Verbs,
irrelevant By mind
Unrelated Verbs nesov.kind
To the non-relative verbs of owls. types also include verbs that, with the help of suffixes - Well 2 -, -anu- (see §) or with the help of prefix-suffix formants are formed from the stems of nes verbs. species and differ from them in lexical meaning. So, for example, ch. shout is not a paired verb in relation to the primary verb of nes. kind scream, since it has its own one-act meaning. This is the meaning of the verb owl. type does not allow us to talk about the identity of the lexical meaning of verbs scream – shout, i.e., the presence of species pairing here; Verbs take a nap, take a nap not correlative in appearance with verbs sleep, nap, since they have additional meaning (sleep, take a little nap); in ch. push(simple) has the meaning of one-act and a shade of expressiveness of the action (see §), which makes it incompatible in appearance with the multi-act ch. push.
§ . Verbs of accumulative summary mode of action in addition to the meaning of achieving a result, they mean the coverage of a number of objects (or a complex, multiple object) by an action - with shades of accumulation, completeness of coverage or destruction by the action. Verbs of this mode of action are formed from transitive and intransitive verbs. Various prefixes are involved in the formation of these verbs. The cumulative-cumulative method of action has two varieties: cumulative, in which, in addition to the meaning of achieving a result, the meaning of accumulation is expressed; total, which expresses the total coverage or destruction of something by an action.
1) Cumulative verbs mean accumulation and are formed using the prefix on: a) in the meaning of accumulation of objects or results of action: file(firewood), pick(colors), shoot(game) catch(fish), milk(milk) cook(jam); b) in the meaning of accumulation of the measure of the action itself: make trouble, misbehave, be stupid, breathe in; c) in the meaning of accumulation of a certain measure of an object - from verbs of motion: run up, run over, swoop in, swim(so many hours, kilometers). When joining prefixed transitive verbs, the prefix on brings the meaning of abundance, completeness: stuff(apples) (simple) collect(berries) (simple), tell a story(colloquial), invent(stories) (colloquial).
2) Verbs of the summary variety mean the total coverage or destruction of something by an action. They are formed using prefixes about, With, You, from.
Verbs with a prefix about: sheathe, wash(all); from ch. movements: run around(colloquial), crawl around(all angles) (colloquial).
Verbs with a prefix With: in meaning (destroy with action) : feed(all food) demolish(all dresses), devour(all bones) (colloquial).
Verbs with a prefix You in meaning (destroy with action) : knock out(colloquial) ( More half officer And soldier's composition was knocked out. A. N. Tolstoy); squeeze out(rye) (colloquial); get drunk(swill) (colloquial); V s cut(whom); from verbs of motion with meaning. filling space with action: V s walk(many roads) (colloquial).
Verbs with a prefix from with value (destroy with action) : scribble(all ink) shoot(all cartridges); from verbs of motion with meaning. coverage of all objects: proceed(all roads) climb out(all bushes) (colloquial).
§ . Distribution, or distributive , mode of action in addition to the meaning of achieving a result, it means an action that alternately extends to a number of objects or emanates from a number of subjects. Such verbs are formed from transitive and intransitive prefixless and prefixed verbs using prefixes By and
re.
Verbs with a prefix By with value alternate coverage of several objects by action are formed from transitive prefix-free verbs: bite, chop, leave, take pictures, to do, sew, starve(all - colloquial); object-distributive meaning is often emphasized by special lexical indicators: everyone chopped up, left, bitten; All filmed, done, sewed; from intransitive verbs - with the meaning of gradual alternate participation in the action of several subjects: wither, hit, get burned, freeze.
Verbs with a prefix re with value alternate coverage of several objects from transitive prefix-free verbs: interrupt, re-cull, remake, swallow, break, renumber; from verbs of motion: carry(all things in the house), transfer(all children to the theater), roll over, transport(everyone in a row); from intransitive verbs – in meaning. actions emanating from several subjects or covering a number of objects: get over the disease(all diseases) die(simple) go out, stay, get sick.
Verbs of the distributive mode of action are also formed from prefixed verbs of both Sov. and Nes. kind. In this case, the formant is only the prefix By. When motivated by verbs of both Sov. and Nesov. type of owl verbs are formed. kind. From transitive verbs with meaning. alternately spreading the action to a number of objects (all - decomposed or simple): push out And push out; knock out And knock out; open And open; kill (Seniors sons killed on war. Shuksh.) and kill (For what robbers V church climb?... watchmen kill. Czech.); throw away And throw out; turn out And turn; ask more questions And ask around; pull out And pull out (All belongings from shops they'll drag you out. A. Nevezhin; All superfluous pulled out. A. Serafimovich); from intransitive verbs of owls. and Nesov. type: stand up And get up, jump up And jump up, jump out And jump out, jump out And jump out.
Verbs of the distributive (distributive) mode of action are always non-correlative owl verbs. kind.
The word-formation characteristics of the verbs described in the “Type of verb” section are given in the “Word-formation of verbs” section.
The lexical-grammatical category of the verb interacts with the grammatical category of aspect, expressing the modes of verbal action, i.e. those meanings that are associated with the process of action (any moment of its implementation, intensity of manifestation, internal dismemberment, etc.). Basic meanings associated with expressing the mode of verb action:
1) the meaning of beginning in perfective verbs formed with the help of the prefixes voz-, vz-, for-, po-, for example: to kindle, flare up, wave, scream, stride, thunder, run, blow;
2) the meaning of limiting the action in time, in the fullness of manifestation in perfective verbs formed with the prefix po- or several prefixes, for example: lie down, dream, sit, hold, think;
3) the meaning of effectiveness (completeness of an action, completion of a process) for perfective verbs formed with the prefixes pro-, from-, y-, from-, for example: oversleep, lie down (hand), ship, get tired, get wet, write out;
4) distributive meaning for perfective verbs with the prefixes pere-, po- and several prefixes, for example: perebelit, re-wash, bite, pozakryt;
5) the value of the intensity of the beginning of the action for perfective verbs formed with the suffix -nu-, for example: to burst out, to gush;
6) the meaning of intermittent action in imperfective verbs with the prefix po- and the suffix -iv(a)-, for example: ache, cough, tap;
7) accompanying meaning for imperfective verbs formed with the help of prefixes at-, sub- and suffixes -iv(a)-, -ыв(а)-, for example: sentence, trample, wink, jump.
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From the publisher
This textbook is intended primarily for students of philological specialties of higher educational institutions. But it is also designed for use in the educational process in a wide range of humanities.
The concept of vocabulary and lexical system
Vocabulary is the entire set of words of a language, its vocabulary. The branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary is called lexicology (gr. lexikos - vocabulary + logos - teaching). Vocabulary differs
Lexical meaning of the word. Its main types
A word differs in its sound design, morphological structure and the meaning and meaning contained in it. The lexical meaning of a word is its content, i.e. historically enshrined in
The word as a lexical and grammatical unit of language
The word as the basic unit of language is studied in various branches of linguistics. So, from a phonetic point of view, the sound shell is considered, those vowels and consonants are highlighted, which
Polysemy of the word
Polysemy, or polysemy (gr. poly - many + sma - sign), is the property of words
Lexical homonyms, their types and role in the language
Homonyms (gr. homos - identical + onyma - name) are words that have different meanings, but
Lexical synonyms, their types and role in the language
Synonymy is one of the most striking manifestations of systemic relations in vocabulary. Words that are similar in the associations that arise and the proximity of the designated concepts enter into synonymous connections. This sign is not inherent
Lexical antonyms, their types and role in language
The presence of stable systemic relationships in a language is evidenced by the correlative opposition of words according to a common semantic feature that is most essential for their meaning. Such words are against
The original vocabulary of the Russian language
Chronologically, the following groups of native Russian words are distinguished, united by their origin, or genesis (Greek genesis - origin): Indo-European, Common Slavic, Eastern
Borrowed words in Russian
Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political ties with other states, which could not but lead to linguistic borrowings. During use, more
Borrowings from related Slavic languages
Among related linguistic borrowings, a significant group of words of Old Church Slavic origin stands out. However, the words that came
Borrowings from non-Slavic languages
Along with the words of Slavic languages, the Russian vocabulary at different stages of its development also included non-Slavic borrowings, for example, Greek, Latin, Turkic, Scandinavian, Western European.
