. For example, derivatives - the names of diseases of the heart muscle - myocarditis, myocardiofibrosis, myocardosis, myocardtodystrophia - are motivated by the motivating basis myo-card (ium).

The motivated word differs from the motivating word in greater semantic (in meaning) complexity, for example: the histological term myoblastus (myoblast), consisting of two root morphemes myo- - “muscle” + blastus (Greek blastos - “sprout”, “embryo”), means a poorly differentiated cell from which striated muscle fiber develops. The same word served as the motivating basis for the formation of the motivated word myoblastoma (myoblastoma) - the name of a tumor consisting of large cells - myoblasts.

There are cases when the concepts of producing and motivating words do not completely coincide. This happens if it is not a single word that serves as motivating, but a whole phrase (adjective + noun), and only the adjective is used as a generating basis. Such, for example, are the word-terms choledocho-piastica, chcledocho-tomia, choledocho-scopia, mastoid-itis, mastoido-tomia, for which the motivating phrases are ductus choledochus (common bile duct) and processus mastoideus (mastoid process), and producing basics - choledoch- (Greek chole - "bile" + doche - "vessel", "receptacle") and mastoid- (Greek mastos - "nipple" + -eides - "similar", "similar"; "mastoid") .

The proper names or surnames of the persons who first discovered or described this or that phenomenon are also used as generating principles in clinical and pathological terms. Such “family” terms are called eponymous, or eponyms. The motivating factor for each such term is usually a phrase - an anatomical name, which includes a proper name.

For example: in the term highmoritis (sinusitis), the producing basis is haimor - on behalf of the English physician and anatomist N. Highmore, who described the maxillary sinus, named after him the maxillary sinus. In the international Paris anatomical nomenclature approved in 1955, all eponyms (names of authors) were removed and replaced with informative terms indicating the main morphological characteristics of the corresponding formation. For example, instead of the eponym "Bartholin's gland" they introduced the term glandula vestibularis major, instead of "Cooper's gland" - glandula bulbourethralis, instead of "Wirzung's duct" - ductus pancreaticus major, instead of "maxillary sinus" - sinus maxiliaris, etc.

20. Segmentation of terms

Words are divisible, at least one part of which is repeated in some other words that are correlated with the data in meaning. The division of different words can be complete or incomplete. Those derivatives are completely divided, all of whose components (individual morphemes or a block of morphemes) are repeated in other derivatives. If not every significant part is found in other modern medical terms, then the derivative has incomplete articulation. For example, the following words:

1) with full articulation: pod-algia (Greek pus, podos - “leg” + algos - “pain”), neur-algia (Greek neuron - “nerve”), as well as my-algia (Greek mys, myos - “muscle”), kephal-o-metria (Greek kephalos - “head”), thorac-o-metria (Greek thorax, thorakos - “chest”, “chest”), etc.;

2) with incomplete articulation: pod-agra (Greek podagra - “trap”; aching in the legs; from pus, podos - “leg” + agra - “grab”, “attack”). If the first part is isolated, since it is found in a number of modern terms, then the second part - agra - is practically unique.

Almost all terms - derived words that arose naturally in ancient Greek and Latin or created artificially from the morphemes and generative stems of these languages are completely divisible. This means that they are at the same time fully motivated within the framework of modern terminology. The remarkable property of complete articulation acquires even greater significance for those mastering the basics of medical terminology due to the fact that a significant number of morphemes and blocks of morphemes are frequency.

Frequency ones should be considered those morphemes and blocks that are repeated in different words at least 2-3 times. It is clear that the greater the degree of frequency, i.e., the greater the number of uses, parts of derivatives have, the more significant role they have in terminology. Some high-frequency morphemes and blocks are involved in the formation of dozens of terms.

Many morphemes of the ancient Greek and Latin languages acquired specific, sometimes new, meanings in terminology that were previously unusual for them in the ancient source language. Such meanings are called terminological. For example, the Greek word kytos (vessel, cavity), in the Latinized form cytus, began to be used as a regular root morpheme in the structure of dozens of terms - derived words - in the meaning of “cell”. The suffix of ancient Greek adjectives -itis, which gave them the general meaning of "relating to, belonging", became a regular part of terms - nouns meaning "inflammation".

21. Term element

Any part of a derived word (morpheme, block of morphemes), regularly reproduced in finished form when using existing terms or creating new ones and retaining a certain meaning assigned to it in terminology, is called a term element.

Term element is a component that is regularly repeated in a series of terms and has a specialized meaning assigned to it. At the same time, it is not of fundamental importance in what form of transcription, Latin or Russian, the same international term element of Greek-Latin origin appears: infra- - infra-; -tomia - -tomia; nephro- - nephro-, etc. For example: the term cardiologia - the science of diseases of the cardiovascular system consists of the initial term element cardio - heart and the final term -logia - science, branch of knowledge.

The division of a term-word into term elements does not always coincide with its division into morphemes, since some term elements represent a whole block - a combination of 2-3 morphemes in one whole: prefix + root, root + suffix, prefix + root + suffix. In such regular formal and semantic unity, these blocks of morphemes are distinguished in a number of similarly formed derivatives, for example in the terms asthen-o-spermia - asthen-o-spermia, asthen-opia - asthen-opia, asthen-o-depressivus - asthen-o- depressive, asthen-isatio - asthenization, the block term element asthen(o)- (asthen(o)-), from the Greek. asthenes - “weak”: negative prefix a- - “not, without” + sthenos - “strength”.

High-frequency term elements tom-ia (-to-miya) (Greek tome - “cut”), rhaph-ia (-raffia) (Greek rhaphe - “seam”), log-ia (-logy) (Greek logos - "science") - the final parts of the derivatives - are two-morphemic in their composition: root + suffix -ia, which gives the words the general meaning of "action, phenomenon". The high-frequency term element -ectomia (-ectomy) - the final part of derivatives - consists of three ancient Greek morphemes: prefix es- + root -tome- - “cut” + suffix -ia - “cutting”, “removal”.

Term elements of Greek-Latin origin constitute the international “golden fund” of biological and medical terminology.

With the help of frequency term elements, numerous series of terms of the same type in structure and semantics (meaning) are formed. Interacting with each other, term elements together form a complex formal-semantic term system, which remains open to the inclusion of new term elements and new series of terms, and in which each term element is assigned a specific place and meaning.

A huge number of medical terms are formed by adding stems combined with suffixation. In this case, the suffix of Greek origin -ia is used more often than others. For example, haemorrhagia in ancient Greek is produced by adding two stems: haem - “blood” + rhagos - “torn, torn” + suffix -ia.

22. Greco-Latin doublets

The division of term elements into bound and free should be constantly taken into account. For example, when comparing anatomical meanings in normal anatomy, on the one hand, with similar meanings in pathological anatomy and in a complex of clinical disciplines, on the other, the following pattern emerges: the same organ is designated in two ways - different not only in its linguistic origin, but also in its grammatical origin design with signs. In the nomenclature of normal anatomy it is an independent and usually Latin word, and in pathological anatomy it is a related term element of Greek origin. Much less often, in both disciplines, the same name is used, borrowed from the same source language, for example, the Greek hepar, oesophagus, pharynx, larynx, urethra, thorax, ureter, encephalon and the Latin appendix, tonsilla and others that were used even in ancient medicine, as well as complex suffix derivatives starting with -turn, created in modern times; for example, myocardium, endothelium, perimetrium, etc. These words as free term elements are included in the structure of complex words in clinical terminology: hepatomegaly, endothelioma, encephalopathy, myocardiopathy, appendectomy. In anatomical nomenclature, there are designations for the same formation both as an independent Latin root word and as a Greek component as part of a derivative; for example, chin - lat. mentum, but “chin-lingual” - genioglossus (Greek geneion - “chin”); language - lat. lingua, but “sublingual” - hypoglossus; “glossopharyngeus” - glossopharyngeus (Greek glossa - “tongue”), etc. Latin and Greek designations for anatomical formations, which have absolutely the same meaning, are called Greco-Latin doublet designations (or doublets). The following fundamental position can be formulated: as a rule, Greco-Latin doublets are used to designate most anatomical formations (organs, parts of the body), and in anatomical nomenclature - predominantly Latin words, in clinical terminology - related term elements of Greek origin.

Scope of application of doublets

23. The meaning and place of term elements in the structure of a derivative word

Term elements are mostly unambiguous, but some of them have two or more meanings.

So, for example, the term element onco- (Greek onkos - “breast, mass, volume, bloating”) in some complex words means “volume, mass” (oncogramma - oncogram - a curve reflecting changes in volume; oncometria - oncometry - measurement of volume tissue or organ), in others - “tumor” (oncogenesis - the process of the emergence and development of a tumor; oncologist - a doctor, a specialist in the treatment and prevention of tumors, etc.).

The final component -lysis (Greek “unbinding, decomposition, dissolution”; lуо - “unbinding, freeing”) in some complex words means “decomposition, disintegration, dissolution” (autolysis, karyolysis, hemolysis, etc.), in others - “surgical operation for releasing adhesions, adhesions” (cardiolysis, pneumo(no)lysis, etc.).

Typically, the place of the motivating cognate stem in the structure of words does not affect its meaning: whether megalo- or -megalia (increase), gnatho- or -gnathia (jaw), blepharo- or -blepharia (eyelid), the meaning of the term elements will remain unambiguous. Some term elements, like the ones above, can act as both first and last. Others can occupy only one permanent place, for example as final ones (-cele, -clasia, -le-psia, -peaia), some can only be first components (auto-, brady-, bary-, laparo-).

1. It should be borne in mind that, depending both on the specific meaning of the other component involved in the addition and on the place occupied in a complex word, some shades may arise that affect the overall meaning of the motivated word. Thus, the cognate term elements haemo-, haemato- and -aemia have a common meaning “relating to blood.” At the same time, the final term element -aemia, which is preceded by the designation of the substance, indicates blood as a medium in which substances are found, the presence and concentration of which in this medium are pathological (azotaemia, uraemia, bacteriaemia, etc.). If the term elements haemo- or haemato- are combined with the designation of an organ, then the general meaning of the compound word is the accumulation of blood in the organ cavity, hemorrhage (haematomyelia - hemorrhage in the substance of the spinal cord, haemarthrosis - accumulation of blood in the joint cavity).

2. For a logical understanding of the general meaning of a derived word, it is advisable to begin the semantic analysis of its constituent term elements with the final term element. For example, gastro/entero-logia: logia - “the science of...”: gastro- - “stomach”, entera- - “intestines”.

3. The general meaning of a motivated word is always somewhat more voluminous, fuller, deeper than the simple addition of the meanings of the motivating components: for example, gastrojejunoplastica (Greek gaster - “stomach” + Lat. jejunum - “jejunum” + plastike - “formation, plastic”) - surgery to replace the stomach with a segment of the jejunum.

24. Formal linguistic types of clinical terms

The formal linguistic types of clinical terms are different.

1. Unmotivated simple words:

1) simple root words of Latin or ancient Greek origin: for example, stupor - stupor (numbness), tremor - tremor (shaking), thrombus - thrombus (blood clot), aphthae - aphthae (rash);

2) simple derivatives (in the source language) - prefix and affix: for example, insultus (Latin insulto - “to attack”) - stroke, infarctus (Latin infarcio - “stuff, fill”) - heart attack, aneurysma (Greek aneuryno - “to expand”) - aneurysm.

The given simple root and simple derivative words and many other clinical terms similar to them turn out to be indivisible within the framework of modern terminology and, therefore, unmotivated. Most often, they are not translated, but borrowed, transcribed using national languages (Russian, English, etc.) and are internationalisms.

