Of the total amount of water on Earth, fresh water, so necessary for humanity, amounts to a little more than 2% of the total volume of the hydrosphere or 37526.3 thousand km3 (Table 1).
Table 1
World fresh water reserves
It should be taken into account that the bulk of fresh water (about 70%) is frozen in polar ice, permafrost, and on mountain peaks. Water in rivers and lakes makes up only 3%, or 0.016% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. Thus, water suitable for human use constitutes an insignificant part of the total water reserves on Earth. The problem is further complicated by the fact that the distribution of fresh water around the globe is extremely uneven. Europe and Asia, where 70% of the world's population lives, contain only 39% of river flows.
There are more and more places on Earth where fresh water is sorely lacking. To obtain additional water, deep wells are drilled, water pipelines, aqueducts and new reservoirs are built.
We obtain fresh water either from underground aquifers or from surface reservoirs, that is, from natural lakes and rivers or from man-made reservoirs. At the same time, the share of surface waters was about 80%, and groundwater about 20%. This increase in water consumption is determined mainly by increased industrial needs and irrigation costs.
There are other ways to obtain water suitable for drinking. In some industrialized areas, desalting, or desalinating, seawater by some means, such as distillation, can make even ocean water drinkable. Where water is very scarce, people collect rainwater in cisterns to use it for their needs. However, increasing water supplies in this expensive way is negligible. In general, people rely heavily on fresh groundwater and surface water as sources of drinking water.
A dam across a river stops the flow of water, forming a reservoir. It allows only enough water to flow through the spillways to ensure it flows downstream, and retains the water upstream in order to gradually release it later when the flow pressure decreases. The reservoir increases the amount of water available to humans and the surrounding environment. Without a reservoir, sustainable use of river resources is not possible, and from a reservoir any city can constantly draw the required amount of water without interruption.
Thus, ground reservoirs equalize the flow of fresh water over time; by collecting large amounts of it in favorable seasons, it makes water available during periods when there is a shortage. In contrast, aquifers are natural underground reservoirs that hold water until it reaches the surface waters of lakes and rivers. Aquifers can be huge, stretching for hundreds of kilometers; The volumes of water in such horizons are enormous.
The quality of water from surface reservoirs differs from groundwater. Surface waters always contain various suspensions, some of which settle to the bottom, while others remain in the water. In addition, surface waters usually contain organic compounds that enter with urban and agricultural runoff. Therefore, if surface water is used for drinking purposes, it must undergo a complete purification cycle. Surface water treatment is necessary to remove unpleasant tastes, colors and odors, as well as to make the water clear and free of hazardous chemicals and pathogens.
Water extracted from aquifers is much cleaner, especially if the aquifer has not been exploited for a long time or has not been severely depleted. In addition, groundwater contains a large amount of dissolved mineral salts. There are no algae in groundwater because it is deprived of sunlight. Water reaches the aquifer, seeping through thick layers of soil; the content of bacteria and viruses in it is much lower than in above-ground waters. However, groundwater is characterized by the odor of hydrogen sulfide, which results from the decomposition of organic matter by bacteria, which occurs in the absence of oxygen.
Groundwater may be contaminated with chemicals, petroleum products and microorganisms found in significant quantities on the surface of the earth. Since the change of water in aquifers occurs extremely slowly, often taking several centuries, various microorganisms can accumulate in it and chemical elements can concentrate. Therefore, groundwater can be an extremely unreliable source of drinking water supply - the entry of various pollutants into it can make it unfit for entire generations. Reservoirs are of two types: single-purpose and multi-purpose. Single-purpose reservoirs perform only one function, such as storing state water reserves. And this function is relatively simple - release only the amount of water that is necessary. The state water reserve includes water for drinking and domestic needs, for industrial purposes, as well as for irrigation. Multi-purpose reservoirs can serve a variety of purposes: public water storage, irrigation and navigation; they can also be used for recreation, for generating electricity, for flood protection and for environmental protection.
Irrigation water is intended to provide crops, its use is often seasonal, with high costs during the hot season. The suitability of rivers for navigation can be maintained by constant release of water throughout the year. Electricity production requires both constant water discharges and high water levels. Flood protection requires that the reservoir be maintained as much as possible without being completely full. Environmental protection measures involve the release of water during low levels in order to protect aquatic and semi-aquatic species of plants and animals. These water discharges dilute the wastewater, making it less toxic to biota. They also help push salt water out of estuaries, supporting suitable habitat for purely estuarine species.
The processes in reservoirs used for these diverse purposes are much more complex than those in single-purpose reservoirs because some of these purposes conflict with each other. Reservoirs can have significant impacts on the environment.
Groundwater performs a more limited set of functions than surface water. In many cities, groundwater is the only source of water supply. In rural areas, where the cost of constructing and expanding the water distribution system is very high, people rely on wells to meet their water needs. Groundwater is also used for irrigation; This is a common practice in agricultural areas where surface water is scarce or where irrigation canals are prohibitively expensive to construct.