Mastering borrowed words
Penetrating into the Russian language (as a rule, together with a borrowed object, phenomenon or concept), many foreign speakers
Russian words in the languages of the world
Russian words have been included in different languages of the world since ancient times. Most of them have entered the languages of the peoples inhabiting our country. Russian words were actively mastered by the neighboring peoples of Northern Europe
Dialectal vocabulary
In the Russian lexical system, groups of words are distinguished, the scope of which is limited by one or another territorial location. Such groups are called dialectal. At its core it is gov
Professional and terminological vocabulary
In the Russian language, along with common vocabulary, there are words and expressions used by groups of people united by the nature of their activities, i.e. by profession. These are professionalisms.
Vocabulary of socially restricted use
Different from dialectal and professional vocabulary are special words that individual social groups of people, depending on the conditions of their social status and the specifics of the environment, designate
Vocabulary is cross-style and functionally fixed, stylistically neutral and expressively colored
Performing one of the main functions of language - communication, message or influence - involves choosing various means from the lexical system. This is due to the functional-style stratification of Russian
The concept of passive and active vocabulary
The Russian language dictionary is constantly changing and improving in the process of its historical development. Changes in vocabulary are directly related to human production activities
Outdated words
One group of obsolete words consists of those that have already completely fallen out of use due to the disappearance of those concepts that meant: boyar, veche, streltsy, oprichnik, vowel (member of the city).
Neologisms
New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from rp. neos - new + logos - word). Arose along with a new object, thing
The concept of phraseology and phraseological turns
In Russian (as in a number of other languages), words are combined with each other to form phrases. Some of them are free, others are not free. Compare, for example, the use of the phrase up d
The concept of phraseological meaning. Single-digit and multi-digit revolutions. Synonymy and antonymy of phraseological units
A phraseological turn, as mentioned earlier, is primarily distinguished from a free phrase by the generality of the meaning of the entire turn as a whole. This is precisely what allows us to identify a special type of meaning.
Types of phraseological units according to motivation of meaning and semantic cohesion
The criterion for identifying types of indecomposable combinations is, first of all, the degree of merging of individual words in them. The stability and indecomposability of the elements of phraseological units is considered as a right
Phraseological adhesions
Phraseological fusions are such lexically indivisible phrases, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the individual words included in them. For example, the meaning of revolutions is to kick the bucket -
Phraseological unities
Phraseological units are such lexically indivisible phrases, the general meaning of which is to some extent motivated by the figurative meaning of the words that make up the given phrase. For example, common
Phraseological combinations
Phraseological combinations are such stable phrases, the general meaning of which completely depends on the meaning of the constituent words. Words in a phraseological combination retain relative
Phraseologized phrases
So-called phraseological units (or expressions), which do not have all the distinctive features of phraseological units, but only h
Structural and grammatical composition of phraseological units and phraseological expressions
In its structure and grammatical composition, the phraseology of the modern Russian language is
Lexico-grammatical characteristics of phraseological units and phraseological expressions
According to the grammatical composition, several most typical varieties are distinguished among phraseological units: a) phrases, which are a combination of an adjective and a noun: air
Original phraseological units and phraseological expressions
The basis of Russian phraseology is made up of primordial phrases, i.e. Common Slavic (proto-Slavic), East Slavic (Old Russian) and Russian proper. TO
Phraseologisms and phraseological units borrowed from other languages
Phrases in origin can also be borrowed from other languages. First of all, phrases borrowed from the language of church books are highlighted, i.e. Russified Old Church Slavs
Colloquial phraseological units and phraseological units
In the colloquial style, the largest number of phraseological units are colloquial and everyday phraseological units and phraseological units. They are characterized by greater imagery and often have several
Book phraseological units and phraseological expressions
The scope of use of phraseological units of book speech is much narrower than that of neutral, interstyle phraseological units. This includes certain turns of official business speech: put under the carpet; slave
The emergence of new words and phrases. Changing their values. Loss of outdated words and phrases
The lexical and phraseological system is directly related to human activity in society and the development of the latter. Vocabulary and phraseology (especially the first) from all levels of the language are considered at
Types of dictionaries
The department of linguistics dealing with the compilation of dictionaries and their study is called
The most important explanatory dictionaries
The first proper explanatory dictionary was published in 1789-1794. the six-volume “Dictionary of the Russian Academy”, containing 43,257 words taken by the compilers from contemporary secular and spiritual books
Dialect dictionaries (regional)
In the middle of the 19th century. Academic dialect dictionaries began to be published: “The Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” (1852) and “Addition to the Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” (1858). They contain
Historical dictionaries
The main historical dictionary of the Russian language is “Materials for a dictionary of the Old Russian language” by acad. I.I. Sreznevsky (the dictionary was published in 1893-1912 after the death of the author, republished in 1
Etymological dictionaries
The first Russian etymological dictionary was “Korneslov of the Russian language, compared with all the main Slavic dialects and with twenty-four foreign languages” by F.S. Shimkevich (1842). B with
Word-formation dictionaries
The task of dictionaries of this type is to reveal the word-formation structure of words present in the language, to show the division of words into morphemes. “School word-formation with
Reverse dictionaries
When studying Russian word formation (for example, when quantitatively characterizing word-forming elements, when determining the degree of productivity of certain suffixes, etc.) it is very useful
Dictionaries of abbreviations
The widespread use of various complex abbreviated words (including abbreviations) in the modern Russian language, which is a unique manifestation of the principle of “economy” in the language, has caused a demand
Frequency dictionaries
When studying the rich composition of the vocabulary of the Russian language, it is of no small interest to clarify the question of the degree of use of words in speech, since this creates an objective basis for rational
Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms
The first Russian dictionaries of synonyms were “The Experience of a Russian Estatesman” by D.I. Fonvizin (1783), which contained 32 synonymous series (105 words in total) and “An Experience in a Dictionary of Russian Synonyms” by P.R. Kalajdovich
Phraseological dictionaries
An attempt to collect and systematize the phraseology of the Russian language in a separate work found its expression in the publication of a number of phraseological collections. A collection was published in 1890
Dictionaries of foreign words
The first dictionary of foreign words was the handwritten Lexicon of New Vocabularies in Alphabet, compiled at the beginning of the 18th century. Throughout the 18th century. various dictionaries of foreign words and other
Spelling dictionaries
The first serious attempt to codify Russian spelling was the work of Y.K. Grotto "Rus"
Spelling dictionaries
Over the past decades, along with the work on streamlining spelling, a lot of work has been done on streamlining pronunciation. A summary of the most important rules of literary pronunciation is attached to Tolkovo
Grammar dictionaries. Dictionaries of correctness
The most complete dictionary containing grammatical information is the “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Word change."
Dictionaries of the language of writers. Dictionaries of epithets
The largest dictionary of the language of writers is the “Dictionary of the Pushkin Language” in 4 volumes, containing over 21,000 words (1956-1961; addition to the dictionary - 1982). The dictionaries of one work are “Words
Phonetics
Phonetics is the science of speech sounds, which are elements of the sound system of language (Greek phon&
Phonetic means of the Russian language
Phonetic means of the Russian language with a delimiting function include sounds, stress (verbal and phrasal) and intonation, which often appear together or in combination.
Phonetic units of the Russian language
From the rhythmic-intonation side, our speech represents a speech flow, or a chain of sounds. This chain is divided into links, or phonetic units of speech: phrases, bars, phonetic words, syllables and sounds
Syllable concept
From the point of view of education, from the physiological side, a syllable is a sound or several sounds pronounced with one expiratory impulse. From the point of view of sonority, from the ac side
Accent
In the flow of speech, stress differs between phrasal, tactic and verbal. Word stress is the emphasis when pronouncing one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. Words
Sound laws in the field of consonants
1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding paired voiceless. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophs
Long and double consonants
In the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language there are two long consonant sounds - soft hissing [
Sound law in the field of vowels
Vowel reduction. The change (weakening) of vowel sounds in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish the position of unstressed vowels in p
Alternation of sounds
Due to the presence of strong and weak sounds in the phonetic system of the Russian literary language, there are positional alternations of sounds. Along with positional alternations, or phonetic, there is
The concept of phonetic transcription
Recording oral speech in full accordance with its sound cannot be done using ordinary orthographic writing. In orthographic writing there is no complete correspondence between sounds and letters
Phonetic transcription of text
Another d"ên"/v"es"t" Λ pΛzha r"y/raz"n"ies"las pufs"ie
The concept of phoneme
Speech sounds, without having their own meaning, are a means of distinguishing words. The study of the distinctive ability of speech sounds is a special aspect of phonetic research and is called
Sound changes in modern Russian literary language
The quality of the phonetic position (strong and weak positions) and the associated distinctive function of the phoneme (strong and weak phonemes) are determined by the nature of positional changes inherent in phonetic
The concept of strong and weak phonemes
The degree of different functions of phonemes is expressed in the concepts of a strong phoneme and a weak phoneme. Strong phonemes appear in the phonetic position in which the greatest number of sounds differs
The concept of phoneme series
The exchange of phonemes, strong and weak, occupying the same position in the morpheme, forms a phoneme series. Thus, vowel phonemes identical in place in the morpheme kos- form a phoneme series<о> - <
System of consonant phonemes of the modern Russian literary language
Composition of consonant phonemes. In position before vowel phonemes<а>, <о>, <у>, <и>consonant phonemes are pronounced most definitely, i.e. differentiated as much as possible.