2. Terms and phrases. Noun phrases occupy a significant place in clinical terminology. Their formation does not require any special knowledge other than grammatical ones. In each phrase, the core word is the word being defined - the noun in it. p.un. or more h. Usually this is a generic term, i.e. the name of a higher, more general concept in the classification.

Defining words are most often represented by adjectives. Their role is to clarify in some specific respect a generic (general) concept: for example, pneumonia adenoviralis - adenoviral pneumonia, p. apicalis - apical pneumonia, p. haefflorrhagica - hemorrhagic pneumonia, etc.

The most common meaning of defining words is the localization of the lesion: abscessus appendicis, ab. femoris, ab. parietis arteriae, ab. mesenterii, ab. poliicis, ab. bronchi, ab. peritonealis; ulcus pharyngis, etc.

Some international phrases are traditionally included in the text in national languages in Latin grammatical form and transcription, for example genu valgum (bent knee inward).

3. Fully divisible motivated terms-words. Among the formal linguistic types of clinical terms, they are of greatest interest when teaching the basics of medical terminology. The first motivating bases in complex words are Greek or, less often, Latin term elements with anatomical meaning. The final components carry the main semantic load and perform (like suffixes) a classifying function.

Some of them correlate this concept with a specific group, class of pathological phenomena (signs, conditions, diseases, processes), others - with surgical operations or with diagnostic techniques, etc. For example, terms with the initial term element cardio- (Greek kardia - "heart"): cardiosclerosis, cardioneurosis, cardiomegalia, cardiolysis, cardiotomia, cardiographia, cardiotachometria, cardiovolumometria.

25. Methods of word formation. Deminutives

The main methods of word formation are affix and non-affix.

Affixal methods include methods of forming derivatives by attaching word-forming affixes (prefixes, suffixes) to generating stems.

Affixless methods are used primarily to form complex words.

A compound word is one that consists of more than one stem. A compound word is formed by the method of compounding.

A word in the structure of which there is only one producing stem is called simple: for example, costoarticularis is a complex word, and costalis and articularis are simple words.

There are also mixed methods of word formation: prefixation + suffixation, addition + suffixation, a method of creating complex abbreviated words, etc.

Deminutives- nouns with a general word-formation meaning “diminutive”.

A motivated diminutive noun (deminitive) retains the gender of the motivating word from which it is derived. These motivated words are declined only according to the I or II declension, regardless of which declension the motivating word belongs to: for example, nodus, -i (m); nodu-lus; vas, vasis (n) vasculum.

1. Some artificially formed terms do not have a diminutive meaning; These are the designations of the stages of embryo development: gastrula, blastula, morula, organella.

2. The nouns macula (spot), acetabulum (acetabulum) and some others also do not have a diminutive meaning.

26. Nouns with a general word-formation meaning “action, process”

In Latin there are nouns that have certain suffixes with the general meaning of “action, process.”

1. Nouns of this very productive word-formation type denote operations, methods of examination, physiological functions, treatments, theoretical concepts in various disciplines: for example, auscultatio - auscultation, listening; percussio - percussion, tapping; palpatio - palpation, palpation.

All three terms refer to methods for studying internal organs.

There are derivatives in -io, denoting not only an action, a process, but also the result of this action, for example, decussatio - cross (formation in the form of X); impresso - impression; terminatio - ending, end.

2. Among the artificially formed words in -io, some come not from the verbal, but from the nominal stem, for example, decapsulatio - decapsulation, surgical removal of the shell of an organ; hepatisatio - hepatization, compaction of lung tissue.

3. Nouns with a general word-formation meaning “an object (organ, instrument, device) by which an action is performed; a person carrying out an activity.”

4. Nouns with a general word-formation meaning “the result of an action.”

27. Adjective suffixes

I. Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “characterized or rich in a feature indicated by the generating stem.”

II. Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “belonging to or relating to what is called the generating base.”

III. Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “similar to what is called the stem of the word.”

IV. Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “carrying what is called the producing base.”

V. Adjectives with general word-formation meaning:

1) “generating, producing, causing what is called the basis” (active meaning);

2) “generated, caused, conditioned by what is called the basis” (passive meaning).

28. Features of the foundation

1. As the most common word-formation device, with the help of which two or more generating stems are combined into a single word, the interfix, or connecting vowel, is used. In medical terminology, the most common interfix is -o-, less commonly used is -i-. In the original words of the ancient Greek language, only the interfix -o- is used, the Latin - -i-: for example, lat. aur-i-scalpium (auris - “ear” + scalpo - “scrape, cut”) - ear cleaner; viv-i-ficatio (vivus - “living” + facio - “to do”) - revival.

However, in artificial neologisms this linguistic pattern is no longer observed. Regardless of the origin, the interfix -o- is used (neur-o-cranium, cary-o-lysis, lept-o-meniux, Latin auropalpebraiis, Latin nasolacrimal, etc.). The first components of addition are usually indicated in dictionaries and reference books along with the interfix: thoraco-, spondylo-. Interfixless connection of components usually takes place, although not always, if the first component ends with a vowel or the second component begins with a vowel: for example, the term elements brady- (Greek bradys - “slow”): brady-cardia; brachy- (Greek brachys - “short”): brachy-dactylia; rhin- (Greek rhis, rhinos - “nose”): rhin-encephalon.

2. Variation of the producing base. In Latin and Greek there are nouns and adjectives (III declension), in which the bases of the word forms of the nominative and genitive cases differ: for example, cortex, cortic-is; Greek som-a, somat-os - “body”; Greek meg-as, megal-u - “big”; Greek pan, pant-os - “everything”, etc. The base of the genitive case acts as the productive basis of Latin words: pariet-o-graphia, cortic-o-visceralis; In Greek words, the productive stem is also more often the stem of the genitive case. At the same time, sometimes the generating stem appears in a variant form - either the nominative or the genitive case, for example: pan-, pant - “everything” (pan-demia, pant-o-phobia), mega- - “big” (megacolon, megal -o-biastus).

There are also three-variant forms of the same term element: initial - haemo-, haemato-, final -aemia with the general meaning “relating to blood” (haemo-globinum, haemato-logia, an-aemia).

3. Phonetic-graphic variation of the basics. Some Greek stems have experienced varying degrees of romanization. In some cases, a pronunciation close to the Greek language was preserved, in others there was a convergence with the norm of the Latin language. As a result, the same morpheme can be written in different ways: Greek. cheir - "hand" - cheir and chir; Greek koinos - “common”, “joint” - coenosis, koino-. Various transcriptions of the Greek word neuron are used - “nerve” in Russian terms: neurology, but neurosurgery; neuritis (axon) and neuritis (nerve inflammation).

29. Prefixation

Prefixation, i.e. the addition of a prefixal morpheme (prefix) to the root, does not change its meaning, but only adds to this meaning some component indicating localization (above, below, in front, behind), direction (approaching, moving away), flow in time (before something, after something), on the absence or denial of something.

Prefixes developed primarily from prepositions, so their direct meanings coincide with the meanings of the corresponding prepositions.

Some prefixes, based on direct meanings, have developed secondary, figurative ones. Thus, the Greek preposition-prefix para- (“near, nearby”) developed a figurative meaning “retreat, deviation from something, discrepancy between the external manifestations of the essence of a given phenomenon”: for example, para-nasalis - paranasal, but para-mnesia (Greek mnesis - "memory") - paramnesia - a general name for distortions of memories and memory deceptions.

In descriptive names used in morphological disciplines, term elements-prefixes have a direct meaning. In terms expressing the concepts of pathological conditions, diseases, impaired organ functions, and the like, prefix term elements are often used with secondary meanings. In various subsystems of medical terminology and in biology, Greek and Latin term elements-prefixes are extremely widely used.

As a rule, Latin prefixes are attached to Latin roots, Greek prefixes are added to Greek roots. However, there are also exceptions, so-called hybrids, for example, in the words epi-fascialis - suprafascial, endo-cervicalis - intra-cervical, the prefixes are Greek, and the producing stems are Latin. When prefixed, the whole word acts as a productive basis: intra-articularis - intra-articular.

Antonymous prefixes. An important role in the functioning of medical terms is played by antonymous prefixes, i.e. those whose meanings are opposite: for example, Lat. intra- - “inside” and extra- - “outside”, “outside”, etc.

Latin-Greek doublet prefixes. The meanings of a number of Latin prefixes coincide with the meanings of certain Greek prefixes or are very close to them:

lat. media- - Greek meso- - “in the middle”, “between”.

When attaching prefixes to bases, changes in the prefix may occur under the influence of the initial sound of the base.

This is mainly manifested in assimilation (Latin assimilalio - “likening”, “similarity”): the final consonant in the prefix is fully or partially likened to the initial sound of the producing stem. In some Latin prefixes, elision may occur, i.e., loss of the final consonant. In the Greek prefixes ana-, dia-, cafa-, meta-, para-, and-, epi-, apo-, hypo-, meso-, elision is manifested in the loss of the final vowel before the initial vowel of the stem. This eliminates possible gaping (vowel with vowel).

30. Infinitive

Depending on the nature of the stem - the final sound of the stem - verbs are divided into IV conjugations.

In conjugations I, II, IV, the stems end in a vowel, and in III, most often in a consonant.

The infinitive is an indefinite form. In order to correctly identify the stem and determine by its final sound which of the four conjugations a particular verb belongs to, it is necessary to remember the infinitive of this verb. The infinitive is the original form of the verb; it does not change according to persons, numbers and moods. The sign of the infinitive in all conjugations is the ending -re. In I, II and IV conjugations it is attached directly to the stem, and in III - through the connecting vowel -e-.

Examples of infinitives of verbs I-IV conjugations

In II and III conjugations, the vowel [e] differs not only in shortness or length: in II conjugation it is the final sound of the stem, and in III it is a connecting vowel between the stem and the ending.

The stem of the verb is practically determined from the infinitive form by separating the ending -re from verbs of I, II, IV conjugations and -ere from verbs of III conjugation.

Unlike the usual complete dictionaries of the Latin language, in educational dictionaries for medical students the verb is given in an abbreviated dictionary form: the full form of the 1st person singular. Part of the present tense of the indicative mood of the active voice (ending -o), then the ending of the infinitive -re is indicated along with the preceding vowel, i.e. the last three letters of the infinitive. At the end of the dictionary form, a number marks the conjugation, for example:

31. Imperative and subjunctive moods

In prescriptions, a doctor’s request to a pharmacist to prepare a medicine has the character of an order, an inducement to a certain action. This meaning of the verb is expressed by the imperative or subjunctive mood.

As in Russian, the order is addressed to the 2nd person. The recipe uses only the 2nd person singular form of the imperative. This form completely coincides with the stem for verbs of I, II and IV conjugations; for verbs of III conjugation, -e is added to the stem.

In practice, to form an imperative, it is necessary to discard the ending of the infinitive -re from verbs of all conjugations, for example:

The imperative mood in the form of the 2nd person plural. h. is formed by adding the ending -te: for verbs of I, II, IV conjugations - directly to the stem, for verbs of III conjugation - with the help of a connecting vowel -i-(-ite).

Subjunctive mood

Meaning. The recipe uses only one of the many meanings of the Latin subjunctive mood - command, encouragement to action.

In Russian, conjunctive forms with this meaning are translated by a verb in combination with the word “let” or an indefinite form of the verb, for example: let it be mixed or mixed.

Education. The conjunctive is formed by changing the stem: in conjugation I, -a is replaced by -e, in conjugation II, III and IV, -a is added to the stem. Personal endings of verbs are added to the modified stem.