Groundwater performs another rather invisible and not yet fully appreciated function. They feed and often prevent streams and small rivers from drying out in summer, which can be used as a source of water.
In fact, in the world's freshwater resources, groundwater resources far exceed surface water resources (Table 1). However, the idea of unlimited supplies is deceptive, because groundwater accumulates very slowly over hundreds and even thousands of years. The rate of groundwater extraction does not correspond to the rate of influx of new volumes of water; refilling of the aquifer occurs as a result of the same slow, constant seepage that occurred in the past. In addition, groundwater deeper than 0.8 km often contains too much salt to be used as drinking and irrigation water.
Using groundwater provides a number of benefits to consumers. Firstly, since groundwater is sometimes located close to the point of its use, it is possible to save on laying pipes, and often on the cost of pumping. Secondly, it is possible to ensure a stable water output over time in both dry and wet seasons. This benefit, however, may be illusory if the aquifer is depleted by successive over-pumpings. Third, in underdeveloped areas, groundwater is usually not susceptible to bacterial, viral or chemical contamination.
There are exceptions to these general quality characteristics. Groundwater may become contaminated with chemicals and microorganisms. If pathogens get into groundwater, they can remain there for many generations, since the change of water in aquifers occurs extremely slowly, often taking several hundred years. Another negative factor is that, as wells get deeper, the amount of “tasty” water begins to decrease. The water pumped from great depths is ancient water that has been dissolving mineral salts from the soil, perhaps over thousands of years. We call such waters saturated with mineral salts mineralized. If the salt content is high, then the water will not contribute to increasing yields and may even destroy the soil and plants.
How much water can be withdrawn from an aquifer without causing damage to its reserves? As with reservoirs, this amount depends on the flow of water into the aquifer. Annual water withdrawals should not exceed annual aquifer recharge - unless water users want the volume of water in the aquifer to begin to decline. In some areas, the rate of water withdrawal exceeds the rate of replenishment, and water levels in aquifers are falling. In desert areas, rainfall is known to only occasionally replenish the aquifer. Over many years, evaporation causes most of the surface water to escape into the atmosphere. Only in particularly wet years is there enough water for some of it to replenish the aquifer. Since aquifers recharge very slowly, it would seem wise to avoid any long-term use of groundwater where water is withdrawn at a rate faster than its natural replenishment rate. Irrigated agriculture, which consumes groundwater much faster than it can be replenished, should be actively avoided.
Despite the fact that new sources of water are becoming fewer and fewer, it is often possible to satisfy the growing needs for it. One obvious way to do this is to encourage people to save water. This can be achieved, in particular, by increasing the price for water, since then people will look for ways to save it. You can save money everywhere: at home, in industry and in agriculture.
Another way to meet growing water demands without creating new sources is to connect and share existing systems. Integrated use of ground and surface waters is necessary. Since the supply of surface water is not as constant as that of groundwater, i.e. the available quantity of the former may change at different times, groundwater can be used to “fill in” periods of water shortage. Groundwater compensates for the lack of surface water, stabilizing its supply at a higher level without extensive use of the groundwater itself.
In many areas it is often possible to store water without causing significant damage to nature; To do this, it is necessary to plan water resources management that coordinates the actions of already existing reservoirs. Modern engineering science has found methods to control independent river systems by combining them in such a way that the yield of water from such systems exceeds that obtained when they are used independently. This means that the reservoirs that make up the system are able to consistently produce more water if their release is synchronized and integrated than if each were controlled individually. Create integrated systems of the main water sources of the region in order to prevent possible disruptions in water supply. If communications were combined, then areas with excess water could give some of it to those areas that did not have enough water. Connecting reservoirs into a single system and unified management of them are innovations that can preserve sufficient water supplies for future generations without requiring new sources and new dams.
Many projects have been adopted to increase water supply, which include the construction of new dams to create water reserves and prevent floods, new canals, hydropower plants, purification of reservoirs and transfer of water from one area to another. One such step is the construction of small dams on rivers owned by farmers; the resulting ponds can be used as a source of water for irrigation. In areas with porous soil, pond systems can be built on private land using dams. Water, filtering through such soil, will replenish the groundwater supply under the farm. Ditches dug across the direction of flowing surface and groundwater can also be used to recharge groundwater.
A new technology, tested only experimentally so far, is the injection of compressed air into wells in order to “push” water from the unsaturated zone down to the groundwater level. This water, held by capillary forces in the upper unsaturated zone, usually percolates very slowly down to the aquifer.
The legislative basis for the water fund of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the Water Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan; let’s look at some provisions.
Article 6. Water resources
Water resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan represent reserves of surface and groundwater concentrated in water bodies that are used or can be used. Article 13. Groundwater bodies
Groundwater bodies include:
1. aquifer zones, horizons and rock complexes;
2. groundwater basin;
3. deposits and areas of groundwater;
4. natural outlet of groundwater on land or under water;
5. flooded areas of the subsoil.