The concept of orthoepy
Orthoepy (Greek orthos - straight, correct and epos - speech) is a set of rules of oral speech that establish uniform literary pronunciation. Orthoepic norms cover the
Russian literary pronunciation in its historical development
The orthoepy of the modern Russian literary language is a historically established system, which, along with new features, largely preserves old, traditional features, reflections
Pronunciation of vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable
The literary pronunciation of unstressed vowels is based on the phonetic law of the modern Russian literary language - vowel reduction. Due to reduction, unstressed vowels are shortened over time.
Pronunciation of vowels in all pre-stressed syllables except the first
In the second and third pre-stressed syllables, vowels undergo a more significant reduction than in the first syllable. The degree of vowel reduction in these syllables is practically the same. Sounds pronounced by n
Pronunciation of vowels in stressed syllables
The pronunciation of vowels in overstressed syllables is basically the same as the pronunciation of vowels in all prestressed syllables except the first. Reduced sounds pronounced in overstressed syllables are not of good quality.
Pronunciation of vowels at the beginning of a word
1. In place of the letters a, o at the beginning of the word (if the syllable is not stressed), the sound [Λ] is pronounced. For example: agent, sedge, shell, founder - [Λgent], [Λsok], [Λblochk], [Λs
Transition(s) to(s)
At the place of the letter and at the beginning of the word, when the pronunciation of this word merges with the previous one, which ends with a hard consonant, as well as at the place of the union and in certain conditions, a voice is pronounced
Pronunciation of combinations of unstressed vowels
Combinations of unstressed vowel sounds are formed during the continuous pronunciation of a function word and the subsequent significant one, as well as at the junction of morphemes. Literary pronunciation does not allow contraction
Pronunciation of voiced and voiceless consonants
In the speech stream, the consonant sounds of the modern Russian literary language, paired in terms of voicedness and voicelessness, change in their quality depending on their position in the word. Vary
Pronunciation of hard and soft consonants
The distinction in the pronunciation of consonants paired in hardness-softness has a phonemic meaning, since in the Russian language hard and soft consonants distinguish the sound shells of words (cf. would - would
Pronunciation of consonant combinations
With regard to literary pronunciation, certain combinations of consonants are distinguished, strictly defined in their composition. Such combinations occur at morphological junctions of words (final consonant
Unpronounceable consonants
When pronouncing words, some morphemes (usually roots) in certain combinations with other morphemes lose one or another sound. As a result, in the spelling of words there are letters devoid of sound.
Pronunciation of consonant sounds indicated by two identical letters
In Russian words, combinations of two identical consonants are usually found between vowels at the junction of the morphological parts of the word: prefix and root, root and suffix. In foreign words, double consonants
Pronunciation of individual sounds
1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced and sonorant consonants is pronounced as a voiced plosive consonant: mountain, where, hail; before voiceless consonants and at the end of a word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λж"
Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms
1. Unstressed ending of the nominative singular case. Part masculine adjectives -y, -y are pronounced according to the spelling: [good
Features of pronunciation of foreign words
Many words of foreign origin have been firmly adopted by the Russian literary language, entered the common language and are pronounced in accordance with existing spelling norms. Less significant
Concept of graphics
Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. Writing associated with the use of graphic characters (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. Modern writing
Russian alphabet and letter names
Aa a Bb be Vv ve Gg ge Dd de Her e Yoyo e Zh zhe Zz ze
The relationship between Russian phonetics and graphics
Modern Russian graphics include an alphabet invented for Slavic writing and carefully developed for the Old Church Slavonic language, which about a thousand years ago was a literary
Features of Russian graphics
Modern Russian graphics are distinguished by a number of features that have developed historically and represent a specific graphic system. Russian graphics do not have such an alphabet in which
The concept of spelling
As a result of long-term development, Russian writing, gradually adapting to the linguistic system, has developed into a certain system, functioning in the form of graphics and spelling, which are closely related to
Morphological nature of Russian spelling
Modern Russian orthography conveys our speech by denoting its sound side with letters, and in this sense our orthography is phonetic. However, in Russian writing the speech unit denoted by unit
Phonetic spellings
Along with the morphological principle, which occupies a leading position in Russian spelling, so-called phonetic spellings are used, representing deviations from the morphological principle
Traditional and differentiating spellings
Violations of the morphological principle of spelling also include traditional and differentiating spellings. Traditional spellings, otherwise historical, are relics of the past, tr
Brief information from the history of Russian graphics and spelling
Modern Russian graphics represent slightly modified graphics of the Old Church Slavonic language, the so-called Cyrillic alphabet. Old Slavonic graphics were compiled in the 9th century. brothers in Bulgaria
Composition of the word
Words of the Russian language, from the point of view of morphological structure, are divided into words that have inflectional forms and those that do not have inflectional forms. Words of the first group fall into two parts: the base and
Productivity of word-forming and form-building affixes
Affixes with the help of which new words are formed are called word-forming, and affixes that form forms of the same word are called formative. Using affixes for
Non-derivative and derived bases
Words in the Russian language differ in the structure of the stem, or morphological composition. The stems of all significant words according to their morphological composition are divided into two groups: stems of non-pronounced words
Semantic and phonetic weakening of a non-derivative stem
Word formation processes in some cases weaken the non-derivative base in semantic and phonetic terms and even lead to the complete disappearance of the original base, to its replacement by another
Producing basis
A productive stem is not a special kind of stem found in a language; There are only two such varieties - derivative and non-derivative. The term producing (or forming) the basis of decrees
Correlation between derivative and generating bases
The correlation between the derivative and the generating stems is expressed primarily in the presence of the given derivative stem and the supposed generating stems having common semantic-grammatical properties. For example
Changes in the morphological composition of a word
In modern Russian, the main organizing element of word formation is the stem (non-derivative and derivative). In the process of historical development of language, the way of images changed
Lexico-syntactic word formation
Lexico-syntactic word formation takes place in cases of the formation of words from phrases combined into one word in the process of use in the language, for example: crazy (crazy), t
Morphological word formation
The most productive way to enrich the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is morphological word formation, i.e. creation of new words on the basis of the building material available in the language by
Subject of morphology
Morphology is one of the sections of grammar. The term “grammar” is used in linguistics in a double meaning: in the meaning of the grammatical structure of a language and in the meaning of the doctrine of grammatical structure
Grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms
Morphology, being the study of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms, primarily deals with such concepts as grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form.
Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed. With the synthetic method g
Interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings in a word
Just as vocabulary and grammar, being different aspects of language, are connected with each other, so the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word interact. This manifests itself, for example, in
General characteristics of the parts of speech of the modern Russian language
Depending on the lexical meaning, the nature of the morphological features and syntactic function, all words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories called h
Transitional phenomena in the area of parts of speech
In the process of language development, words from one lexical and grammatical category can move to another. If a word belonging to a certain part of speech loses (or changes) its basis
Composition of parts of speech
In modern Russian, there are different parts of speech: independent and auxiliary. A special group of words includes modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words. On your own
The meaning of a noun, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that serve as the name of an object in a broad sense, i.e. have the meaning of objectivity and are called nouns. Nouns as parts of speech can be names
Common and proper nouns
Nouns can be common and proper. Common nouns are generalized names of homogeneous objects, actions, states (spruce, tree
Animate and inanimate nouns
All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animate nouns include names of people, animals, insects, etc., i.e. Living creatures. K are inanimate
Nouns related to specific concepts
Nouns used to designate objects of reality or persons are called concrete (table, wall, notebook, friend, sister, etc.). Grammatically specific entities
Nouns with concrete material meaning
Among the common nouns, there is a group of words that are used to denote substances that are homogeneous in composition, amenable to division, measurement (but not counting, i.e. uncountable
Nouns associated with abstract concepts
Nouns used to denote abstract concepts of quality, action and state are called abstract, or abstract (whiteness, beauty, mowing, shooting, development, enthusiasm
Nouns that have the meaning of singularity
Specific common nouns, nouns used to designate persons or objects isolated from the mass of a substance or from among homogeneous ones, are called singular, or singular (lat.