Formation of the base of the conjunctiva

Latin verbs, like Russian ones, have 3 persons; in medical terminology only the 3rd person is used. Personal endings for verbs in the 3rd person are given in the table.

32. Subjunctive. Accusative

Examples of verb conjugation in the conjunctive of the active and passive voices.

Accusative

To write recipes correctly, it is necessary to master the endings of two cases - the accusative and the so-called ablative - in the five declensions of nouns and adjectives of the I, II and III declensions. Accusativus (vin. p.) is the case of the direct object; as in Russian, answers the questions “who?” So what?" For convenience, we first remember separately the endings of this case, which have neuter nouns and adjectives, and then the endings of masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives. Rules of the middle kind. All neuter nouns and adjectives, regardless of their declension, are subject to the following rules.

1. End of Ass. sing. matches the ending Nom. sing. of a given word: for example, linimentum compositum, semen dulce.

2. End of Ass. pl. matches the ending Nom. pl. and regardless of declension, always -a(-ia): for example, linimenta composita, semina dulcia.

Only nouns cf. have the ending -ia. R. on -e, -al, -ar (III declension) and all adjectives of the 2nd group (III declension).

Masculine and feminine. Masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives in Ass. sing. have a common final element -m, and in Ac. pl. - -s; they are preceded by certain vowels depending on the declension.

The ending -im in Ac. sing. Greek nouns ending in -sis such as dosis, is (f) and some Latin nouns: pertussis, is (f) are accepted.

33. Ablative. Prepositions

Ablativus- this is the case corresponding to the Russian instrumental case; answers the questions “by whom?”, “with what?”. In addition, it performs the functions of several other cases.

The endings of the ablative are shown in the table

The ending -i in Abl. sing. accept:

1) nouns ending in -e, -al, -ar;

2) adjectives of the 2nd group;

3) equisyllabic nouns of Greek origin starting with -sis of the dosis type.

All prepositions in Latin are used with only two cases: accusative and ablative. The management of prepositions in Russian does not coincide with Latin.

1. Prepositions used with the accusative case.

2. Prepositions used with the ablative.

3. Prepositions used either with the accusative case or with the ablative case.

The prepositions in - “in”, “on” and sub - “under” control two cases depending on the question posed. Questions “where?”, “what?” require the accusative case, questions “where?”, “in what?” - ablative.

Examples of the use of prepositions with double control.

34. Form - cyclical, terminological

Pharmaceutical terminology is a complex consisting of sets of terms from a number of special disciplines, united under the general name “pharmacy” (Greek pharmakeia - the creation and use of drugs), which study the research, production, and use of medicines of plant, mineral, animal and synthetic origin. The central place in this terminological complex is occupied by the nomenclature of medicines - an extensive set of names of medicinal substances and drugs officially approved for use. Tens and hundreds of thousands of medicines are used on the pharmaceutical market. The total number of medicines and their combinations available in different countries exceeds 250 thousand. Every year, more and more new drugs are supplied to the pharmacy chain.

To have an idea of how drug names are created, which influences the choice of certain methods of word formation and structural types of names, it is necessary to familiarize yourself, at least in the most general terms, with some general pharmaceutical terms.

1. Medicine (medicamentum) - a substance or mixture of substances authorized by the authorized body of the relevant country in the prescribed manner for use for the purpose of treating, preventing or diagnosing a disease.

2. Medicinal substance (materia medica) - a drug that is an individual chemical compound or biological substance.

3. Medicinal plant materials - plant materials approved for medical use.

4. Dosage form (forma medicamentorum) - a state convenient for use given to a medicinal product or medicinal plant raw material, in which the necessary therapeutic effect is achieved.

5. Medicine (praeparatum pharmaceuticum) - a medicine in the form of a specific dosage form.

6. Active substance - component(s) of a medicinal product that has a therapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic effect.

7. Combined medicines - medicines containing in one dosage form more than one active substance in fixed doses.

35. Trivial names of medicinal substances

Some chemical compounds used as medicinal substances retain the same traditional semi-systematic names that they received in chemical nomenclature (salicylic acid, sodium chloride).

However, in a much larger volume in the nomenclature of medicines, chemical compounds are presented not under their scientific (systematic) names, but under trivial (Latin trivialis - “ordinary”) names. Trivial names do not reflect any unified principles of scientific classification accepted by chemists; they do not indicate composition or structure. In this respect, they are completely inferior to systematic names. However, the latter are unsuitable as names of medicinal substances due to their bulkiness and complexity for use in recipes, on labels, and in the pharmacy trade.

Trivial names are short, convenient, accessible not only for professional, but also for ordinary communication.

Examples of trivial names

Methods of word formation for trivial names

Trivial names of medicines are derivatives of various word-formation structures. A word or group of words, which are often systematic names of chemical compounds or names of the sources of their production, is used as a producer. The main “building” material for the formation of trivial names is words, word-forming elements, roots and simply so-called verbal segments of ancient Greek and Latin origin. For example, a preparation from the spring adonis herb (Adonis vernalis) is called Adonisidum - adonizide; a substance (glycoside) obtained from some species of the foxglove plant (Digitalis) is called Digoxinum - digoxin. The name Mentholum - menthol is assigned to a substance obtained from mint oil (oleum Menthae).

Among the various word formation methods used to create trivial names, the most productive is abbreviation (Latin brevis - “short”) - shortening. This is a way of creating compound words, so-called abbreviations, by combining word segments arbitrarily selected from the corresponding generating words or phrases. As such, systematic names of chemical compounds are often used.

Abbreviations are also used to form the names of combination drugs. Instead of listing the names of all active substances contained in one dosage form, the drug is assigned a complex abbreviated name. It is placed in quotation marks and is an appendix to the name of the dosage form.

36. General requirements for names of medicines

1. In Russia, the name of each new drug is officially approved in the form of two mutually translated equivalents in Russian and Latin, for example: solutio Glucosi - glucose solution. As a rule, Latin names of medicinal substances are nouns of the II declension cf. R. The Russian name differs from the Latin only in transcription and the absence of the ending -um, for example: Amidopyrinum - amidopyrine, Validolum - validol. Trivial names of combination drugs, which are inconsistent applications to the name of the dosage form, are also nouns of the II declension cf. r.: for example, tabulettae "Haemostimulinum" - tablets "Gemostimulin".

2. The name of medicines should be as short as possible; easy to pronounce; have clear phonetic-graphic distinctiveness. The last requirement in practice becomes particularly important.

Each title must be noticeably different in its sound composition and graphics (spelling) from other titles.

After all, it is enough to remember the sound complex even slightly inaccurately and write it down incorrectly in Latin letters in the recipe for a serious mistake to occur. A large number of drugs are entering the domestic market under original brand names. They are formatted orthographically and grammatically most often in some national language, that is, they do not have a Latin grammatical format. Often names lack the ending -um completely (German) or partially (English) or the ending -um is replaced with -e (English and French), and in some languages (Italian, Spanish. , rum.) - on -a.

At the same time, companies assign names to their drugs with the traditional Latin ending -um. In domestic prescription practice, in order to avoid discrepancies, it would be necessary to conditionally Latinize the commercial names of imported drugs: substitute the ending -um instead of the last vowel or add the ending -um to the final consonant, for example: instead of Mexase (mexase) - Mexasum, instead of Lasix (lasix) - Lasixum, etc. .

Exceptions are allowed only for names ending in -a: Dopa, Nospa, Ambravena. They can be read and considered by analogy with nouns of the first declension.

In modern commercial names, the traditional scientifically approved transcription of word-forming elements (verbal segments) of Greek origin is often neglected; their graphic simplification is cultivated; To make pronunciation easier, ph is replaced by f, th by t, ae by e, y by i.

37. Frequency segments in trivial names

A huge number of abbreviations, as noted, are formed by combining segments arbitrarily selected from the composition of generating words - systematic names.

At the same time, in the nomenclature there are many such names, the sound complexes of which include repeating frequency segments - a kind of pharmaceutical term elements.

1. Frequency segments, very conditionally and approximately reflecting information of an anatomical, physiological and therapeutic nature.

For example: Corvalolum, Cardiovaienum, Valosedan, Apressinum, Angiotensinamidum, Promedolum, Sedalgin, Antipyrinum, Anaesthesinum, Testosteronum, Agovirin, Androfort, Thyrotropinum, Cholosasum, Streptocidum, Mycoseptinum, Enteroseptolum.

2. Frequency segments carrying pharmacological information. Over the past decades, the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO) has become widespread to include in the trivial names of medicinal substances (namely substances!) frequency segments that carry not a random and vague characteristic, like the above segments, but stable information of a pharmacological nature.

For this purpose, it is recommended to include in the names frequency segments indicating that the drug substance belongs to a specific pharmacological group. To date, several dozen such frequency segments have been recommended. For example: Sulfadimezinum, Penicillinum, Streptomycinum, Tetracyclinum, Barbamylum, Novocainum, Corticotropinum, Oestradiolum, Methandrostenolonum.

Trivial names of vitamins and multivitamin combination drugs

Vitamins are known both by their trivial names and by letter designations, for example: Retinolum seu Vitaminum A (also known under another name - Axerophtholum); Cyanocobalaminum seu Vitaminum B12; Acidum ascorbinicum seu Vitaminum C. The names of many multivitamin preparations include the frequency segment -vit- - -vit-, for example Tabulettae "Pentovitum" (contains 5 vitamins), Dragee "Hexavitum" (contains 6 vitamins), etc.

Trivial names of enzyme preparations

Often the names indicate that the drug affects the enzyme processes of the body. This is evidenced by the presence of the suffix -as- - -az-. Such names are usually Latinized according to the general rule, that is, they receive the ending -um. However, there are also deviations from this rule: for example, Desoxyribonucleasum (or Desoxyribcnucleasa) is a deoxyribonuclease, Collagenasum is a collagenase.

38. Dosage forms

Aerosolum, -i (n)- aerosol - a dosage form, which is a dispersed system obtained using special packaging.

Granulum, -i (n)- granule - a solid dosage form in the form of grains, grains.

Gutta, -ae (f)- drop - a dosage form intended for internal or external use in the form of drops.

Unguentum, -i(n)- ointment - a soft dosage form with a viscous consistency; intended for external use.

Linimentum, -i (n)- liniment - liquid ointment.

Pasta, -ae (f)- paste - ointment with a content of powdery substances over 20-25%.

Emplastrum, -i (n)- patch - a dosage form in the form of a plastic mass that softens at body temperature and adheres to the skin; intended for external use.

Suppositorium, -i (n)- suppository, suppository - a dosage form that is solid at room temperature and expands or dissolves at body temperature; injected into body cavities. If administered per rectum (through the rectum), it is called a suppository. If the suppository has the shape of a ball for insertion into the vagina, then it is called globulus vaginalis - vaginal ball.

Pulvis, -eris (m)- powder - dosage form intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolution in an appropriate solvent) use.

Tabuletta, -ae (f)- dosage form obtained by pressing medicinal ingredients

substances or mixtures of medicinal and auxiliary substances; intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolution in an appropriate solvent) use.

Tabuletta obducta- coated tablet - a tablet with a coating designed to localize the site of action, taste; preservation, improvement of appearance.

Dragee (French)- dragee (not folded) - a solid dosage form obtained by layering drugs and excipients onto granules.

Pilula, -ae (f)- pill - a solid dosage form in the form of a ball (weight 0.1-0.5 g) containing drugs and excipients.

Species, -ei (f)(usually in the plural: Species, -erum) - collection - a mixture of several types of crushed or whole medicinal raw materials for the preparation of infusions and decoctions.

S. amylacea seu oblate- dosage dosage form, which is a medicinal product enclosed in a shell (made of gelatin, starch or another biopolymer); intended for internal use.