Article 34. Basic principles of public administration in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation. Public administration in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation is based on the principles:
1. state regulation and control in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation;
2. sustainable water use - a combination of careful, rational and integrated use and protection of water;
3. creating optimal conditions for water use, maintaining environmental sustainability and sanitary and epidemiological safety of the population;
4. basin management;
5. separation of functions of state control and management in the field of use and protection of water resources and functions of economic use of water resources.
Article 35. The main tasks of public administration in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation The main tasks of public administration in the field of use and protection of the water fund, water supply and sanitation are:
1. analysis and assessment of water supply to economic sectors, the state of water supply and sanitation of populated areas, identification of deficiencies and determination of measures to eliminate them;
2. determination of the available volumes of water resources, their quality and the availability of rights to use them;
3. development of main directions for improving technologies in the field of water supply, sanitation and water protection;
4. forecast and organization of measures to increase the volume of available water resources and their rational redistribution for
covering water shortages;
5. establishing a water use structure with the distribution of water resources according to the priority of meeting water needs depending on the water availability of the year;
6. limiting water use and discharge of return water based on scientifically based standards;
7. planning and compliance with environmental requirements;
8. control over the quantitative and qualitative conditions of water bodies and the regime of water use;
9. effective management of water bodies and water management facilities owned by the state;
10. development of the water services market;
11. joint management with neighboring states in the field of use and protection of transboundary waters;
12. development and implementation of industry (sectoral) and regional programs for land reclamation;
13. ensuring the safety of water management systems and structures;
14. control over the condition of water management systems and structures, as well as their compliance with the requirements of the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Article 53. Industrial control in the field of use and protection of water resources.
1. Production control in the field of use and protection of the water fund is carried out on the basis of the rules of primary water accounting, approved by the authorized body, in agreement with the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, the authorized state body in the field industrial safety.
2. Industrial control in the field of use and protection of the water fund is ensured by individuals and legal entities exercising the right to special water use.
3. Production control in the field of use and protection of the water fund is carried out on the basis of water metering devices certified in the manner established by the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan “On Technical Regulation.”
Article 54. State expertise in the field of use and protection of water resources
1. In the field of use and protection of the water fund, the following types of state expertise are carried out:
1.1 state examination of activities affecting the condition of the water body;
1.2 state examination of pre-project and design documentation for construction and reconstruction, operation, conservation and liquidation of economic and other facilities affecting the condition of water bodies;
1.3 state examination of groundwater reserves and geological information about groundwater bodies;
1.4 state examination of the compliance of water management and industrial hydraulic structures with the requirements of emergency situations;
1.5 state sanitary-epidemiological and environmental examinations.
2. State examination of activities affecting the condition of a water body is carried out to assess the impact of this activity on the environment and the management and economic decisions made. State examination of activities affecting the condition of a water body is mandatory.
3. State examination of pre-project and design documentation for construction and reconstruction, operation, conservation and liquidation of economic and other facilities affecting the state of water bodies is carried out in order to verify its compliance with the initial data, technical conditions and requirements of regulatory documents approved by the authorized state body for Affairs of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction and the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population.
4. State examination of groundwater reserves and geological information about groundwater bodies is carried out by the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil.
5. State examination of the compliance of water management and industrial hydraulic structures with the requirements of emergency situations is carried out by the authorized body in the field of emergency situations and the authorized body in the field of industrial safety.
6. State sanitary-epidemiological and environmental examinations are carried out respectively by the authorized body in the field of sanitary-epidemiological welfare of the population and the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection.
7. The procedure for conducting state examination is determined by the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Article 55. Environmental requirements for the use of water bodies and water management structures
1. The placement of enterprises and other objects (buildings, structures, their complexes, communications) affecting the condition of water bodies is carried out in compliance with environmental requirements, conditions and rules, subsoil protection, sanitary-epidemiological, industrial safety, reproduction and rational use of water resources , as well as taking into account the environmental consequences of the activities of these facilities.
2. Construction, reconstruction (expansion, modernization, technical re-equipment, repurposing), operation, conservation, liquidation (post-utilization) of objects affecting the condition of water bodies are carried out subject to a positive conclusion from the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil, the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population and the authorized body in the field of industrial safety.
3. When carrying out construction work, measures are taken for land reclamation, reproduction and rational use of water resources, landscaping and environmental improvement.
Article 56. Requirements for reducing the discharge of pollutants into water bodies:
1. The use and protection of water resources are based on the standardization of pollutants at discharge points, on the cumulative standardization of water management activities of all organizations within the relevant basin, watercourse or area.
2. Requirements for the degree of purification and quality of discharged water are determined in the areas of possible intended use of the water body and are justified by calculations, and must take into account the real state of the water body, technical and economic capabilities and the timing of achieving the planned indicators.
3. The authorized body, together with the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil and the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection for the basin of each water body, is obliged to develop target indicators of the condition and criteria of water quality.