Nouns with collective meaning
Nouns used to designate a collection of homogeneous persons or objects as a certain indivisible whole, as a collective unity, are called collective (peasantry, educational
Gender of nouns
The most characteristic morphological feature of a noun is the category of gender. All nouns, with minor exceptions, belong to one of three genders: masculine,
Fluctuations in gender of nouns
In determining the gender of some nouns (relatively few), fluctuations are sometimes observed. Thus, individual nouns, used, as a rule, in the masculine form, sometimes
Gender of indeclinable nouns
According to the existing rules, all indeclinable nouns of foreign language origin, denoting inanimate objects, most often belong to the neuter gender: communiqué, taxi, metro, cinema, sconce,
Number of nouns
Most nouns denote countable objects and can be combined with cardinal numbers. Such nouns have correlative singular forms
Nouns that have only singular forms
Nouns denoting objects that are not counted or combined with cardinal numerals do not have plural forms. This group includes: 1) names of creatures
Nouns that have only plural forms
Nouns that do not have a singular number mainly include the following groups: 1) names of paired or complex (composite) objects: sleigh, droshky, scissors, pliers, gates, glasses,
Noun case
The noun, depending on the functions it performs in the sentence, changes according to cases. Case is the grammatical category that shows the syntactic role of the noun
Basic meanings of cases
The nominative case form is the original case form of the word. In this form, the noun is used to name a person, an object, or a phenomenon. In this case there is always a subject
The role of prepositions in expressing the meanings of cases
Prepositions play a significant role in expressing case meanings. By joining nouns in various case forms, prepositions help to reveal and clarify the meanings of the cases. T
Basic types of noun declension
The types of declension of nouns differ in modern Russian only in singular case forms. In the plural, these differences are almost absent. In modern
Singular
Genitive. Along with the ending of the genitive singular case -а, -я, inanimate masculine nouns have the ending -у, -у, which introduces the meaning of the d case
Plural
Nominative case 1. Masculine nouns usually end in -ы, -и (tables, steering wheels). However, many words have the ending -a, -ya (stressed): boka, eyes
Singular
1. In the genitive, dative and prepositional cases, a small group of words in -iya has a special ending -i: (o) lightning, (o) Mary, (o) army, on the Biya River (instead of the usual -e: (o) claw) .
Plural
1. In the genitive case, most of the words of the second declension have a zero ending: walls, herbs, drops; Some nouns with the stem in sibilant and in l, n (softened) have the ending -е:
Features of the third declension of nouns
1. The noun sazhen in the genitive plural, along with the form sazhen, also has the form sazhen. 2. In the instrumental case of the plural, along with the usual ending
Indeclinable nouns
Among the differently inflected nouns are ten nouns ending in -name: burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup, crown, which are inflected in a special way. 1. In
Indeclinable nouns
Indeclinable nouns are those that do not change by case. The majority of indeclinable nouns are foreign language borrowings. In the group we are adamant
Stress when declension of nouns
All nouns with regard to stress can be divided into two main groups: 1) nouns with constant stress (the place of which remains unchanged in all cases); 2) them
Productive ways to form nouns
Nouns are formed in modern Russian in different ways (see § 100-103). Thus, a significant number of new nouns appeared as a result of rethinking the sign
Suffixal, suffixal-prefixal and suffixless word formation
Among word-forming suffixes, there are non-productive ones, with the help of which new words are currently not formed (for example, the suffix -н is unproductive: illness, life; suffix -ух: p
Forming nouns by adding stems
Addition of stems is a type of morphological word formation when, as a result of the addition of two or more stems, a new word is formed. This method is widely used in modern Russian language
Conversion of words from other parts of speech into nouns
The transition to the category of nouns of words of other parts of speech is called substantivization (from Latin substantivum - noun). Adjectives most often turn into nouns (mainly
Transition of nouns to other parts of speech
In the process of language development, nouns can move into other parts of speech. There are frequent cases of using nouns, such as brother, sister, business, as pronouns. Wed: T
The meaning of the adjective, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that denote a constant attribute of objects are called adjectives. The semantic basis of the adjective name is the designation of quality, attribute, belonging
Classes of adjectives by meaning
The attribute of an object is indicated by an adjective or directly by the lexical meaning of its basis (yellow, crimson, cheerful), or through the relationship of the object to other objects (brick house,
Qualitative adjectives
Qualitative adjectives are those adjectives that denote the signs, properties and qualities of objects that we perceive primarily directly, i.e. are straight
Relative adjectives
Relative adjectives are those adjectives that denote a characteristic not directly, but through its relationship to another object, phenomenon or action, i.e. indirectly. They denote
Transition of relative adjectives into qualitative ones
Qualitative and relative adjectives in modern Russian are not closed groups. The grammatical boundary between them is flexible, since the semantic features that allow
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives denote that an object belongs to a certain person or (less often) an animal: fathers, sisters, Lisin, cats, etc. The semantic basis of possessive adjectives
Short forms of adjectives
Only qualitative adjectives have a short form. Short adjectives differ from full adjectives by certain morphological features (they do not change by case, they only have gender and number).
The concept of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives
In modern Russian, qualitative adjectives have two degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative. As for the so-called positive degree, it is the original form
Ways to form comparative forms
In modern Russian, there are two main ways of forming the comparative degree: 1) using the suffixes -ee(s) and -e, for example: Somehow everything is more friendly and stricter, somehow everything is dearer to you.
Ways to form superlatives
Superlative forms of qualitative adjectives are also synthetic and analytical. The synthetic superlative form is formed using the suffixes -eysh-, -a
Types of Declension of Adjectives
The declension of adjectives, in comparison with the declension of nouns, is more unified. In the nominative singular case, adjectives have a gender distinction: case endings
Ways to form adjectives
Adjectives in modern Russian are formed using a lexico-syntactic method (advance, stunning, etc.) and using a morphological-syntactic method (exquisite blue
Suffixal way of forming adjectives
The suffixal method of forming adjectives is the most productive in modern Russian. Derivative suffixes of qualitative and relative names are attached
Prefixal way of forming adjectives
The prefix method of formation is less productive. The following productive prefixes are used: 1) not-, not-without-: unsportsmanlike, quiet, unusual, well-known, not unsuccessful, etc.;
Prefix-suffix way of forming adjectives
The prefix-suffix method of forming adjectives in the modern Russian language is becoming increasingly widespread. The following groups of productive attachments are distinguished:
Forming adjectives by adding stems
Compounding as a way of forming adjectives is used more and more often in modern Russian. This is a very productive way of forming words. Most words created
Conversion of words from other parts of speech into adjectives
The use of different parts of speech as adjectives is called adjectivation (Latin adjectivum - adjective). A significant number of participles pass into the category of adjectives,
Transition of adjectives to other parts of speech
Adjectives (most often relative) can sometimes become nouns, i.e. capable of being substantiated. Moving into the class of nouns, adjective
The meaning of numerals, their morphological features and syntactic functions
A numeral is a category of words that serve as names of abstract numbers (two plus three - five), or a certain number of homogeneous objects, expressed in whole or fractional numbers (two rubles
Cardinal numbers
Cardinal numerals include numerals that denote in whole units an abstract number (ten divided by two) or a certain number of homogeneous objects (six books).
Morphological features of cardinal numbers
The morphological features of cardinal numbers are associated with their lexical meaning. Cardinal numerals do not have the category of number, since they lexically express the meaning of numbers
Declension of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) is declined as the pronoun this (this, this). The numerals two, three, four have peculiar endings in the nominative and instrumental cases (two, three, four
Syntactic features of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) agrees with the noun in gender, number and case (cf.: one day, one day, one week, etc.). Numerals two, three, four in the nominative form -
Collective numbers
Numerals two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, etc. are allocated to a special category of collective numerals. In modern Russian, collective numbers
Fractional numbers
Fractional numerals denote fractional quantities, i.e. quantities of certain parts of a unit, and represent the combination of them. case of cardinal number (number of parts - numerator of fraction
Numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred
The numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred are designations of quantities consisting of a whole and its half. The derivation of these words (from “pol vtor”, “pol vtory”, “pol vtor hundred”) in the present
Indefinite words
The group of words with the meaning of an indefinite quantity (large or small) can also be classified as indefinite quantitative numerals: a lot, a little, a little, a lot, so many and several.