Seu Lamella ophthalmica- eye film - a dosage form in the form of a polymer film, replacing eye drops.

39. Liquid dosage forms. Name of drugs

Solutio, -onis (f)- solution - a dosage form obtained by dissolving one or more medicinal substances; intended for injection, internal or external use.

Suspensio, -onis (f)- suspension - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system in which a solid substance is suspended in a liquid; Intended for internal, external or injection use.

Emulsum, -i (n)- emulsion - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system consisting of mutually insoluble liquids; Intended for internal, external or injection use.

Tinctura, -ae (f)- tincture - a dosage form, which is an alcohol, alcohol-ether, alcohol-water transparent extract from medicinal plant materials; Designed for indoor or outdoor use.

Infusum, -i (n)- infusion - a dosage form, which is an aqueous extract from medicinal plant materials; Designed for indoor or outdoor use.

Decoctum, -i (n)- decoction - infusion, characterized by extraction mode.

Sirupus, -i (m) (medicinalis)- syrup - a liquid dosage form intended for internal use.

Extractum, -i (n)- extract - dosage form, which is a concentrated extract from medicinal plant materials; intended for indoor or outdoor use.

Names of drugs.

1. If the dosage form given to a medicinal substance or herbal raw material is indicated in the name of the drug, then the name begins with its designation, followed by the name of the medicinal substance or raw material.

Tabulettae Analgini - analgin tablets, Pulvis Ampicillini - ampicillin powder, etc.

2. The name of the combination medicinal product accompanying the designation “dosage form” is a noun in it. etc., placed in quotation marks as an inconsistent application to the designation “dosage form”, for example: Tabulettae “Urosalum” - “Urosal” tablets, Unguentum “Calendula” - “Calendula” ointment, etc.

3. In the names of infusions and decoctions, between the designations “Dosage form” and “Plants” there is a genus. n. name of the type of raw material (leaf, herb, bark, root, flowers, etc.), for example: Infusum florum Chamomillae - infusion of chamomile flowers, Infusum radicis Valerianae - infusion of valerian root, etc.

4. An agreed definition characterizing the dosage form takes the last place in the name of the drug: for example, Unguentum Hydrargyri cinereum - gray mercury ointment, Solutio Synoestroli oleosa - solution of sinestrol in oil (oil), Solutio Tannini spirituosa alcoholic tannin solution, Extractum Belladonnae siccum - belladonna (belladonna) dry extract.

40. Recipe

Recipe(receptum - “taken” from recipio, -ere - “take”, “to take”) is a written order from a doctor to a pharmacist, drawn up in a certain form, about the manufacture, dispensing and method of using a medicine. A prescription is an important legal document that must be executed in accordance with official rules. Prescriptions are written out on a standard form measuring 105 x 108 mm, clearly and legibly, without blots or corrections, in ink or a ballpoint pen. Doctors who have the right to issue prescriptions are required to indicate their position and title, sign and certify it with their personal seal.

The following parts are usually distinguished in the recipe.

1. Inscriptio - stamp of the medical institution and its code.

2. Datum - date of prescription.

3. Nomen aegroti - last name and initials of the patient.

4. Aetas aegroti - age of the patient.

5. Nomen medici - the surname and initials of the doctor.

6. Praescriptio - “copybook” in Latin, which consists of invocatio - standard appeal to a doctor, Rр.: - Recipe - “take” and designatio materiarum - designation of substances indicating their quantity.

7. Subscriptio - “signature” (literally “written below” designation of substances) - the part in which some instructions are given to the pharmacist: about the dosage form, number of doses, type of packaging, about dispensing the medicine to the patient, etc.

8. Signature - designation, part that begins with the verb signa or signetur - “to designate”, “to designate”. This is followed by instructions to the patient in Russian and (or) the national language about how to take the medicine.

9. Nomen et sigillum personaie medici - the doctor’s signature, sealed with a personal seal.

Each drug is prescribed on a separate prescription line and with a capital letter. The names of medicinal substances and plants inside the line are also written in capital letters.

The names of medicinal substances or drugs depend grammatically on their dose (quantity) and are placed in gender. P.

Rules for writing recipes

41. Use of the accusative case when prescribing pills and suppositories

There are different approaches to naming tablets and suppositories.

1. Drugs of a combined composition are assigned a trivial and most often complex abbreviated name, placed in quotation marks: for example, tabulettae "Codterpinum" - tablets "Codterpin"; suppositoria "Neo-anusolum" - "Neo-anusol" suppositories.

Trivial names of tablets or suppositories are in them. p.un. h. and are inconsistent applications. The dose is usually not indicated, since it is standard.

2. If the suppositories consist of one active medicinal substance, then its name is attached to the name of the dosage form using the preposition cum and is placed in an ablative indicating the dose; for example: Suppositoria cum Cordigito 0.0012 - suppositories with cordigito 0.0012.

3. If the tablets consist of one active medicinal substance, then after indicating the dosage form its name is placed in the genus. item with dose designation; for example: Tabulettae Cordigiti 0.0008 - cordigita tablets 0.0008.

4. When prescribing tablets and suppositories in recipes in an abbreviated manner, the name of the dosage form is placed in the wine. p.m. h. (tabulettas, tabulettas obductas, suppositoria, suppositoria rectalia), since it grammatically depends on the Recipe, and not on the dose.

Eye films (lamellae ophthalmicae) are prescribed in a similar way (in the vn. plural form): the name of the medicinal substance is introduced using the preposition cum and placed in the ablative, for example: Recipe: Lamellas ophthalmicas cum Florenalo numero 30.

5. With an abbreviated method of prescribing tablets and suppositories with one ingredient, you can put the name of the dosage form in Ac. sing. (tabulettam, suppositorium). In this case, the prescription ends with the standard wording Da (Dentur) tales doses numero... For example:

Recipe: Tabulettam Digoxini 0.0001

Da tales doses number 12

Recipe: Suppositorium cum Ichthyolo 0.2

Da tales doses number 10.

6. A prescription for tablets is also common, which indicates the name of the medicinal substance and its single dose, ending the prescription with the number of tablets in the standard formulation Da (Dentur) tales doses numero ... in tabulettis. - Give these doses in number... in tablets, for example:

Recipe: Digoxini 0.0001

Da tales doses numero 12 in tabuletti.

42. Name of chemical elements

Names of acids

Latin semi-systematic and trivial names of acids consist of the noun acidum, -i (n) - “acid” and the adjective of the 1st group agreed with it. The suffix -ic-um or -os-um is added to the base of the name of the acid-forming element.

The suffix -ic- indicates the maximum degree of oxidation and corresponds in Russian adjectives to the suffixes -n-(aya), -ev-(aya) or -ov-(aya), for example: аcidum sulfur-ic-um - gray-n-aya acid; аcidum barbitur-ic-um - barbituric acid; аcidum fol-ic-um - folic acid.

The suffix -os- indicates a low degree of oxidation and corresponds to the Russian adjective with the suffix -ist-(aya); for example: acidum sulfur-os-um - sulfuric acid; аcidum nitr-os-um - nitrogen-rich acid.

Adjectives in the names of oxygen-free acids include the prefix hydro-, the stem of the name of the acid-forming element, and the suffix -ic-um.

In the Russian nomenclature of drugs, this corresponds to an adjective with endings -is-hydrogen (acid), for example: ac. hydro-brom-ic-um - bromine-hydrogen acid.

Names of oxides

The names of oxides consist of two words: the first is the name of the element (cation) in its genus. n. (inconsistent definition), the second is the group name of the oxide (anion) in them. pad. (inflected).

The segment -оху- indicates the presence of oxygen, and the prefixes specify the structure of the compound: oxydum, -i (n) - oxide; peroxydum, -i (n) - peroxide; hydroxydum, -i (n) - hydroxide. The Russian name also uses the same word order as in the international (Latin) name.

Names of salts

The names of salts are formed from two nouns: the name of the cation that comes first in the genus. n., and the name of the anion in second place in them. n. Some names of ethers are formed in the same way.

The names of anions are formed by adding standard suffixes -as, -is, -idum to the roots of the Latin names of acids.

With the suffixes -as and -is they form the names of anions in salts of oxygenic acids, and with the suffix -id-um - in salts of oxygen-free acids. Names of anions with suffixes -as, -is - nouns of the III declension of the m. (an exception to the gender rule), and the names of anions with the suffix -id-um are nouns of the II declension cf. R.

Names of anions

The names of anions of basic salts are formed with the prefix sub-, and the names of anions of acidic salts are formed with the prefix hydro-, for example: subgallas, -atis (m) - basic gallate; hydrocarbonas, -atis (f) - hydrocarbonate.

43. Numerals and numeral prefixes

Numerals

In Latin, cardinal numbers do not affect the case of the nouns associated with them. Of the cardinal numerals, only unus, a, um are declined; duo, duae, duo; tres, tria. A number of medical terms are formed using numeral prefixes. Numeral prefixes of Latin origin predominate in anatomical nomenclature, and Greek - in clinical terminology and in the nomenclature of drugs.

Numeral prefixes

44. Adverbs and pronouns

According to the method of formation, adverbs are of 2 types:

1) independent adverbs, for example: statim - immediately, saepe - often;

2) derivatives from adjectives.

From adjectives of the I-II declension, adverbs are formed by adding the suffix -e to the base, for example: asepticus, a, um - aseptice - aseptically (in aseptic conditions). From adjectives of the third declension, adverbs are formed by adding the suffix -iter to the base, and from adjectives starting with -ns - the suffix -er, for example: siertlis, -е - steriliter - sterile; recens, -ntis - recenter - fresh (freshly-).

Some adjectives in the form of wines are also used as adverbs. p.un. h. Wed. R. or in the ablative form with the ending -o, for example: multus, a, um - multum - a lot; facilis, with - facile - easy; citus, a, um - ciro - quickly, soon.

The form cf is used as comparative adverbs. R. adjectives of this degree. Superlative adverbs are formed from the superlative degree of an adjective using the suffix -e: citius - faster, citissime - fastest.

Adverbs used in the recipe.

1. If it is necessary to urgently dispense a medicine, the doctor writes at the top of the prescription form: Cito! - Fast! or Statim! - Immediately! Immediately!

2. If two (or more) ingredients are prescribed in a row in the same dose, then this dose is indicated only once with the last one, and the Greek word is placed before the number. ana (aa) - equally.

3. When prescribing suppositories in an expanded manner, the amount of cocoa butter can be indicated exactly in grams or using the expression quantum satis - “how much is needed” - the pharmacist himself must calculate the required amount.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns:

1st person: ego - I, nos - we;

2nd person: tu - you, vos - you.

There are no 3rd person personal pronouns in Latin; instead of them, demonstrative pronouns are used: is, ea, id - that, that, that or he, she, it.

Usually there is no personal pronoun as a subject for a Latin verb, but when translated into Russian it is added, for example: homo sum - I am a person.

The reflexive pronoun sui - itself, as in Russian, does not have the form im. n. and is used only in relation to the 3rd person.

Professional expressions with pronouns:

1) with a personal pronoun in Abl.: pro me - for me;

2) with a reflexive pronoun in Ass.: per se - in its pure form.

Possessive pronouns: mens, a, um - mine; tuns, a, um - yours; noster, tra, trum - ours; vester, tra, trum - yours.

Relative pronouns: qui, quae, quod - which, -aya, -oe; what, -aya, -oe; something that is often found in aphorisms, for example: Qui scribit, bis legit. - He who writes reads twice. Quod licet Jovi, non licet bovi. - What is allowed to Jupiter is not allowed to the bull.