4. The timing of the phased transition to target indicators of the condition of water bodies within the basin is determined by basin departments and territorial bodies of the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil and the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection on the basis of a methodology approved by the authorized body together with the authorized state body in the field of protection environment and the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil.
Article 64. Types of water use, emergence of water use rights
1. Water use is divided into general, special, separate, joint, primary, secondary, permanent and temporary.
2. The right to general water use for a citizen arises from the moment of his birth and cannot be alienated under any circumstances.
3. The right to special water use arises from the moment of receipt of a permit issued in the manner established by the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Chapter 16. Drinking and domestic water supply.
Article 90. Use of water bodies and water management structures for drinking and domestic water supply
1. For drinking and domestic water supply, surface and underground water bodies and water management facilities protected from pollution and clogging are provided, the water quality of which complies with established state standards and hygienic standards.
2. In order to provide the population with water suitable for drinking water supply, in the event of emergencies of a natural and man-made nature, the reservation of sources of drinking water supply is carried out on the basis of underground water bodies protected from pollution and clogging. At reserved water supply sources, a special regime of protection and control over their condition is established in accordance with the water and other legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
3. The safety of surface and groundwater for drinking and domestic water supply is determined by the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population.
4. The classification of a water body as a source of drinking water supply is carried out taking into account its reliability and the possibility of organizing sanitary protection zones in the manner established by the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
5. In areas where there are no surface water bodies, but there are sufficient supplies of groundwater of drinking quality, local executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital) in agreement with the authorized body, the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil may, with appropriate justification, allow the use of these waters for purposes not related to drinking and domestic water supply.
6. Water supply in city districts, cities of regional significance, towns, auls (villages) of aul (rural) district is organized by akims of these territories.
Article 91. Centralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population
1. Centralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population is carried out by legal entities that have an appropriate water supply network.
2. Legal entities providing centralized drinking and domestic water supply are obliged to organize accounting of the water taken, conduct regular monitoring of the state of water in sources and water supply systems, immediately report to local representative and executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital), the authorized body , the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil about the deviation of water quality in sources and water supply systems from established state standards and hygienic standards.
Article 92. Decentralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population
1. In case of non-centralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population, individuals and legal entities have the right to take water directly from surface and underground water bodies in the presence of a positive conclusion from the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population as a whole for these water bodies with mandatory registration in local executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital) in the manner established by the authorized body in the field of use and protection of the water fund. Decentralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population does not require obtaining a permit for special water use when drawing water from water bodies in a volume of up to fifty cubic meters per day.
2. Water intake from surface and underground water bodies for non-centralized drinking and domestic water supply to the population is carried out in accordance with the rules approved by local representative bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital), on the proposal of local executive bodies of the region (city of republican significance, capital ), in agreement with the authorized body and the authorized body in the field of sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population.
Article 93. Use of water bodies for recreational purposes
1. Water bodies, the resources of which have natural healing properties, as well as favorable for treatment and prophylactic purposes, belong to the category of health-improving ones and are used for health-improving purposes in accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
2. The list of water bodies for recreational purposes, upon submission of the authorized body in the field of healthcare, the authorized body, the authorized state body in the field of environmental protection, the authorized body for the study and use of subsoil, is approved:
2.1 of republican significance - by the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan;
2.2 of local significance - by local executive bodies of regions (city of republican significance, capital).
2.3. The provision of recreational water bodies for use is carried out in accordance with this Code and the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Article 95. Use of water bodies and water management structures for agricultural needs
1. The use of water bodies for agricultural needs is carried out in the order of general and special water use.
2. Primary water users, based on the water use plans of secondary water users, draw up annual applications for receiving water volumes. The authorized body, taking into account the predicted water availability of the year and based on applications from primary water users, sets water use limits for them. The volumes of water supplies for secondary water users are determined by agreements concluded between primary and secondary water users, taking into account established limits.
3. Individuals and legal entities that have water management facilities for storing melt, storm and flood waters for the purpose of using them for agricultural needs are required to have a permit from the authorized body.
4. The use of surface and underground water bodies for watering pastures is carried out in accordance with the procedure for special water use.
5. The use of water bodies for watering livestock is permitted outside the sanitary protection zone and in the presence of watering areas and other devices that prevent pollution and clogging of water bodies in the manner of general water use.
6. Individuals running private farms, gardening and vegetable gardening are allocated water for irrigation as a special water use in accordance with established limits. In the absence of sufficient water resources, water for irrigation can be allocated by redistributing the limits of other water users.
7. Irrigation, drainage, washing of saline soils and other reclamation works should be carried out in conjunction with environmental measures. Monitoring and assessment of the reclamation state of irrigated lands is carried out by specialized government agencies at the expense of budgetary funds.
Water is life. And if a person can survive for some time without food, it is almost impossible to do this without water. Since the heyday of mechanical engineering and the manufacturing industry, water began to become polluted too quickly and without much attention from humans. Then the first calls about the importance of preserving water resources appeared. And if, in general, there is enough water, then the reserves of fresh water on Earth constitute a negligible fraction of this volume. Let's look into this issue together.