Ordinals
Ordinal numbers are words that denote the order of homogeneous objects when counting them (first ticket, third question, etc.). Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, appear in
The meaning of pronouns. Correlation of pronouns with other parts of speech
Pronouns include words that, without naming objects or signs, indicate them. The specific lexical meaning of a pronoun is obtained only in context. For example, the pronoun you or
Places of pronouns by meaning
According to their meaning, as well as according to their syntactic role, all pronouns are divided into the following categories: 1. Personal pronouns, we (1st person); you, you (2nd person); he, (she, it), they (3rd person), representing
Transition of pronouns to other parts of speech
Some pronouns, under certain conditions, may lose their demonstrative functions and acquire characteristics of other parts of speech. So, the pronouns mine, ours, myself, nobody's, that, this and others can
Using other parts of speech as pronouns
The use of different parts of speech as pronouns is called pronominalization (Latin pronomen - pronoun). The following words functionally pass into the category of pronouns: nouns
Meaning, morphological features and syntactic functions of the verb
A verb is a category of words that denote an action or state of an object as a process. The word "process" as used here has a broad meaning; this word means labor activity
Conjugated and inconjugated forms of the verb and their syntactic role
Changing the verb by moods, and within moods by tenses (only in the indicative mood), by persons (in the indicative and partially in the imperative mood) and by numbers, as well as by gender
Infinitive form of the verb, its meaning, formation and syntactic use
The indefinite form (infinitive) is part of the system of verb forms, although it has a very unique structure. The semantically indefinite form is similar to the nominative case of a creature's name
Two verb stems
All verb forms, with the exception of the future complex and subjunctive mood, are formed by means of formative suffixes and endings attached to the stem. Verbal by education
From the history of the issue
The category of aspect in the Russian language took shape relatively late (at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century), and already in the 17th century. it was reflected in the grammars of M. Smotrytsky and J. Krizhanich. Category view
The concept of a species category
The category of aspect is inherent in all forms of the verb. The verbs decided and decided mean the same action, but differ grammatically. The verb decided in the perfect form, it denotes an action that is
Formation of species
When forming verb types, the initial form, with few exceptions, is the verb with the meaning of the imperfect form. Perfective verbs are usually formed from verbs n
Verb aspect pairs
When forming verbs of one type from another using prefixes, two results are possible: a) attaching a prefix to an imperfective verb introduces the meaning of the verb inherent in the prefix
Verbs that do not have paired forms of another type
Unpaired imperfective verbs include: a) unprefixed verbs with the suffix -ыва- (-iva-) with the meaning of repetition. In modern literary language such verbs are used
Bi-aspect verbs
Verbs that combine the meanings of the perfective and imperfective forms are bi-specific, but under the conditions of the context they can have a meaning characteristic of one type. These are verbs with the suffixes -ova
From the history of the issue
The category of voice has been and remains to this day the subject of close attention of many linguists. “...Different grammarians had different understandings of the scope and grammatical content of the category hall
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs differ in meaning. The basis of this distinction is the attitude towards the object of the action expressed by the verb. Transitive verbs include action verbs
The concept of the category of collateral
According to the currently most widespread theory, the category of voice is associated with the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive. The grammatical category of voice is called verb kate
Basic pledges and their formation
Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic. Morphological means in the formation of voices are: a) the affix -sya, attached to the verb
The concept of mood category
The facts of reality and their connections, being the content of a statement, can be thought of by the speaker as reality, as a possibility or desirability, as an obligation or necessity. Score patois
Verb moods
The indicative mood expresses an action that is conceived by the speaker as quite real, actually flowing in time (present, past and future): The Urals serve well, have served and will serve in
The concept of the category of time
The category of time in the traditional sense expresses the relationship between the time of the action of the verb and the moment of speech. The present tense shows that the action expressed by the verb coincides with the moment p
Basic meanings and uses of tense forms
Present tense. The forms of the present tense have the following types of meaning and use: a) the meaning of a specific action that is carried out at the moment of speech and has a limited
Face category
The category of person indicates the subject of the action expressed by the verb: the speaker (first person), the speaker's interlocutor (second person), a person or object not participating in the speech (third person). Forms 1st and
Impersonal verbs
Verbs that express actions and states that occur on their own, without their producer (subject), are called impersonal. With such verbs, the use of a subject is impossible: dusk, dawn
Verb conjugation types
Changing verbs in the present and future simple tense according to persons and numbers is called conjugation (in the narrow sense of the word); for conjugation in the broad sense, see § 173. Two types of conjugation - first
Ways to form verbs
When forming verbs, three morphological methods of word formation are productive to varying degrees: prefixal, suffixal and suffixal-prefixal. Prefix method
Participle as a form of mixed verbal-nominal formation
A participle is an unconjugated form of a verb that defines an object like an adjective. It denotes a sign of an object that occurs in time, like an action that produces the object.
Forms of participles and their formation
The participle in modern Russian has several varieties, which are determined by the grammatical meanings of the verb inherent in the participle: active participles, reflexive participles and passive participles.
Conversion of participles into adjectives
The presence of participles with features common to adjectives contributes to the transition of participles into adjectives. This transition, observed in previous periods of the history of the Russian language,
The participle as a form of verbal-adverbial formation
A gerund is an unconjugated form of a verb, combining the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb: The waves rush, thundering and sparkling (Tyutch.). The gerunds rattling and sparkling denote additional
Tense category for gerunds
Participles, as unchangeable forms of the verb, are deprived of the ability to express morphologically temporal meanings. Participles have only a relative designation of time. The gerund is not over
Transition of gerunds into adverbs
The invariability of the gerund and its syntactic role (adverbial circumstance) are the basis on which the transition of gerunds into adverbs takes place. This transition is facilitated by the absence of gerunds
The meaning of the adverb, its morphological features and syntactic role
Adverbs include unchangeable words that denote a sign of an action, state, quality of an object or other sign. For example: He wanted to hug and kiss Streltsov, but his throat suddenly collapsed
Classes of adverbs by meaning
According to their meaning, adverbs are divided into two groups - attributive adverbs and adverbial adverbs. Determinative adverbs characterize an action or sign in terms of its quality, quantity
Classes of adverbs by education
The correlation of adverbs with other parts of speech indicates their origin and method of formation. Adverbs are correlative with names, pronouns and verbs. Replenishing at the expense of others
Ways of forming adverbs
The formation of adverbs occurred and occurs in various ways. The most characteristic of them are the following: 1) separation of one of the nominal forms from the inflectional system with simultaneous
Adverbs formed from adjectives and participles
The most productive group of adverbs formed from adjectives and participles. Without prefixes, adverbs are formed from qualitative adjectives using the suffixes -o, -e: bad, ho
Adverbs formed from nouns
Among adverbs formed from nouns, non-prepositional formations and prepositional ones stand out. Of the non-prepositional formations, the most productive group of adverbs representing their own
Adverbs formed from numerals
Adverbs formed from numerals are relatively few in number. From cardinal numbers, adverbs are formed: 1) using the suffix -zhdy: twice, three times, four times; 2) way
Adverbs formed from pronouns
Among the adverbs of pronominal origin, we stand out, firstly, adverbs of ancient origin, which have lost living connections with pronominal words in modern language: where, where, from, from there, when
Adverbs formed from verbs
Adverbs of verbal formation represent a relatively small group. They come, as a rule, from gerunds, which, turning into adverbs, lose aspect and voice
Transition of adverbs to other parts of speech
Along with the process of adverbialization (transition into the category of adverbs), which is very active and broad, the opposite process takes place in the Russian language - the process of transition of adverbs into other lexico-grammar
Semantic, morphological and syntactic features of impersonal predicative words
Impersonal predicative words, or the category of state, are significant, unchangeable nominal and adverbial words that denote a state and are used as a predicate of an impersonal preposition.
Classifications of impersonal predicative words by meaning
The following groups of impersonal predicative words are distinguished by meaning: 1. Impersonal predicative words denoting the mental and physical state of living beings, the state of nature, the environment
Classes of impersonal predicative words by education
Impersonal predicative words are related in origin to adjectives, correlative adverbs and partly nouns. This transition is carried out on the basis of a complex interweaving of St.