45. Active participle

Present active participle

Unlike Russian, Latin has only one participle for each tense: the present participle of the active voice and the past participle of the passive voice. Most participles used in medical terminology act only as modifiers for nouns. These are adjective participles, for example: dentes permanentes - permanent teeth, cysta congenita - congenital cyst, aqua destiilata - distilled water, etc.

Present participles of the active voice are formed from the stem of the present tense verb by adding the suffix -ns in I, II conjugations, and the suffix -ens in III, IV conjugations. In the family p.un. h. all participles end in -ntis (-nt-end of the stem).

For example, the formation of participles:

Present participles of the active voice are declined according to the III declension, like adjectives of the 2nd group with one ending like recens, -ntis.

They end in Nom. pl. -es for m, f; -ia for n; in Gen. pl. - -ium for all three genders, for example: communicare - to connect.

Passive past participles

In Latin, as well as in Russian, such participles are verbal adjectives.

They are formed from the stem of the so-called supina (one of the main forms of the verb ending in -urn) by adding to it the generic endings -us, -a, um.

Formation of past participles of the passive voice

The base of the supine is determined by removing the ending -um from the shape of the supine. The base of the supine, as a rule, ends in -t, -х, -s. In philological dictionaries, Latin verbs are given in four main forms: 1st person singular. hours present vr.; 1st person unit h. perfect (perfect past tense); supine; infinitive, for example: misceo, mixi, mixtum, ere (II); solvo, solvi, solutum, ere (III).

46. Latin-Russian dictionary A-B

abductor, -oris, m (m. abductor) - abductor muscle

accessorius, -a, um - additional

acetabulum, -i, n - acetabulum

acusticus, -a, -um - auditory

oris m (m. adductor) - adductor muscle

adhaesio, -onis, f - fusion

adiposus, -a, um - fatty

aditus, -us, m - input

adnexa, -orum, n - appendages

afferens, -ntis, - bringing

affixus, -a, -um, - attached

ala, -ae, f - wing

apex, -icis, m - apex

arachnoideus, -a, -um - arachnoid

arcus, -us, m - arc

balneum, -i, n - bath

balsamum, -i, n - balm

basis, -is, f - basis, basis

benignus, -a, -um - benign

biceps, cipitis - two-headed

bilateralis, -e, - bilateral

biliaris, -e, - gall

bilifer, -era, -erum - biliary (bile-diverting)

bilis, -is, f - bile

bolus, -i, f - clay

brachium, -i, n - shoulder

brevis, -e - short

bronchus, -i, m - bronchus

bubo, -onis, m - bubo (lymph node enlarged as a result of inflammation)

bucca, -ae, f - cheek

bursa, -ae, f - bag

47. Latin-Russian Dictionary C-D

caecum, -i, n - cecum

callosus, -a, -um - calloused

caput, -itis, n - head; head

cartilago, -inis, f - cartilage

cavernosus, -a, -um - cavernous

cavitas, -atis, f - cavity

cellula, -ae, f - cell

cerebrum, -i, n - large brain

cervix, -icis, f - neck; neck

circumferentia, -ae, f - circumference

clavicula, -ae, f - collarbone

coccyx, -ygis, m - coccyx

commissura, -ae, f - commissure

concha, -ae, f - shell

cor, cordis, n - heart

costa, -ae, f - edge

cranium, -i, n - skull

dens, dentis, m - tooth

depuratus, -a, -um - purified (mechanically)

descendens, -ntis - descending

dexter, -tra, -trum - right

digestio, -onis, f - digestion

digitus, -i, m - finger

dilatatus, -a, -um - extended

diploe, -es, f - diploe (spongy substance of the bones of the cranial vault)

discus, -i, m - disk

dolor, -oris, m - pain

dorsum, -i, n - rear, back, back

dubius, -a, -um - doubtful

ductulus, -i, m - duct, tubule

ductus, -us, m - duct

duplex, -icis, - double

durus, -a, -um - hard

dysuria, -ae, f - dysuria (urination disorder)

48. Latin-Russian Dictionary E-F

ejaculatorius, -a, -um - ejaculatory

embolicus, -a, -um - embolic

embryo, -onis, m - embryo

eminentia, -ae, f - eminence

emissarius, -a, -um - emissary (releasing, bringing out)

enamelum, -i, n - enamel

encephalon, -i, n - brain

epididymis, -idis, f - epididymis

epiglottis, -idis, f - epiglottis

eponychium, -i, n - supracungual plate

epoophoron, -i, n - epididymis

equinus, -a, -um - horse

ethmoidals, -e, - ethmoid

excavatio, -onis, f - recess

extensor, -oris, m (m. extensor) - extensor muscle

externus, -a, -um - external

extremitas, -atis, f - end

facialis, -e - facial

fades, -ei, f - face; surface

falx, falcis, f - cepп

fasciculus, -i, m - bundle

fauces, -ium, f - pharynx

femina, -ae, f - woman

femur, -oris, n - thigh, femur

fenestra, -ae, f - window

fibra, -ae, f - fiber

flexor, -oris, m (m. flexor) - flexor muscle

flexura, -ae, f - bend

fonticulus, -i, m - fontanelle

foramen, -inis, n - hole

fornix, -icis, m - arch

fossa, -ae, f - fossa

fovea, -ae, f - fovea

funiculus, -i, m - funiculus

49. Latin-Russian Dictionary G-H

galactocele, -es, f - galactocele, milk cyst

ganglion, -i, n - ganglion, (nervous) node

gaster, -tris, f - stomach

gastralgia, -ae, f - gastralgia (stomach pain)

gemma, -ae, f - bud (plants)

geniculatus, -a, -um - geniculate

genu, -us, n - knee

gingiva, -ae, f - gums

glandula, -ae, f - gland

glomus, -eris, n - glomus (ball)

gluteus, -a, um - gluteal

granulosus, -a, -um - granular

granulum, -i, n - granule

gravida, -ae, f - pregnant

gutta, -ae, f - drop

gyrus, -i, m - gyrus

habenula, -ae, f - leash (paired formation of the epithalamus connecting the pineal gland with the diencephalon)

haema, -atis, n - blood

hallux, -ucis, m - big toe

helix, -icis, f - curl

hemispherium, -i, n - hemisphere

hernia, -ae, f - hernia (pathological protrusion of an organ)

hiatus, -us, m - cleft, gap, hole

hilum, -i, n - gate

humeroulnaris, -e - humeroulnaris

humerus, -i, m - humerus

humor, -oris, m - moisture

hymen, -enis, m - hymen

hyoideus, -a, -um, - sublingual

hypochondrium, -i, n - hypochondrium

hypogastrium, -i, n - hypogastrium

50. Latin-Russian Dictionary I-J-K

impressio, -onis, f - impression

imperfectus, -a, um - imperfect

incisivus, -a, -um - incisive

incisura, -ae, f - tenderloin

inclinatio, -onis, f - inclination

incus, -udis, f - anvil

index, -icis, m - index finger

infants, -ntis, m, f - child, child

inferior, -ius, - lower

infraspinatus, -a, -um - subacute

initialis, -e, - initial

intentio, -onis, f - tension

interstitialis, -e - intermediate

intestinum, -i, n - intestine

iris, idis, f - iris

ischium, -i, n - seat

isthmus, -i,m - isthmus

jejunalis, -e - jejunal

jejunum, -i, n - jejunum

jugularis, -e - jugular

jugum, -i, n - elevation

junctio, -onis, f - connection

juvans, -ntis, - helping, auxiliary

juvenilis, -e, - youthful

juventus, -utis, f - youth

keloidum, -i, n - keloid (tumor-like growth of connective tissue of the skin, mainly scars)

keratitis, -idis, f - keratitis (inflammation of the cornea)

keratoma, -atis, n - keratoma (tumor-like thickening of the stratum corneum of the epidermis)

keratomalacia, -ae, f - keratomalacia (melting of the cornea)

keratoplastica, -ae, f - keratoplasty (plastic surgery of the cornea)

keratotomia, -ae, f - keratotomy (corneal dissection)

Khellinum, -i, n - kellin

kinesia, -ae, f - kinesia (motor activity)

kyematogenesis, -is, f - kyematogenesis (the process of intrauterine development of the body)

51. Latin-Russian dictionary L-M

labium, -i, n - lip

lacrima, -ae, f - tear

lamella, -ae, f - film

larynx, -ngis, m - larynx

latens, -ntis - latent, hidden

lateralis, -e - lateral, lateral

lemniscus, -i, m - loop

lens, lentis, f - lens

liber, -era, -erum - free

lien, -enis, m - spleen

ligamentum, -i, n - ligament

limen, -inis, n - threshold

lingua, -ae, f - language

lobus, -i, m - share

longitudinalis, -e - longitudinal

lumbi, -orum, m - lower back

lunula, -ae, f - lunula

magnus, -a, -um - large (positive degree)

major, -jus - large (comparative degree)

mandibula, -ae, f - lower jaw

manus, -us, f - hand

margo, -inis, m - edge

mastoideus, -a,um - mastoid

maxilla, -ae, f - upper jaw

meatus, -us, m - passage

medius, -a, -um - average

medulla, -ae, f - brain, medulla

membrana, -ae, f - membrane

membrum, -i, n - limb

minor, -us - small (comparative degree)

morbus, -i, m - disease

mors, mortis, f - death

mucilago, - inis, f - mucus

musculus, -i, m - muscle

52. Latin-Russian Dictionary N-O

naevus, -i, m - nevus, birthmark

narcosis, -is, f - anesthesia

nasalis, -e - nasal

nasofrontalis, -e - nasofrontal

nasolabialis, -e - nasolabial

nasolacrimalis, -e - nasolacrimal

nasus, -i, m - nose

natura, -ae, f - nature

naturalis, -e - natural

neonatus, -i, m - newborn

nervosus, -a, -um - nervous

nervus, -i, m - nerve

neuralgia, -ae, f - neuralgia (pain along the nerve)

neuronum, -i, n - neuron

nodus, -i, m - node

nomen, -inis, n - name, designation

nuchalis, -e - nuchalis

numerus, -i, m - number

nutricius, -a, -um - nutritious

obductus, -a, -um - covered with a shell

obliquus, -a, -um - oblique

oblongatus, -a, -um - oblong

occiput, -itis, n - back of the head

oculus, -i, m - eye

oedema, -atis, n - swelling

oesophagus, -i, m (esophagus, -i, m) - esophagus

omentum, -i, n - gland

ophthalmicus, -a, -um - ophthalmic

orbita, -ae, f - eye socket

organum, -i, n - organ

or, oris, n - mouth

os, ossis, n - bone

os coccygis, n - coccyx

os sacrum, n - sacrum

ossiculum, -i, n - bone

ovarium, -i, n - ovary

53. Latin-Russian Dictionary P-Q

palatum, -i, n - palate

palpebra, -ae, f - eyelid

pancreas, -atis, n - pancreas

papilla, -ae, f - nipple, papilla

papula, -ae, f - papule, nodule

paries, -etis, m - wall

partus, -us, m - childbirth

parvus, -a, -um - small (positive degree)