Water: how much is there and in what form does it exist?
Water is an important part of our life. And it is this that makes up most of our planet. Humanity uses this extremely important resource every day: for domestic needs, production needs, agricultural work and much more.
We are used to thinking that water has one state, but in fact it has three forms:
- liquid;
- gas/steam;
- solid state (ice);
In a liquid state, it is found in all water basins on the surface of the Earth (rivers, lakes, seas, oceans) and in the depths of the soil (groundwater). In its solid state we see it in snow and ice. In gaseous form, it appears in the form of clouds of steam.
For these reasons, calculating the amount of fresh water on Earth is problematic. But according to preliminary data, the total volume of water is about 1.386 billion cubic kilometers. Moreover, 97.5% is salt water (undrinkable) and only 2.5% is fresh.
Fresh water reserves on Earth
The largest accumulation of fresh water is concentrated in the glaciers and snows of the Arctic and Antarctica (68.7%). Next comes groundwater (29.9%) and only an incredibly small part (0.26%) is concentrated in rivers and lakes. It is from there that humanity draws the water resources necessary for life.
The global water cycle changes regularly, and this causes the numbers to change as well. But in general, the picture looks exactly like this. The main reserves of fresh water on Earth are in glaciers, snow and groundwater; extracting it from these sources is very problematic. Perhaps, not in the distant future, humanity will have to turn its attention to these sources of fresh water.
Where is the most fresh water?
Let's take a closer look at the sources of fresh water and find out which part of the planet has the most of it:
- Snow and ice at the North Pole make up 1/10 of the total fresh water reserve.
- Today, groundwater also serves as one of the main sources of water production.
- Freshwater lakes and rivers are typically located at high elevations. This water basin contains the main reserves of fresh water on Earth. Canadian lakes contain 50% of the world's total freshwater lakes.
- River systems cover about 45% of our planet's land area. Their number is 263 units of water basin suitable for drinking.
From the above, it becomes obvious that the distribution of fresh water reserves is uneven. Somewhere there is more of it, and somewhere it is negligible. There is one more corner of the planet (besides Canada) where the largest reserves of fresh water on Earth are. These are Latin American countries, where 1/3 of the world's total volume is located.
The largest freshwater lake is Baikal. It is located in our country and is protected by the state, listed in the Red Book.
Shortage of usable water
If we go from the opposite direction, then the continent that most needs life-giving moisture is Africa. There are many countries concentrated here, and they all have the same problem with water resources. In some areas there is extremely little of it, and in others it simply does not exist. Where the rivers flow, the water quality leaves much to be desired, it is at a very low level.
For these reasons, over half a million people do not receive water of the required quality, and, as a result, suffer from many infectious diseases. According to statistics, 80% of disease cases are associated with the quality of fluid consumed.
Sources of water pollution
Water conservation measures are a strategically important component of our lives. Fresh water is not an inexhaustible resource. And, moreover, its value is small relative to the total volume of all waters. Let's look at the sources of pollution so we know how we can reduce or minimize these factors:
- Wastewater. Numerous rivers and lakes were destroyed by wastewater from various industrial productions, from houses and apartments (household slag), from agricultural complexes and much more.
- Disposal of household waste and equipment in the seas and oceans. This type of burial of rockets and other space devices that have served their useful life is very often practiced. It is worth considering that living organisms live in reservoirs, and this greatly affects their health and water quality.
- Industry ranks first among the causes of water pollution and the entire ecosystem as a whole.
- Radioactive substances, spreading through water bodies, infect flora and fauna, making the water unsuitable for drinking, as well as for the life of organisms.
- Leakage of oil-containing products. Over time, metal containers in which oil is stored or transported are subject to corrosion, and water pollution is a result of this. Atmospheric precipitation containing acids can affect the condition of the reservoir.
There are many more sources, the most common of them are described here. In order for the fresh water reserves on Earth to remain suitable for consumption for as long as possible, they need to be taken care of now.
Water reserve in the bowels of the planet
We have already found out that the largest reserve of drinking water is in glaciers, snow and soil of our planet. In the depths of fresh water reserves on Earth are 1.3 billion cubic kilometers. But, in addition to the difficulties in obtaining it, we are faced with problems associated with its chemical properties. The water is not always fresh; sometimes its salinity reaches 250 grams per 1 liter. Most often, waters are found with a predominance of chlorine and sodium in their composition, less often - with sodium and calcium or sodium and magnesium. Fresh groundwater is located closer to the surface, and salt water is most often found at a depth of up to 2 kilometers.
How do we spend this most valuable resource?
Almost 70% of our water is wasted to support the agricultural industry. In each region this value fluctuates in different ranges. We spend about 22% on all global production. And only 8% of the remainder goes to household consumption.
More than 80 countries are facing a decline in drinking water reserves. It has a significant impact not only on social but also economic well-being. It is necessary to look for a solution to this issue now. Thus, reduced consumption of drinking water is not a solution, but only aggravates the problem. Every year, the supply of fresh water decreases to 0.3%, and not all sources of fresh water are available to us.