The question of impersonal predicative words in grammatical literature
Impersonal predicative words, as words intermediate between names and verbs, begin to stand out in Russian grammars from the first third of the 19th century. When highlighting these words, the custom was emphasized
Characteristic features of function words
Function words include particles, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives. Functional words, in contrast to significant words, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not the names of the item
Particles and their functions in speech
Particles are function words that express additional semantic shades of sentences, phrases and individual words. So, for example, does a particle really relate to the whole sentence and give it the character
Particle ranks by value
Particles according to their meaning are divided into three main groups: I. Particles expressing shades of meaning. Such particles include: a) demonstrative: here, there. Here's a bream, eat
Word-forming and form-forming particles
Word-forming particles form new words: 1) -that, -or, -something, some- serve to form indefinite pronouns and adverbs: something, somewhere, etc.; 2) does not form negative pronouns
Morphological composition of prepositions
According to their morphological composition, prepositions are non-derivative and derivative. 1. Non-derivative, so-called primitive, prepositions cannot be correlated in formation with any
Meanings of prepositions
The meanings of prepositions are very diverse and complex and are revealed only in combination with the case form. They can express: spatial relationships: vacation in Crimea and the Caucasus; temporary relationship: p
Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions
Based on their syntactic functions, conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions connect homogeneous members of a sentence, as well as parts of complex sentences. P
Single, repeating, double conjunctions
In terms of use, conjunctions are of three types: 1) single, used once. Of the coordinating conjunctions, the typical one in this regard is the conjunction but (subordinating conjunctions
Modal words as a special category of words in the Russian language
Modal words are words through which the speaker evaluates his utterance as a whole or its individual parts from the point of view of their relationship to objective reality. For example: This is ver
Digits of modal words by meaning
By meaning, two groups of modal words are distinguished: 1. Modal words expressing a logical assessment of the statement, the speaker’s confidence in the reality of the message: certainly, true, act
Correlation of modal words with other parts of speech
Modal words, as a special lexico-grammatical category of words, are correlated with various parts of speech, namely: a) with nouns: truth, fact, right. Wed: True eyes
Lexico-grammatical uniqueness of modal words
Modal words differ from nominative words, with which they are related by origin, by the absence of a nominative function. Modal words are not names of objects, features or processes, but
The concept of interjection
Interjections are words that directly express our feelings, experiences and expressions of will, without naming them. Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech
The role of interjections in language
Syntactically, interjections also differ from significant parts of speech, because they, as a rule, are not parts of the sentence, although intonationally they are usually associated with the sentences to which they adjoin
Ranks of interjections by meaning
Interjections, according to their lexical meaning, are divided into two main categories: 1) interjections expressing various feelings (emotional interjections), and 2) interjections expressing will, order, etc.,
Groups of interjections by method of formation and origin
According to their formation, all interjections fall into two main groups: primary (primitive) and derivative. 1. The first group includes primitive interjections, consisting of either one
Verb interjections
In the modern Russian language, words are distinguished that, on the one hand, have the structure of interjections and their inherent expression and dynamism, on the other hand, they have verbal features (aspect, tense). WITH
Onomatopoeic words
Words that are, in their sound design, a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, are called onomatopoeic. In their syntactic functions they are similar to interjections. However
Collocation and sentence as basic syntactic units
Syntax, as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech, includes two main parts: 1) the study of phrases and 2) the study of sentences. Of particular note is the section dealing with
Main features of the proposal
Most types of sentences, as mentioned above, correspond to a logical judgment. In a judgment, something about something is affirmed or denied, and in this the so-called predetermination finds its expression.
Brief history of the issue
The problem of word combinations has long attracted the attention of Russian linguists. In the first grammatical works, the main content of syntax was considered to be the doctrine of “word composition”, i.e. about combining words in
Types of phrases according to their structure
According to the structure, phrases are divided into simple (two-nomial) and complex (polynomial). In simple phrases there is a spread of one word to another with different semantic meanings.
Types of phrases depending on the lexico-grammatical properties of the main word
Depending on which word is the main word in a phrase, the main lexical and grammatical types of phrases differ. The classification according to this criterion has the following scheme:
Syntactic relations between the components of phrases
The words included in phrases are in different semantic-syntactic relationships with each other. Generally speaking, these relationships can be reduced to the main ones: a) attributive (for example: tetra
Ways of expressing syntactic relations in phrases and sentences
The most important means of expressing relationships between members of a phrase (and members of a sentence) is the form of the word. With the help of inflection, the connection between all changeable words that act as dependent
Types of syntactic connections in phrases and sentences
There are two main types of syntactic connection in a sentence - composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal elements independent of each other (members of sentences) come into contact.
Proposals of real and unreal modality. Affirmative and negative sentences
The general meaning of objective modality conveyed in a sentence is differentiated as the meaning of temporal certainty and temporal uncertainty. In the first case, what is reported in the sentence is
Declarative, interrogative and incentive sentences
Depending on the purpose of the statement, sentences are distinguished: narrative, interrogative and incentive. Narrative sentences are those that contain a message about something.
Exclamatory sentences
Exclamatory sentences are emotionally charged sentences, which are conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. Different types of sentences can have emotional connotations:
Common and non-common offers
Uncommon is a sentence consisting only of the main members - subject and predicate, for example: She did not answer and turned away (L.); He is young, good (L.); Several years have passed (P
Two-part and one-part sentences
A sentence consists of main members - subject and predicate, and secondary ones, some of which relate to the subject and together with it form the composition of the subject, others - to the predicate and image
Simple and complex sentences
A simple sentence has one or two grammatical compounds and thus contains one predicative unit. For example: The morning was fresh and beautiful (L.); After noon she started
Main members of a two-part sentence
A two-part sentence is a sentence that has two grammatical compositions: the composition of the subject and the composition of the predicate. The composition of the subject is the subject with or without words related to it
Secondary members of the sentence, their syntactic function
The main members of a sentence can be explained by members that are called minor, since they grammatically depend on other members of the sentence. The term "minor members of the sentence"
Expressing the subject using different parts of speech
The most common form of expressing the subject is the nominative case of the noun. The objective meaning of the noun and the independent nominative case are most suitable
Expressing the subject using phrases
The role of the subject can be phrases that are integral in meaning, lexically or syntactically indecomposable. These include: 1. Composite geographical names (Northern Arctic
Verbal predicate, formally likened to the subject
The role of the verbal predicate is represented by verb forms of any mood, tense and person. For example: 1) verb in the indicative mood: The autumn wind brings sadness (N.); Pugachev m
Verbal predicate, not formally assimilated to the subject
The verb predicate is expressed: 1) by an infinitive with the meaning of an energetic beginning of an action: Our brethren - swear (Pumped); And new friends, well, hug, well, kiss... (Kr.); 2)
Complex verb predicate
Complicated forms of a simple verbal predicate include a combination of two verbs or a combination of a verb with different particles. These include: 1. The combination of two verbs in the same form
Verbal predicate expressed by phraseological phrase
Simple verbal predicates also include predicates expressed by phraseological combinations with varying degrees of cohesion of parts, since they have a single integral meaning (cf.: came out of
Compound verb predicate with modal verb
This includes verbs such as want, wish, be able, be able, intend, try, strive, refuse, hope, fear, etc. For example: I wanted to portray ordinary decent people in a new way
Compound verb predicate with predicative adjective
Along with modal verbs, predicative adjectives (special short adjectives used in the role of ska) can be used as the first component of a compound verbal predicate.