pecten, -inis, m - comb

pedunculus, -i, m - leg

pelvis, -is, f - pelvis; pelvis

persistens, -ntis, - persistent

pes, pedis, m - foot

phalanx, -ngis, f - phalanx

pharynx, -ngis, m - pharynx

pilus, -i, m - hair

planus, -a, -um - flat

plexus, -us, m - plexus

pons, pontis, m - bridge

porta, -ae, f - gate

posterior, -ius - rear

primus, -a, -um - first, primary

protuberantia, -ae, f - protuberance

pubes, -is, f - pubis

pupilla, -ae, f - pupil

quadrangularis, -e - quadrangular

quadratus, -a, -um - square

quadriceps, cipitis - four-headed

quantum - how much

quartus, -a, -um - fourth

Quercus, -us, f - oak

quintus, -a, -um - fifth

53. Latin-Russian Dictionary R-S

radius, -i, m - radius bone

radix, -icis, f - root, spine

ramus, -I, m - branch

reconvalescentia, -ae, f - recovery

rectum, -i, n - rectum

regio, -onis, f - region

ren, renis, m - kidney

renalis, -e - renal

resectio, -onis, f - resection (removal of part of an organ with the joining of its preserved parts)

retina, -ae, f - retina

retinaculum, -i, n - retinaculum

retroflexus, -a, -um - curved back

rhinalis, -e - nasal

rostrum, -i, n - beak

rotatio, -onis, f - rotation

rotundus, -a, -um - round

ruber, -bra, -brum - red

ruga, -ae, f - fold

ruptura, -ae, f - rupture

saccus, -I, m - bag

saliva, -ae, f - saliva

salpinx, -ngis, f - fallopian tube

sanguis, -inis, m - blood

scapula, -ae, f - scapula

sectio caesarea - caesarean section

segmentum, -i, n - segment

sella, -ae, f - saddle

semen, -inis, n - seed

sensus, -us, m - feeling, sensation

septum, -i, n - partition

siccus, -a, -um - dry

simplex, -icis - simple

sinister, -tra, -trum - left

55. Latin-Russian Dictionary T-U

tabuletta, -ae, f - tablet

tardus, -a, -um, - slow

tarsus, -i, m - tarsus; cartilage of the eyelid

tegmen, -inis, n - roof

temporalis, -e - temporal

tempus, -oris, n - time

tendo, -inis, m - tendon

tensor, -oris, m (m. tensor) - tensor muscle

tenuis, -e - thin

teres, -etis - round

terminatio, -onis, f - ending

testis, -is, m - testicle

tetraboras, -atis, m - tetraborate

Tetracyclinum, -i, n - tetracycline

textus, -us, m - fabric

thoracicus, -a, -um - chest

thorax, -acis, m - chest, chest

thymus, -i, m - thymus, thymus gland

thyroideus, -a, -um - thyroid

tibia, -ae, f - tibia

tinctura, -ae, f - tincture

tonsilla, -ae, f - tonsil

traumaticus, -a, -um - traumatic

tremor, -oris, m - trembling

trochlearis, -e - block

truncus, -us, m - trunk, torso

tuba, -ae, f - pipe

tubarius, -a, -um - trumpet

tuber, -eris, n - tubercle

ulcus, -eris, n - ulcer (festering or inflamed wound on the surface of the skin or mucous membrane)

ulna, -ae, f - ulna

ulnaris, -e - ulnar

umbilicalis, -e - umbilical

umbo, -onis, m - navel

uncus, -i, m - hook

unguis, -is, m - nail

ureter, -eris, m - ureter

urethra, -ae, f - urethra, urethra

urina, -ae, f - urine

56. Latin-Russian Dictionary V-X-Z

vagina, -ae, f - vagina

valva, -ae, f - valve

valvula, -ae, f - damper, valve

vas, vasis, n - vessel

vena, -ae, f - vein

venenum, -i, n - poison

venter, -tris, m - abdomen (muscles)

ventriculus, -i, m - ventricle; stomach

venula, -ae, f - venula (small vein)

vermiformis, -e - worm-shaped

vermis, -is, m - worm

vertebra, -ae, f - vertebra

vertex, -icis, m - vertex; crown

verus, -a, -um - true

vesica, -ae, f - bubble

vestibulum, -i, n - vestibule

via, -ae, f - path

vinculum, -i, n - ligament

viscera, -um, n - internal organs

visus, -us, m - vision

vita, -ae, f - life

vitium, -i, n - vice

vitrum, -i, n - flask, test tube

vivus, -a, -um - alive

vomer, -eris, m - vomer

vortex, -icis, m - curl

xanthoerythrodermia, -ae, f - xanthoerythrodermia (yellowish-orange coloration of the skin due to the deposition of cholesterol or lipids in it)

xiphosternalis, -e - xiphosternalis

zonula, -ae, f - girdle

zoster, -eris, m (herpes zoster) - herpes zoster

zygomaticomaxillaris, -e - zygomaticomaxillary

zonularis, -e - zonular

The saying of ancient doctors: “He who diagnoses well heals well,” is confirmed by the entire course of development of medical science and healthcare. A good diagnosis is the result of both objective conditions (health care organization, use of the latest equipment and technology) and a subjective factor, first of all, the ability to correctly and deeply dialectically understand the essence of the processes occurring in the human body and give them the correct interpretation.

The modern (multidisciplinary) stage of development of practical and experimental medicine, which is characterized by increasing requirements for the objectivity of the results of scientific knowledge in the context of expanding the scope of application of cognitive principles, has also given rise to increased interest in the logical-mathematical and semantic side of the accuracy of knowledge. This is due to the transfer of the center of research in epistemological problems to knowledge itself, and specifically to the area of the relationship between knowledge and the subject of knowledge, interpretation, etc. Hence the need to analyze the logical structure of knowledge, methods of explication of concepts, prerequisites, problems and ultimate foundations of knowledge, analysis of language and human factors in medical knowledge.

Precision is the path to true knowledge in medicine. It has a concrete historical character. Typically, formal and substantive accuracy are distinguished. The latter became especially important when metatheoretical research began to develop and the center of methodological research moved from direct analysis of an object and ways of approaching experimental knowledge to it to the study of knowledge itself (logical structure, problems of foundations and translation of knowledge, etc.). When analyzing accuracy problems, the focus is on metric, logical and semantic accuracy. We can say that accuracy is one of the foundations of truth. It lies in the unambiguity of the concepts used in science and the correctness of their explication, in the logical means of developing and formalizing scientific theory, etc. Another aspect of the problem of the accuracy of medical knowledge, revealed during metatheoretical research, is associated with the logic of the historical, cultural development of medicine, with its cultural and historical aspect of formation and development. This includes the formation of one’s own scientific language, strict scientific concepts and terms with developed forms of representation and understanding of one’s subject. In this regard, it can be noted that the problem of the accuracy of medical knowledge under consideration is based on the analysis of linguistic forms of culture in the broad sense of the word at the level of both metalanguage and subject language, “word” and “concept”. As Popper noted, language is becoming an essential part of scientific activity even in mathematics, and questions of scientific competence can only be resolved through significant use of its argumentative function. In his opinion, language is more than just a means of communication. It is a means of critical discussion, discussion, since the objectivity of arguments in all sciences, including medicine, is associated with their “linguistic formulation.”

Language exists objectively in the speech activity of people as a social fact and, along with other phenomena, ensures the existence of society, the entire spiritual culture, including science. Language, of course, is the immediate reality of thought, but at the same time it is also an instrument of knowledge. Already the formation of a sensory image, the understanding of a fact is directly related to language. Language is always more than a simple sound or sign. From its complexity comes a variety of functions.

Of all the functions of language, communicative and cognitive functions are of paramount importance. Cognitivism, in contrast to behaviorism and neobehaviorism with their stimulus-response relationship, believes that human behavior is determined by his knowledge. In this context, cognitivism is the study of thinking and all intellectual and spiritual activity in connection with the computer stage of development of intellectual technologies. The cognitive approach to language in medicine is, first of all, a specific approach, interest in the problems of organization, expression (representation), processing and use of knowledge. It should certainly be noted that the cognitive function of language is closely connected with the problem of knowledge accuracy, and, finally, this is the problem of creating human-machine systems for solving intellectual problems in medicine, computerization of intellectual activity. In cognitive terms, the role of language in speech-thinking activity as a function of the meaningful organization of knowledge should also be emphasized.

Since the end of the 19th century. Theoretical-cognitive and methodological problems of science are closely linked with a special set of questions of logic, theoretical linguistics, semantics, i.e., problems of language become the center of research.

In the modern “linguistic turn” with an emphasis on language, its syntax, semantics, pragmatics, we are not talking about the world as such, not about being in its immediate reality, but about the correctness or incorrectness of linguistic statements, about the meaningfulness of the questions themselves, about the logical correctness of argumentation , understanding and interpretation in a functional approach to understanding language: the meaning of a word is its use. Linguistic philosophy, based on the thesis “meaning is use”, formulates a number of important areas of research: the concept of “language games” and the principle of “family resemblance” of Wittgenstein, the principle of intentionality with a personal or motivational attitude coming to the fore, influencing the structure of linguistic communication, including in psychology and psychiatry, and finally, understanding and interpretation in their “analytical” and “hermeneutic” traditions.

Cognizing subjects and a wide range of extra-linguistic factors create real conditions for the functioning of the language of science. The individual cognitive state of the subjects of cognition (native speakers), various cognitive and life experiences influence not only the immediate context of language use (verbal - non-verbal, sociocultural in the broad sense), but also suggest the impossibility of cognitive uniformity of these subjects, just as it is impossible to construct one universal (unified) language for all scientific knowledge as a whole, to do without natural language in science.

During the analysis of language (logical and semantic), during the analysis of natural and artificial languages, the foundations of the analysis and language of science, including medicine, were laid. Natural (ordinary) language, along with scientific language, is one of the main components of the sociocultural context within which medicine operates. Doctors speak, write and think in natural language with all its multifacetedness, multi-layeredness, versatility, creativity, variability and stability.

Of all sign systems, natural language is the richest and most universal system of human communication and mutual understanding; Only in natural language can all other sign systems be understood and comprehended. Natural language is the semantic interpretant of all other systems of signs and symbols. Language, speech is an open semantic system that provides an understanding of reality, the generation of creative information, new meanings and the restructuring of people’s consciousness. Language is a “tool of understanding” in all forms of social consciousness.

Natural language is the source and prerequisite for the existence of the language of science. The polysemy of natural language, its universal flexibility, on the one hand, and the (relative) accuracy of the language of science, on the other, are a certain opposition. Analysis of the language of science is, in particular, solving issues of constructing a system of terms/concepts and describing types of definitions. It includes a description of the structure of knowledge, construction, evaluation, and the application of various types of typologies and classifications. As a set of some formal sign systems with rules of interpretation, it is associated with problems of adequacy and accuracy of knowledge.

Analysis of the language of science is a problem primarily of linguistics and philosophy, and the common object of their description is “the semantic structure of science, which is considered by philosophers as the logical-conceptual apparatus of science, and by linguists as a complex linguistic structure of the ultimate components of science - terms and their interrelations” (S. E. Nikitina). Of course, the analysis of the language of science is also connected with the general tendency to consider knowledge “through a semiotic prism,” as well as in connection with pragmatics.

The language of science is a way, a means of objectifying scientific knowledge. In the broad sense of the word, it represents both some of the deep foundations of a scientific text and those aspects of language that determine its relationship with extralinguistic reality and the pragmatic situation; ideas about linguistic and extralinguistic semantics are based on it. Analysis of the language of science as the basis of scientific knowledge allows us to reduce the data of sensory experience to perceptual statements. One of the initial features of such an analysis is the distinction (R. Carnap et al.) between two levels of the “language of science”: the “language of observations”, consisting of concepts that describe directly observed phenomena and events, and the “language of theories”, which includes concepts denoting analytically derived “phenomena”, “idealized objects”. Trying to clarify the nature of these proposals poses considerable difficulties. If the source and prerequisite for the existence of the language of science is natural language, then the most effective tools for its formation are mathematics and logic, as well as philosophy, linguistics and psychology. However, in the context of medicine, much work remains to be done to decide to what extent and under what conditions mathematics, if at all, can be the language of medicine.