Water is the most abundant substance on our planet: although in varying quantities, it is available everywhere, and plays a vital role for the environment and living organisms. Fresh water is of greatest importance, without which human existence is impossible, and nothing can replace it. Humans have always consumed fresh water and used it for a variety of purposes, including domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational use.
Water reserves on Earth
Water exists in three states of aggregation: liquid, solid and gaseous. It forms oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and groundwater located in the upper layer of the Earth's crust and soil cover. In its solid state, it exists in the form of snow and ice in polar and mountainous regions. A certain amount of water is contained in the air in the form of water vapor. Huge volumes of water are found in various minerals in the earth's crust.
Determining the exact amount of water reserves around the world is quite difficult because water is dynamic and in constant motion, changing its state from liquid to solid to gaseous and vice versa. As a rule, the total amount of water resources in the world is estimated as the totality of all waters in the hydrosphere. This is all the free water that exists in all three states of aggregation in the atmosphere, on the Earth's surface and in the earth's crust to a depth of 2000 meters.
Current estimates have shown that our planet contains a huge amount of water - about 1386,000,000 cubic kilometers (1.386 billion km³). However, 97.5% of this volume is salt water and only 2.5% is fresh. Most of the fresh water (68.7%) is found in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Antarctic, Arctic, and mountainous regions. Further, 29.9% exists as groundwater, and only 0.26% of the Earth's total fresh water is concentrated in lakes, reservoirs and river systems where it is most easily available for our economic needs.
These figures were calculated over a long period of time, but if shorter periods are taken into account (one year, several seasons or months), the amount of water in the hydrosphere may change. This is due to the exchange of water between the oceans, land and atmosphere. This exchange is usually called the global hydrological cycle.
Freshwater resources
Fresh water contains a minimal amount of salts (no more than 0.1%) and is suitable for human needs. However, not all resources are available to people, and even those that are are not always suitable for use. Consider sources of fresh water:
- Glaciers and snow covers cover about 1/10 of the world's land mass and contain about 70% of fresh water. Unfortunately, most of these resources are located far from populated areas and are therefore difficult to access.
- Groundwater is by far the most common and accessible source of fresh water.
- Freshwater lakes are mainly located at high altitudes. Canada contains about 50% of the world's freshwater lakes. Many lakes, especially those in dry areas, become salty due to evaporation. The Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, and Great Salt Lake are among the world's largest salt lakes.
- Rivers form a hydrological mosaic. There are 263 international river basins on Earth, which cover more than 45% of the planet's landmass (with the exception of Antarctica).
Water resources objects
The main objects of water resources are:
- oceans and seas;
- lakes, ponds and reservoirs;
- swamps;
- rivers, canals and streams;
- soil moisture;
- groundwater (soil, groundwater, interstratal, artesian, mineral);
- ice caps and glaciers;
- precipitation (rain, snow, dew, hail, etc.).
Problems of water use
For many hundreds of years, human impact on water resources was insignificant and of an exclusively local nature. The excellent properties of water - its renewal due to the cycle and the ability to be purified - make fresh water relatively purified and possessing quantitative and qualitative characteristics that will remain unchanged for a long time.
However, these features of water gave rise to the illusion of the immutability and inexhaustibility of these resources. Out of these prejudices arose a tradition of careless use of extremely important water resources.
The situation has changed greatly over the past decades. In many parts of the world, the results of long-term and mismanagement of such a valuable resource have been discovered. This applies to both direct and indirect water use.
Around the world, over the course of 25-30 years, there has been a massive anthropogenic change in the hydrological cycle of rivers and lakes, affecting water quality and their potential as a natural resource.
The volume of water resources, their spatial and temporal distribution, are determined not only by natural climate fluctuations, as before, but now also by the types of economic activities of people. Many parts of the world's water resources are becoming so depleted and heavily polluted that they can no longer meet ever-increasing demands. It may
become a major factor hindering economic development and population growth.
Water pollution
The main causes of water pollution are:
- Wastewater;
Domestic, industrial and agricultural wastewater pollutes many rivers and lakes.
- Disposal of waste in seas and oceans;
Burying garbage in the seas and oceans can cause huge problems, because it negatively affects living organisms that live in the waters.
- Industry;
Industry is a huge source of water pollution, producing substances harmful to people and the environment.
- Radioactive substances;
Radioactive pollution, in which there is a high concentration of radiation in the water, is the most dangerous pollution and can spread into ocean waters.
- Oil spill;
An oil spill poses a threat not only to water resources, but also to human settlements located near a contaminated source, as well as to all biological resources for whom water is a habitat or a vital necessity.
- Leaks of oil and petroleum products from underground storage facilities;
Large quantities of oil and petroleum products are stored in tanks made of steel, which corrode over time, causing harmful substances to leak into the surrounding soil and groundwater.