Predicate expressed by adverb, participle, interjection and phraseological combination
1. The predicate can be expressed by an adverb with or without a connective, for example: At your age I was married (L.T.); How inopportune this memory was (Ch.); After all, I am somewhat akin to her (Gr.). 2
Types of complex predicate
A complex (trinomial, polynomial) is a predicate consisting of three or more parts (the term “complex predicate” is used here not in the meaning in which it is sometimes used, see § 259
Form of the verb predicate
The verb predicate is coordinated with the subject, expressed by the personal pronoun, in person and number, and in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the subjunctive mood - in gender and number. Nap
Bundle shape
The copula usually correlates with the subject (in the past tense - in gender and number), for example: My whole life was the guarantee of a faithful meeting with you (P.). If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, then with
Brief history of the issue
The question of minor members of a sentence in the history of Russian grammar has different solutions. However, two main directions in the doctrine of minor members of a sentence stand out: races
Definitions agreed and inconsistent
According to the nature of the syntactic connection between the definition and the word being defined, all definitions are divided into agreed and inconsistent. Definitions agreed upon are expressed by those parts of speech that
Ways to Express Complements
Supplements are usually expressed by nouns (with and without prepositions) in indirect cases, as well as words used in the meaning of nouns (pronominal nouns,
Types of additions and their meanings
Due to their basic meaning - designating the object of an action or state - additions usually refer to sentence members expressed by verbs or impersonal predicative words, i.e. tale
Additions in active and passive phrases
An active phrase is a phrase with a direct object and a predicate expressed by a transitive verb. The subject in actual circulation denotes an actor or thing, and the complement denotes a person
Ways of expressing circumstances
Circumstances can be expressed by adverbs, gerunds, nouns in the instrumental case without a preposition, nouns in the oblique cases with prepositions, infinitives, phraseological
Types of circumstances by meaning
Denoting a qualitative characteristic of an action, state or sign, as well as the conditions accompanying them (indication of the cause, time, place, etc.), circumstances are divided into circumstances image
Syntactic and actual division of sentences
A sentence as a unit of syntax includes members of the sentence that occupy certain syntactic positions. This division of a sentence from the point of view of its syntactic structure is
Communicative, syntactic and stylistic meaning of word order
The order of words in a sentence - the arrangement of word forms in it - can perform the following functions: 1) communicative (is a means of actual division of a sentence and, more broadly, of any actualization);
Place of subject and predicate in a simple sentence
In a declarative sentence, the subject is usually in front of the predicate (the latter is postpositive), for example: Marya Ivanovna walked up the stairs with trepidation (P.); They entered the courtyard
Place of an object in a sentence
The addition (verb and adjective) is usually postpositive, for example: I will send you ammunition and tobacco (A.N.T.); About a hundred workers were clearing warehouses and sites (Azh.). Pre
Place of definition in a sentence
The agreed upon definition is usually prepositive, for example: To the left was a deep gorge... (Azh.); ...He took out his grief on your sides - the grief of his life (M. G.); It became creepy in these silent
Place of circumstances in a sentence
Circumstances of the course of action, expressed by adverbs starting with -о, -е, are usually prepositive, for example: One of the waves playfully rolls onto the shores, making a defiant noise, crawling towards Rahim’s head (M.G.). ABOUT
Definitely personal proposals
Definitely personal sentences are those whose main member is expressed by the form of a verb in the first or second person of the present and future tense. The verb in this case does not need a place
Vaguely personal proposals
Indefinite-personal sentences are those one-part sentences in which the main member is expressed by a verb in the form of the 3rd person plural of the present and future tense or in the form
Generalized-personal proposals
Generalized personal sentences are one-part sentences, the main member of which is expressed by a verb of the 2nd person singular (present and future tense), and the action denoted by the verb is in
Impersonal offers
Impersonal sentences are one-part sentences, the main member of which does not allow the designation of the subject of action in the form of the nominative case and names a process or state regardless of the active
Infinitive sentences
The main member of a one-part sentence can be expressed by an infinitive that does not depend on any other word in the sentence; therefore, it cannot have either an impersonal verb or an impersonal
Nominative sentences
Nominative sentences are those one-part sentences whose main member is expressed by a noun or a substantivized part of speech in the nominative case. The main member can be grown
Constructions that coincide in form with nominative sentences
Some syntactic constructions may coincide in form with nominative sentences, but in fact they are not them. These are constructions that either do not contain the meaning of being, su
Types of word-sentences
Sentence words are divided into several groups depending on their function in speech. Affirmative words-sentences: - Smells of sulfur. Is this necessary? - Yes (Ch.). - St
Types of Incomplete Sentences
Incomplete sentences are divided into contextual and situational. Contextual are incomplete sentences with unnamed members of the sentence that were mentioned in the context: in the nearest paragraphs
Incomplete sentences in dialogic speech
Incomplete sentences are especially typical for dialogical speech, which is a combination of remarks or a unity of questions and answers. The peculiarity of dialogic sentences is determined by the fact that in
Elliptic sentences (sentences with zero predicate)
Elliptical are self-used sentences of a special type, the specific structure of which is the absence of a verbal predicate, and a predicate not mentioned in the context
The concept of homogeneous members
Homogeneous members of a sentence are members of the same name, connected to each other by a coordinating connection and performing the same syntactic function in the sentence, i.e. united are the same
Unions with homogeneous members
To connect homogeneous members of a sentence, the following categories of coordinating conjunctions are used: 1. Connecting conjunctions: and, yes (meaning “and”), neither...nor, etc. The conjunction and can be single and p
Homogeneous definitions
Homogeneous definitions are each directly connected with the word being defined and are in the same relationship to it. Homogeneous definitions are connected by coordinating conjunctions and list
Heterogeneous definitions
Definitions are heterogeneous if the preceding definition does not refer directly to the defined noun, but to a combination of the subsequent definition and the defined noun
Form of the predicate with homogeneous subjects
The form of the predicate for homogeneous subjects depends on a number of conditions: word order, the meaning of conjunctions, the lexical meaning of the subject or predicate, etc. 1. For subjects having the form m
Coordination of definitions with the word being defined
The question of agreement in number in the presence of definitions in sentences with homogeneous members arises in two cases: 1) if one definition refers to several homogeneous defined
Prepositions with homogeneous members
Prepositions can be repeated before all homogeneous members, for example: Death prowls the fields, the ditches, the heights of the mountains... (Kr.). It is possible to omit identical prepositions, but different prepositions are not
Generalizing words for homogeneous sentence members
A generalizing word is usually a grammatical form of expression of a generic concept, uniting, on the basis of material proximity, subordinate concepts, the grammatical form of expression of which serves as
General concepts
Separation is the semantic and intonation separation of minor members in order to give them some independence in a sentence. Isolated members of the sentence contain the element add
Separate Consensus Definitions
1. As a rule, common definitions are isolated, expressed by a participle or an adjective with words dependent on them and standing after the noun being defined, for example: Cloud, hanging
Separate inconsistent definitions
1. Inconsistent definitions expressed by indirect cases of nouns are isolated if it is necessary to emphasize the meaning they express, for example: Headman, in boots and in a saddle-backed coat, with a bu
Isolated circumstances expressed by gerunds and participial phrases
1. As a rule, participial phrases are isolated, i.e. gerunds with explanatory words, acting as secondary predicates or adverbials with different meanings, for example: Pass
Isolated circumstances expressed by nouns and adverbs
Depending on the semantic load, weak syntactic connection with the predicate verb, the degree of prevalence of the phrase, and its intentional emphasis, the circumstances expressed by it can be isolated
Isolation of revolutions with the meaning of inclusion, exclusion, substitution
Case forms of nouns with prepositions or prepositional combinations can be isolated: besides, instead of, besides, apart from, excluding, over, etc., with the meaning of inclusion, exception, for
Isolation of clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of the proposal
Along with isolation in the proper sense of the word, i.e. by highlighting the minor members of the sentence, there is an intonation-semantic highlighting in the sentence of words that can be not only second
Introductory words and phrases
Introductory words are words that are not grammatically related to the members of the sentence (that is, not related to them by the method of coordination, control or adjacency), that are not members of the sentence and express
Introductory sentences
The meanings inherent in introductory words and phrases can be expressed in whole sentences that retain the intonation features of introductory constructions. For example: Buran, it seemed to me, was still with
Plug-in structures
Inserted words are words, phrases and sentences that introduce additional information, incidental comments, clarifications, explanations, amendments, etc. into the main sentence. Similar to
The concept of conversion
An address is a word or combination of words that names the person (or object) to whom speech is addressed. An address extends a sentence, but is not a member of it (i.e., it does not perform the function of a
Ways of expressing appeal
The natural form of expression of address is a noun in the nominative case, which performs a nominative function. In Old Russian, the vocative case form was used for this purpose
Brief history of the issue
In the works of A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherby, V.V. Vinogradov highlights the special meaning of some conjunctions - connecting (A.M. Peshkovsky speaks of composition and subordination after the dividing clause
The essence of joining
Accession - as a unique type of syntactic connection - differs from both composition and subordination. When composing, the elements of a statement act as syntactically equal
Structural and grammatical types of connecting constructions
In structural and grammatical terms, connecting constructions are not homogeneous. The following can be added to the main statement: 1) constructions with connecting conjunctions and allied words
Union connection structures
1. Additive conjunctions and conjunctive combinations are usually formed by combining coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, as well as some particles and pronominal adverbs with conjunctions and, a. These are the ones
Unionless connecting structures
Non-union connecting structures, used only after a long pause, are divided into four groups according to their functions: 1) connecting structures that act as members
The concept of a complex sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that contains two or more predicative units that form a single whole in semantic, constructive and intonation terms. The difference between
Essay and subordination in a complex sentence
According to the way the parts are connected, compound sentences are distinguished from allied and non-union complex sentences. The former are divided into two types of complex sentences: 1) complex sentences and 2) complex sentences
Means of expressing relationships between parts of a complex sentence
Semantic and syntactic relationships between the parts of a complex sentence are expressed using the following means: a) conjunctions, b) relative words, c) intonation, d) order of parts. Unions connect
Structure of compound sentences
A complex sentence is a complex sentence whose parts are connected by coordinating conjunctions. The connection by the method of composition gives the parts of a complex sentence a known
Connective Relationships
In complex sentences expressing connecting relationships, the means of connecting parts of a single whole are conjunctions and, yes, neither (repeating), also, too (the last two with the connecting from
Adverse relationships
Complex sentences with adversative conjunctions (a, but, yes, however, but, same, etc.) express relations of opposition or comparison, sometimes with various additional shades (inconsistency
Compound sentences expressing connecting relations
Some coordinating conjunctions are used in a complex sentence to express connecting relations in which the content of the second part of the complex sentence is an additional
A brief history of the complex sentence issue
The question of a complex sentence in its history practically came down to the classification of subordinate clauses, or, as they were conventionally called, “subordinate clauses,” which is closely related primarily to everything
Complex sentences with conditional and non-verbal dependence of parts
The most general structural indicator of a complex sentence is the verb and non-verbal dependence of the subordinate clause. This feature is justified as follows. Subordinate clause connection
Grammatical means of connecting parts in a complex sentence
1. The main syntactic means of communication in a complex sentence are special connecting elements, formal indicators of the interconnectedness of parts. These are subordinating conjunctions
Semantic-structural types of complex sentences
The structural indicators of a complex sentence are, as found out, firstly, the nature of the connection between the subordinate clause and the main clause (verbal and non-verbal); secondly, grammatical means
Subsubstantive-defining sentences
Subsubstantive-defining sentences, depending on the function of the subordinate clause, have two varieties. The function of the subordinate clause depends on the extent to which the entity it defines
Pronominal-defining sentences
Complex sentences with a defining subordinate clause relating to the pronoun (indicative or attributive) in the main clause are characterized by the following features: 1) pronoun g
Explanatory clauses with conjunctive subordination
Explanatory clauses are joined by conjunctions that, as, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, so that, if, whether, while. Subordinate clauses with a conjunction that contain a message about a real entity
Explanatory clauses with relative subordination
As allied words that attach explanatory clauses, the relative pronouns who, what, which, which, what, whose and pronominal adverbs where, where, from where, when, how are used
The use of correlative words in explanatory clauses
Complex sentences with an explanatory clause may have correlative words in the main clause. The function of these words is not the same. They can be used to enhance, highlight, etc.