The main task of logical positivism and logical semantics was the analysis of the language of science, primarily the language of natural sciences, which was considered from the point of view of the language of developed exact sciences (physics, mathematics), for the description of which the logical-mathematical apparatus was already widely used. Since, as is known, logical-mathematical formalization only approximately reflects the content of the object of study, then for a more accurate reflection, ultimately, elements of natural language are needed, which, as is known, is always included in the language of any formalized scientific system, and with it in the scientific knowledge includes both problems of accuracy and elements of personal knowledge. The results obtained during the logical analysis of the language of science are now generally accepted: clarification of the structure of scientific theories; description of various forms of scientific proposals and their logical relationships; formulation of logical requirements for the fundamental principles of scientific theories; research and classification of various ways of defining scientific concepts; identifying the logical structure of scientific explanations, etc. At the same time, of course, it is important to keep in mind that such an analysis relies heavily on the construction and study of artificial, formal languages with a simple structure and poor content. And only to the extent that these formal languages reflect the properties of real languages of science or natural language, the results of their research are able to shed light on the features of natural language.

If we assume that semiotics consists of syntactics (the study of the syntax of sign systems and their relationships to each other), semantics (the study of sign systems as means of expressing meaning, the relationship of signs to what the signs mean, to objects of reality and concepts about them, interpretation of signs and sign combinations) and pragmatics (the study of the relationship between such systems and people who perceive, interpret and use them, that is, use language), then the subject of our analysis is the semantic-pragmatic aspects of language in medicine. Medical science at the present stage is most closely related to semantics and pragmatics, and it uses sign systems of both artificial and natural languages, and semiotics in medicine has been known since the time of Hippocrates. At the intersection of general theoretical research in semiotics and various semiotic disciplines, numerous descriptions of algorithmic languages and programming languages are being developed that implement the general principles of semiotics and mathematical logic at a fairly high level of abstraction (but in application to very specific sign systems). Various sign systems in semiotics are interpreted as models of certain fragments of reality, built in the course of people’s cognitive and practical activities (V.K. Finn).

In medicine, semiotics is defined as the study of the signs of a disease; it is considered a branch of practical medicine that studies, using medical research methods, the symptoms of diseases, their diagnostic significance, mechanisms of occurrence, as well as a certain combination of them. In the 19th century M. Ya. Mudrov wrote about the science of healing: “Whoever wants to succeed in this science of foreknowledge, which is not more difficult, useful and glorious for a doctor, has two means for this: first, the study of semiotics, or the science of signs, about good days and bad, about the clinical number, about fractures, etc. The second is daily observation of changes at the patient’s bedside.” In medicine, semiotics is also defined as “the study of the signs of a disease, revealing their content and manifestation... an important component of diagnosis.” Finally, Yu. K. Subbotin considers the specific task of medical semiotics to be “discrimination, identification of diagnostic meaning and designation in terms of medical language of sensually perceived signs of the human body by a doctor associated with a certain pathology.” In reality, of course, the situation is much more complicated, since the “sensually perceived” signs of the human body, their very reception are associated with a number of mediations, and the diagnostic process is associated with specific conceptual schemes, thinking style, disciplinarity, etc. And in the first , and in the second case, the problem of accuracy arises in the semantic and pragmatic aspects: “sensory perception” as a reflective act is “theoretically loaded”, and the transition from symptom (individual) to nosology (general) is carried out and verified in the same conceptual space, which acts as a theoretical prerequisite for sensory perception.

Another important area of semiotic research is the solution of clinical diagnostic problems in the broad (diagnosis as a cognitive process) and narrow (psychopathology) sense of the word. The logical structures of natural languages contain polysemy (uncertainty) of the meanings of concepts and theoretical constructions based on such languages. Such imperfection and at the same time advantage over artificial (formalized) languages provides the possibility of their development and multifunctionality.

In logical positivism there was a clear tendency to exaggerate the role of accuracy and rigor in the development of scientific knowledge. In particular, logical-mathematical accuracy was considered by logical positivists and their researchers as one of the highest values of scientific knowledge, however, from the beginning of the 60s, criticism of the exaggerated ideas of logical positivists about the accuracy of knowledge grew, which in turn was replaced by new approaches that claim to be a kind of synthesis of logical the rigor of the neopositivists, the precise methods of the language of science with postpositivist historicism and the cultural-sociological approach to the analysis of the structure and growth of scientific knowledge. In this context, the analysis of everyday language reveals “background” knowledge about the world, the nature of the reduction of semantic components, some general correspondences of the meanings and meanings of acts and actions performed, speech acts, etc. In medicine, the role of the linguistic context, the connection of language with the extralinguistic the context of its use, without which it is impossible to resolve issues of meaning as use and other problems associated with the contextual theory of meaning. That is why adequacy or inadequacy to the context of activity, and on the other hand, the depth and validity of linguistic expressions, are important aspects of clinical diagnosis and testing.

The language of medicine has a complex structure. Its basis, like any language, is natural language. Its central core is its own conceptual apparatus for expressing empirical and theoretical medical information (the language of observation, empirical and theoretical constructs), philosophical categories underlying a particular theoretical system of medical knowledge, as well as concepts of related sciences interacting with medicine (chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics, psychology, etc.), performing specific epistemological functions. From an epistemological point of view, the language of medicine is a formation derived from natural language, having a deep cognitive and linguistic specialization, with a special development of the verbal and terminological component.

Analysis of the language of medicine is a wide range of issues of various sciences. Therefore, for methodological analysis, what is important, first of all, are the problems of logical analysis of language and the solution of philosophical issues in the analysis of the language of theoretical knowledge in medicine. Of course, in this case, along with new questions, traditional ones are also updated, which are specified in connection with the analysis of the language of medicine. When solving theoretical-cognitive problems in medicine, undoubtedly, the semantic aspects of the problem should also be involved, especially in connection with the general context of studying problems of knowledge accuracy. Thus, the features of modern medical knowledge (and cognition) have given rise to the problem of the language of medicine.

The language of medicine is created primarily for recording and transmitting scientific information: in it the cognitive function comes to the fore. Words and concepts are the realities of cultural and professional consciousness, the level from which the initial recording of knowledge, its understanding and interpretation begins. Here, in medical thinking, the first layer of contradictions arises - “words” and “things”, the resolution of which leads to an important condition for the accuracy of medical knowledge - the formation of word-terms with a certain semantic structure (if possible unambiguous), empirically verified and theoretically deeply substantiated.

In medicine, the problem of language is “the solution to the question of its “linguistic framework”, its logical and conceptual structure, how reliable our knowledge is, and with what accuracy, unambiguity and completeness the language created for this purpose is able to express it.” The objective grounds for the accuracy and certainty of the language of medicine lie in the nature of medical knowledge itself - in the relationship between the empirical and theoretical (the language of observation and the language of theory), in the possibilities and limits of the formalization of its language, the limitations of such formalization by the specifics of the language system, the subject area and the level of development of medical knowledge. The language of medicine as a semiotic system is based on natural language and at the same time has significant differences from it due to the large proportion of special terminology.

As is known, the ideal of the language of science is accuracy and rigor, which are achieved, firstly, by introducing symbolic designations (while maintaining a fairly clearly expressed “fuzzy” meaning), and, secondly, by constructing calculations (this also does not achieve absolute accuracy).

Based on the nature of logical accuracy, both in the case of formalization of medical theory or its elements, and in diagnostic thinking, it should be borne in mind that a sign as an initial element of empirical knowledge and a symptom as an elementary theoretical structure cannot lead to a conclusion (diagnosis) that is correct to a greater extent than they themselves are true, i.e., the correctness of logical inference in the most general form presupposes that only true conclusions should be derived from true premises (a specific true diagnosis, an exact subsuming of a nosological unit).

With some degree of convention, it can be argued that the task of any diagnostic study includes an accurate explanation of the established facts. The way to achieve this is to use the logical apparatus, the language of medicine, understanding and interpretation. To do this, of course, you need to have a well-developed system of concepts and terms that allow you to move in the process of cognition from phenomenon to essence, from empirical to theoretical, to measure and evaluate qualitative and quantitative deviations, and to create an integral system of knowledge.

The pragmatic aspect of accuracy in medicine has an unlimited spectrum associated with semantic analysis, understanding and interpretation in pathology from a sign to a nosological unit (sign - symptom - symptom complex - syndrome - nosological unit). The transition from one step to another is simultaneously a transition from the individual to the general and from the empirical to the theoretical. This is the path from sensory perception of a sign to an abstract-logical study of the disease as a complex process.

A physician inevitably goes beyond the scope of the “clinic”; this is inevitable, since “pragmatics” and “semantics” are woven into its fabric in the form of the problem of “meaning” and accuracy of knowledge, because the logic of diagnosis and clinic is not formal, but substantive.

The linguistic framework of theoretical knowledge in medicine is based on scientific theories, which are, according to V.N. Karpovich, “constructions, the initial elements of which - concepts, judgments, logical relations, etc., are fundamentally different from the objects and phenomena being studied and relationships between them." Therefore, the question of the determinants of the development of the language of medicine, its connections with scientific revolutions, scientific pictures of the world, theoretical and conceptual schemes in medicine deserves the closest attention. Moreover, it acts as a specific semantic system and is associated with the problem of the truth and accuracy of medical knowledge, with the processes of their integration and differentiation.

The developing metatheoretical analysis of medical knowledge shows that the prospects for the development of medicine as a science largely depend on the rationalization, streamlining, and unification of existing concepts and terminological systems. A term is not a special word, but only a word in a special function, the function of naming a special concept, the name of a special object or phenomenon. This explains the relativity and conditionality of the existence of the term.

Terms are not only words of natural language, they belong to various sciences, just as terms have different content and level of abstraction. Their nature, the general principles of their understanding and interpretation are the subject of close attention of many philosophical trends of the 20th century. They play an important role in the formation and development of medical knowledge. In medicine, the replacement of one conceptual scheme by another leads to a change in the meaning of medical terms, and new terms arise within the framework of research programs; In disciplinary units of knowledge, both changes and the emergence of new terms also occur. Consequently, the meaning of all subject terms of medical theory is determined by the entire context of the theory and changes with changes in this context under the influence of practice.

In this regard, we note that there is a huge logical-gnoseological difference between a word and a term in medicine: from the words of “observation language” to the word-concept, to the heuristic word-concept that changes its meaning in various contexts of scientific medical knowledge (temperament, reflex, pain, psora, etc.). The problem of clarifying medical concepts remains a constant, meaningful task at each stage of the development of medicine, and the meaning contained in them depends not only on the level of its development, but also on the development of society, characterizes the era, civilization (the concepts of ancient Chinese, humoral and two theoretical schemes in medicine ). This understanding of the meaning of clarifying the language and terms of medicine follows from the fact that this procedure is in fact not just a semantic problem, but also a metatheoretical problem of its foundations. Semantic analysis shows that terms in medicine arise as a result of the deployment of a specific research program for its development, when a particular concept becomes meaningfully filled and acquires the status of a scientific term by assigning a “name” to this established concept. As is known, the problem of semantic accuracy is, first of all, the problem of meaningful use of the language of science. Clarification of the language of medicine, its conceptual apparatus is not only a linguistic, but also a largely metatheoretical problem of its foundations, i.e., clarification of the language of medicine is a clarification of its foundations through a strict definition of the relevant concepts (clarification of “temperament”, “blood circulation”; clarification in connections with the microscope in epidemiology, the relationship between structure and function; clarification as a rejection of natural philosophical concepts such as “vitalism”; clarifications associated with the adoption of the form of disciplinary science). Due to the conditionality of the development of medicine and its language by philosophical, natural science and socio-humanitarian processes, it is impossible to exhaustively clarify the meaning of concepts. So, for example, with a change in ideas about the rationality of medical knowledge in connection with a change in paradigms and scientific programs, new metatheoretical problems arise in substantiating this knowledge and the problem of clarifying concepts.