- Precipitation;
Precipitation, such as acid precipitation, occurs when air is polluted and changes the acidity of water.
- Global warming;
Rising water temperatures cause the death of many living organisms and destroy a large number of habitats.
- Eutrophication.
Eutrophication is a process of reducing the quality characteristics of water associated with excessive enrichment with nutrients.
Rational use and protection of water resources
Water resources require rational use and protection, ranging from individuals to enterprises and states. There are many ways we can reduce our impact on the aquatic environment. Here are some of them:
Saving water
Factors such as climate change, population growth and increasing aridity are increasing pressure on our water resources. The best way to conserve water is to reduce consumption and avoid increased wastewater.
At the household level, there are many ways to save water, such as taking shorter showers, installing water-saving appliances, and washing machines with low water consumption. Another approach is to plant gardens that do not require much water.
As you know, water is the source of life, and it has its own holiday. Every year on March 22, the planet celebrates World Water Day or World Water Day, designed to draw public attention to problems related to the protection of water reserves. But there are problems.
Thus, in 2006, about 1.1 billion people did not have adequate and safe drinking water, and more people died from floods and droughts than from other natural disasters.
Are you thoughtlessly pouring drinking water in the kitchen and bathroom? These photos will make you think.
Let's see where people get water. This is how they collect water from a well in Zimbabwe. Compared to the options below, this is still fairly clean water.
A queue at a huge water well in the Indian state of Gujarat. 
According to the World Health Organization, infections caused by a lack of clean water kill one person every minute somewhere in the world. 
In this area of Kenya, people go to the swamp for drinking water. 
In Mumbai, drinking water can also be collected from a puddle. The main thing is not to be hit by a train. 
A picturesque column in the northern Indian city of Allahabad. 
Designer from Caracas, Venezuela. Rainwater harvesting installation. 
The water from the reservoir in Dhaka seems quite clean. Against the background of the next option... 
Collecting drinking water from a puddle in Somalia. 
Let's take a closer look at the process. 
Many scientists believe that the problem is not a lack of water, but its irrational use. One of the most pressing issues of our time is excessive water consumption in food production.
So, a person drinks 2-3 liters of water per day, while 2000-5000 liters of water are required to produce food for one person.
Sea in Karachi, Pakistan. Slightly dirty. 
In a slum area in the Indonesian capital, Jakarta, there is a water canal like this. 
Freshwater resources on our planet are distributed extremely unevenly. Arid or semi-arid regions of the world, making up 40% of the world's land mass, use only 2% of the world's water. 
The main source of all fresh water is the oceans, from which approximately 500 thousand square kilometers evaporate annually. water. 80% of all precipitation returns to the oceans and falls out.
A pond in Manila. 
The largest reserves of fresh water are found in polar ice. The ratio of the world's freshwater supply to the volume of all water on Earth is only 3%.
A trip to fetch water in Tacloban, Philippines. It's difficult to drive through mountains of garbage. 
Myanmar. Rainwater is a relatively good option for drinking water. 
In this area of Sanaa, Yemen, everyone goes to a single pump, trying to fill as many containers as possible. 
Crossing a sewer canal in the slums of Mumbai. 
Filling barrels with water from a tanker truck, Lima, Peru. 
Textured pump in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. 
Bridge over a polluted canal in East Bangalore, India. It is difficult to walk here without covering your nose. 
Carrying water near the capital of South Sudan. And it saves you from the sun. 
Drinking water from South Sudan. 
When thirsty. 
Bath in a slum in Jakarta, Indonesia. 
Drinking water from a pit in the Baghdad area. Well, it smells very strong. 
Collecting water of questionable quality using a hand pump in the Indian state of Assam. 
Washing in the Yamuna River in New Delhi. No, it's not snow, it's foam from pollution. 
Some dubious water reservoir in southwest China in Sichuan province. 
According to international experts, the problem of fresh water shortage will become one of the most acute by the middle of the 21st century. Thus, by 2025, 3.2 billion inhabitants of our planet will suffer from a lack of water.
Collected drinking water from a pit, South Sudan. 
Walking for water on a bombed street in Aleppo, Syria. 
On the banks of a "river" in Jakarta, Indonesia. 
Never give up. A volunteer cleans a river of trash in Jakarta. 
Laundry on the banks of a luxurious canal in a slum in Nairobi. 
Grunts and a completely polluted canal in eastern Bangalore, India. 
We don't need to worry yet. Russia leads the world in fresh water reserves - we have more than 20% of the world's resources.
There are 2.5 million rivers and 2.7 million lakes in Russia. Lake Baikal alone contains 20% of the world's fresh water. In addition, 2,290 large and medium-sized reservoirs have been created in Russia.
No, this is not Baikal, this is an oil spill near the Red Sea resort town of Eilat, Israel. 
I could not. Sea of dead fish in the Gulf of Mexico, Mexico. 