Scientific terms are interpreted not in subjective and personal meanings, but in the context of social, intersubjective rationality, abstracting from the individuality of the subject. The latter, of course, also exists in the form of a “subjective thesaurus” as organized knowledge “that the subject possesses about words and other verbal symbols, about their meanings, about the relationships between them and about the rules, formulas and algorithms used to manipulate these symbols and concepts and relationships” (B. M. Velichkovsky). From the fact that the language of conceptual medical theory and the language of everyday communication do not coincide and, accordingly, they perform different functions, a number of important methodological consequences follow, in particular the communicative nature of establishing the meaning of signs in psychopathology on the basis of verbal behavior, although the patient’s behavioral acts also have a communicative nature , receiving their “meanings” in the clinician’s verbal interpretations; the meaning of conceptual terms is always determined on the basis of verbalized information.

The development of the concept of a scientific medical term in the semantic aspect is associated with the analysis of its essence and changes in its meaning in connection with the historical reconstruction of medical knowledge, With questions of the relationship between the meaning of a term and a theory, a scientific term and the object it indicates, semantics studies the relationship of linguistic expressions to the designated objects and expressed content.

It should be borne in mind that since the analysis of medical concepts and terms is carried out in the context of “ascent” from ordinary (subject) language to theory and clinical practice, in this case a number of problems related to the accuracy of medical knowledge are highlighted. For example, studies of the relationship between theoretical terms and observational terms, analysis of theoretical means of describing the object of theory (for example, the reality of meridians in Zheng-Ju therapy, the theoretical foundations of homeopathy, etc.) become relevant in this sense of the word. With the change in the ideal of scientific knowledge in medicine (logical and historical continuity from humoral and solidary theoretical conceptual schemes, or from iatrochemical and iatrophysical scientific programs to modern multidisciplinary medicine), with the strengthening of the role of socio-humanitarian knowledge, the emergence of genetic, value-based, structural-functional approaches, it becomes urgent a metatheoretical study of not only the “growth” of medical knowledge, but also its “translation”, transition and interaction of various conceptual systems in medicine and the changes in the meanings of concepts occurring in connection with this. The problem of accuracy also arises in connection with the analysis of the commensurability of various theories (for example, the hierarchy and succession of theories of oncogenesis, etc.). At the same time, the role of logical ideas and linguistics with corresponding requirements for accuracy of both subject and metalanguage is noticeably strengthened. Here it is worth noting the connection of the problem of accuracy with the well-known ideas about the two levels of the language of science, the thesis about the theoretical load of empirical experience, as well as with two aspects of “meaning” - reference and meaning, as they are understood in logic and linguistics. One of the conditions for accuracy in this sense is a context-sensitive approach to reference. An apparently paradoxical situation has arisen when it is difficult to distinguish logical research from linguistic research, which both relate to issues of semantics and pragmatics of natural and subject languages.

In the process of changing theoretical conceptual schemes, there is also a change in the language of medicine. At the same time, the linguistic structure of medical knowledge is multi-layered and has varying degrees of stability of its elements during conceptual changes in medicine itself. When changing the language, one should see, first of all, a change in a certain part of the fundamental concepts, which verbally and semantically become alien to the new theoretical conceptual scheme and, moreover, in its context are deprived of their previous meaning. Of course, in the new theory certain fundamental concepts arise, borrowed from the language of the old theory, but they are semantically transformed in such a way that the rules of their functioning in the context of new knowledge become incompatible with the rules by which these concepts functioned in the language of the previous theoretical-conceptual scheme . In the new conceptual scheme, new categories, concepts and terms are formed that reflect changes in the range of phenomena being studied, new theoretical constructs and changes in the understanding of the subject of medicine.

With the growing maturity of scientific medical concepts and the expansion of computer information processing in medicine, issues of accuracy and unambiguity of medical terms and the language of medicine are attracting more and more attention. Thus, in terms of the accuracy of knowledge in medicine, one should, in particular, also take into account linguistic aspects, such as knowledge of discourse, hierarchical knowledge, pragmatic knowledge of ideas and actions common to participants, knowledge of the subject area, etc. Placing hopes on accompanying computerization formalization of the language, we must not forget that this gives an increase in accuracy only within the framework of a given conceptual scheme, research program, etc.

The study of linguistic means of medical theoretical knowledge contributes to the resolution of a number of pressing problems, the correct formulation and analysis of which require actual medical, natural science, mathematical, social and other knowledge. The language of medicine is concretely historical, and therefore its understanding presupposes an understanding of medical terms, categories, schemes, rules, etc., which outline the boundaries and internal structure of the linguistic world as a final historically limited model capable of effectively describing reality within certain limits.

Good afternoon Today we will get acquainted with the Latin language, find out why a doctor needs it in any country, and also try to learn several important Latin terms.

So, Latin. To be honest, I really enjoyed teaching him for a number of reasons:

In classes on this subject, I felt as if I was touching some secret ancient knowledge. This is understandable, because we are talking about the language spoken by the great doctors of antiquity;
you will learn in Latin. Therefore, a good knowledge of Latin will make memorizing anatomy relatively easy for you;
Latin terms (especially medical ones) sound really, really cool;
An appropriately used term in Latin during a conversation or report eloquently indicates your erudition. This may not be entirely true, but I always got that impression.

What is Latin used for? Doctors need it so that doctors who speak different languages can always understand each other. Of course, it is impossible to imagine anatomy without Latin. Biologists, chemists and pharmacists need it due to the use of a single terminology, which greatly facilitates the classification of medicines, animal species, etc.

Clinical terminology is also based on Latin. For example, if the name of a medicine ends in “in”, we can with a high degree of probability assume that we are talking about an antibiotic - amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin. If the name of the disease has the suffix “oma”, then they certainly talk about a tumor - hemengioMA, sarcomoma, lipoma. If the suffix “itis” is present, this is inflammation. For example, stomatitis, bronchitis, colitis.

Studying Latin for doctors has its own specifics. At the end of the course in this subject at the medical university, you are unlikely to be able to speak Latin with your friend on the phone. You also probably won't be able to easily say things like, "I may be a Marvel fan, but Zack Snyder's direction is so good that I ended up loving the Superman and Batman movies more than anyone else." All you need from this subject is to be able to understand and name it from memory anatomical terms, diagnoses of diseases, and also be able to write prescriptions in Latin.

From my own experience, I will say that Latin terms memorized in advance, before starting your studies at a medical university, provide several advantages:

Firstly, you master the subject much faster and new topics are much easier for you.
Secondly, you will quickly gain a good attitude from the teacher towards you. Your Latin teacher will definitely consider you a bright student if you answer the best in the first few years.
Well, thirdly, having a good vocabulary, you will to some extent be able to compensate for your lag in grammar if this suddenly happens. This is exactly how it was with me - in terms of vocabulary, I was quite good, but grammar was very difficult. But I was included in the list of applicants for the coveted “automatic machine” precisely because of my vocabulary - at least that’s what the teacher told me.

When I created this collection of Latin words, I was guided, first of all, by the very beginning of the first semester of the first year. Therefore, if you have already been admitted, but wanted to know how to prepare for medical university in advance, this article is for you. After all, in such a situation it is best to start your preparation with Latin.

Actually, a Latin lesson

Let's try to remember a few simple words with pronunciation. Let me make a reservation right away that in our first selection I will not indicate the gender, variation of spelling of a word in the genitive case or in the plural, as is customary in dictionaries.

For our first lesson in Latin, I suggest remembering two simple rules that we will use right now:

In Latin, the stress on the last syllable is NEVER placed;
The sound of the letter "L" is always softened. The word "clavicula" (collarbone) will never sound like "clavicula". We will read it as a "clacker". Just like “scapula” (scapula) - it will sound correctly like this: “scapula”.

So, let's start learning Latin for doctors. Our minimum vocabulary for this lesson:

Caput(kaput) - head;
Cranium(cranium) - skull. Quite a common word. There is even the science of craniology, which studies the normal structure of the human skull;
Basis cranii(base of the crane) - base of the skull;
Fornix cranii(fornix krani) - cranial vault, that is, the lid of the skull;
Maxilla(maxilla) - upper jaw. Let’s not forget our second rule and read it as “maxilla”;
Mandibula(mandible) - lower jaw. The correct sound would be “mandible”;

I used Da Vinci's classic illustration to show you what I was talking about. With a red dotted line I marked the boundary between the cranial vault (fornix cranii) and its base (basis cranii). The rounded part at the top is the arch. Below is the basics.

I highlighted the upper jaw (maxilla) with blue, and the lower jaw (mandibula) with green.

Cervix(cervix) - neck;
Vertebra(vertebra) - vertebra;
Columna vertebralis(columna vertebralis) - spinal column. It is this that consists of vertebrae;
Corpus vertebrae(corpus vertebrae) - vertebral body. It is very easy to memorize Latin by associations - often, especially in sports, the human body is called the “corpus”. This is what boxers say: “body blow”;
Arcus vertebrae(arcus vertebrae) - vertebral arch. It is also not without reason that an architectural figure in the form of an arc is called an “arch”;

This is what the spinal column looks like:

Next block of words:

Thorax(thorax) - chest. The same term refers to the chest - an anatomical formation within which the chest cavity is located.
Cavum thoracis(kavum thoracis) - chest cavity. It is limited by the sternum, ribs and vertebrae, that is, the chest.
Sternum(sternum) - sternum. One of the coolest bones to learn. There are only a few elements to remember, the main one is...
Corpus sterni(corpus sterni) - the body of the sternum. I think you already know the translation of this word, by analogy with the vertebral body;
Costa(kosta) - rib;
Caput costae(kaput koste) - rib head. Yes, at first I myself thought that the human head and the head of some anatomical formation have different names, but it turns out not
Corpus costae(corpus coste) - the body of the rib. I think you already remember well what corpus is;

In this illustration you can see the chest from the front. The sternum is a long, vertical bone located in the front. The body of the sternum is even labeled here, only in English - body of sternum. By the way, Latin and English have a large number of similar words.

And the last block of Latin words for today.

Сingulum membri superioris(cingulum membri superioris) - girdle of the upper limb. The word superior, like its opposite, inferior, will be encountered very often throughout anatomy.
Superior(superior) - upper. A simple association. “Super” - above all others;
Inferior(interior) - lower. It's also easy to remember. "Inferno" is another name for hell. “Infernal” - hellish, devilish. The stereotypical hell is always below;
Scapula(scapula) is a word already analyzed today. As you remember, this is translated as “scapula”;
Clavicula(clavicle) - collarbone. We looked into this too. By the way, it was very surprising for me in anatomy that the girdle of the upper limbs consists of only two bones - the scapula and the clavicle. I thought it was full of bones.

I highlighted the collarbone in red and the shoulder blade in green.

Here's a list. I would recommend that you learn it in parts. Write each term several times, say it out loud, and then tell a few learned terms with a Russian translation to your household or a friend on the phone (I periodically told the cat).

This concludes our first (hopefully not the last) lesson on Latin for doctors. If you study a few expressions a week before you start studying, you will become a very skilled Latin student. Good luck to everyone, study and love science!

History of the development of medical terminology. Professional language of medicine

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Actually, a Latin lesson