Removal, processing and disposal of waste from hazard classes 1 to 5
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Life on planet Earth originated from water, and it is water that continues to support this life. The human body consists of 80% water; it is actively used in the food, light and heavy industries. Therefore, a sober assessment of existing reserves is extremely important. After all, water is the source of life and technological progress. The supply of fresh water on Earth is not endless, so environmentalists are increasingly reminded of the need for rational environmental management.
First, let's figure it out ourselves. Fresh water is water that contains no more than one tenth of a percent of salt. When calculating reserves, they take into account not only liquid from natural sources, but also atmospheric gas and reserves in glaciers.
World reserves
More than 97% of all water reserves are found in the world's oceans - it is salty and, without special treatment, is not suitable for human use. A little less than 3% is fresh water. Unfortunately, not all of it is available:
- 2.15% comes from glaciers, icebergs and mountain ice.
- About one thousandth of a percent is a gas in the atmosphere.
- And only 0.65% of the total amount is available for consumption and is found in freshwater rivers and lakes.
At the moment, it is generally accepted that freshwater bodies are an inexhaustible source. This is true, the world's reserves cannot exhaust themselves even with irrational use - the amount of fresh water will be restored due to the planetary cycle of substances. More than half a million cubic meters of fresh water evaporate from the World Ocean every year. This liquid takes the form of clouds and then replenishes freshwater sources with precipitation.
The problem is that readily available supplies may run out. We are not talking about the fact that a person will drink all the water from rivers and lakes. The problem is the contamination of drinking water sources.
Planetary consumption and scarcity
Consumption is distributed as follows:
- About 70% is spent on maintaining the agricultural industry. This indicator varies greatly from region to region.
- The entire world industry spends about 22%.
- Individual household consumption accounts for 8%.
The available freshwater sources cannot fully meet the needs of humanity for two reasons: uneven distribution and pollution.
Fresh water shortages are observed in the following areas:
- Arabian Peninsula. Consumption exceeds available resources by more than five times. And this calculation is only for individual household consumption. Water on the Arabian Peninsula is extremely expensive - it has to be transported by tankers, pipelines have to be built, and seawater desalination plants have to be built.
- Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan. The level of consumption is equal to the amount of available water resources. But with the development of the economy and industry, there is an extremely high risk that fresh water consumption will increase, which means that fresh water resources will be depleted.
- Iran uses 70% of its renewable freshwater resources.
- The whole of North Africa is also under threat - 50% of fresh water resources are used.
At first glance, the problems may seem to be specific to dry countries. However, it is not. The greatest deficit is observed in hot countries with high population densities. These are mostly developing countries, which means we can expect further growth in consumption.
For example, the Asian region has the largest area of freshwater bodies, and the continent of Australia has the smallest. At the same time, a resident of Australia is provided with resources more than 10 times better than a resident of the Asian region. This is due to differences in population density - 3 billion residents of the Asian region versus 30 million in Australia.
Nature management
Depletion of fresh water supplies is leading to severe shortages in more than 80 countries around the world. The decline in reserves affects the economic growth and social well-being of a number of countries. The solution to the problem is to search for new sources, since reducing consumption will not significantly change the situation. The share of annual depletion of fresh water in the world is, according to various estimates, from 0.1% to 0.3%. This is quite a lot, if you remember that not all freshwater sources are available for immediate use.
Estimates show that there are countries (mainly the Middle East and North Africa) in which reserves are being depleted slowly, but water is inaccessible due to pollution - more than 95% of fresh water is not suitable for drinking, this volume requires careful and technologically complex treatment.
It makes no sense to hope that the population’s needs will decrease – consumption only grows every year. As of 2015, more than 2 billion people were limited in consumption, food or household, to one degree or another. According to the most optimistic forecasts, with the same consumption, fresh water reserves on Earth will last until 2025. Afterwards, all countries with a population of more than 3 million people will find themselves in a zone of serious shortages. There are almost 50 such countries. This number shows that more than 25% of countries will find themselves in deficit conditions.
As for the situation in the Russian Federation, there is enough fresh water in Russia; the Russian region will be one of the last to face shortage problems. But this does not mean that the state should not take part in the international regulation of this problem.
Ecological problems
Freshwater resources on the planet are distributed unevenly - this leads to a pronounced shortage in specific regions, along with population density. It is clear that it is impossible to solve this problem. But we can deal with another problem – the pollution of existing freshwater bodies. The main contaminants are salts of heavy metals, products of the oil refining industry, and chemical reagents. The liquid contaminated by them requires additional expensive treatment.
Water reserves on Earth are also being depleted due to human intervention in hydraulic circulation. Thus, the construction of dams led to a drop in water levels in rivers such as the Mississippi, Yellow River, Volga, and Dnieper. The construction of hydroelectric power plants provides cheap electricity, but damages freshwater sources.
A modern strategy to combat shortages is desalination, which is becoming increasingly common, especially in eastern countries. And this despite the high cost and energy intensity of the process. At the moment, the technology is fully justified, allowing natural reserves to be replenished with artificial ones. But the technological capacity may not be enough for desalination if depletion of fresh water reserves continues at the same pace.