Complex sentences with simultaneity relation
Relations of simultaneity are expressed in sentences with subordinate, attached conjunctions when, while, as, while (archaic), as long as (colloquial), while usually with verbs in the main and came
Complex sentences with multitemporal relations
The relationship of different times is expressed by the conjunctions when, while, while, while, after, since, as soon as, only just, just now, just, just a little, as, barely, only, before
Complex sentences with comparative relations between parts
Complex sentences can consist of parts whose contents are compared. Formally, such sentences have a subordinate part, since they contain subordinating conjunctions (or the conjunction
Complex sentences with explanatory relationships between parts
One part of a complex sentence can explain another by specifying its meaning or conveying it in other words. The explanatory part is attached to the explained part using conjunctions, that is, and
Complex sentences with several subordinate clauses
Complex sentences can have several subordinate clauses. In complex sentences with several subordinate clauses, two types of relations between the combined parts are possible.
Complex sentences with several main parts and one subordinate clause
In complex sentences there may be two (or several) main parts that have one common subordinate clause. The main parts in this case are interconnected by coordinating conjunctions (possibly
Types of non-union complex sentences
There are two main types of non-conjunctive complex sentences: correlative with conjunctive complex sentences and non-correlative with them. Propositions of the second type are found comparatively
Varieties of complex syntactic structures
Depending on various combinations of types of connection between parts, the following types of complex syntactic constructions are possible: 1) with composition and subordination; 2) with essay and non-union connection
Structural features of complex syntactic integers
Complex syntactic wholes can be of homogeneous or heterogeneous composition. Between homogeneous sentences as part of complex syntactic wholes, a parallel connection is found, between heterogeneous
Paragraph and complex syntactic whole
A paragraph and a complex syntactic whole are units of different levels of division, since the bases for their organization are different (a paragraph does not have a special syntactic design, unlike a complex syntactic
Paragraph in dialogic and monologue text
Paragraph division has one common goal - to highlight significant parts of the text. However, parts of the text can be highlighted for different specific purposes. Accordingly, the fus differ
The concept of direct and indirect speech
The statements of other persons included in the author's presentation form the so-called alien speech. Depending on the lexico-syntactic means and methods of transmitting someone else’s speech, direct speech differs
Direct speech
Direct speech is characterized by the following features: 1) accurately reproduces someone else’s statement; 2) accompanied by the author's words. The purpose of the author's words is to establish the very fact of someone else's speech
Indirect speech
Indirect speech is the transmission of someone else's statement in the form of a subordinate clause. Wed: Direct speech Indirect speech Podosh
Improperly direct speech
Someone else's speech can be conveyed in fiction using the technique of so-called improperly direct speech. In this case, lexical and syntactic features are preserved to one degree or another.
Basics of Russian punctuation
Punctuation is a collection of rules for placing punctuation marks, as well as the system of punctuation marks used in written speech. The main purpose of punctuation is to indicate
Basic functions of punctuation marks
In the modern punctuation system of the Russian language, punctuation marks are functionally significant: they have generalized meanings assigned to them, fixing the patterns of their use. Functionality
special vocabulary. Words and phrases that name objects and concepts related to various areas of human labor activity and are not commonly used. Special vocabulary includes terms and professionalisms.
spirants. Same as fricative consonants.
spontaneous(Latin spontaneus - spontaneous). Independent, unconditional, free. Spontaneous sound changes (not determined by the position of the sound).
way of verb action. Lexico-grammatical category of the verb, interacting with the category of aspect and expressing those meanings that are associated with the process of action (any moment of its implementation, intensity of manifestation, internal dismemberment, etc.). The main meanings associated with expressing the mode of verb action are as follows:
4) the meaning of inception in perfective verbs formed using prefixes WHO; vz; for-, for-. To ignite, to flare up, to wave, to scream, to stride, to thunder, to run, to blow;
2) the meaning of limiting action in time, in the fullness of its manifestation in perfective verbs formed with the prefix By- or several consoles. Lie down, dream, cry, swim, jump, whistle, sit, stand, trample, make noise, hold, think;
3) the meaning of effectiveness (completeness of action, completion of process, exhaustion of action) for perfective verbs formed with prefixes about-, from-, y-, from-. Sleep (all night), sit (pants), lie down (arm), load, warm up, have dinner, make noise, get tired, get cold, get wet, wound, cripple, dry up, write up (all the paper);
4) the distributive meaning of perfective verbs with prefixes re-, over- and several attachments. Whitewash, chop, bite, break, wash, spoil, throw, bite, close, open;
5) the value of the intensity of the onset of action for perfective verbs formed using a suffix -Well-.. To thunder, to gush, to laugh;
6) the meaning of intermittency in imperfective verbs with a prefix By- and suffix -willow)-. Pain, stroke, cough, sit, tap, walk;
7) accompanying meaning for imperfective verbs formed using prefixes with -, sub- and suffixes -iv(a)-, -iv(a):
Sentence, trample, click, wink, dance, jump. See also subspecies.
ways of expression grammatical meanings. Methods of forming word forms.
Synthetic method. Expressing meanings in the word itself. This includes;
a) affixation (formation of word forms using endings, prefixes, formative suffixes). Table, table, table, etc. Do - do, write - write, etc. Justify - justify, exchange - exchange, etc.;
b) internal inflection (alternation of sounds). Lock - lock, die - die, dial - dial, etc.;
c) emphasis. Pour - pour, cut - cut, etc.;
d) suppletivism. To speak - to say, to catch - to catch, etc. Man - people. Good is better, much is more;
d) repetitions. Blue, blue, walked and walked, barely (see repeat).
Analytical method. Expressing meanings outside of words. I write and I will write. Handsome is more beautiful.
Mixed (hybrid) method. In the book (preposition and case ending). I read (personal pronoun and verb ending to express 1st person meaning).
Verbs of quantitative-temporal modes of action, meaning duration or repeated repetition, in “Russian Grammar” are divided into verbs of multiple, intermittent-mitigating, long-term softening, long-distributive, accompanying, complicated-intensive and long-distributive-reciprocal modes of action.
Verbs of multiple mode of action with the meaning of repeated repetition in the modern Russian literary language constitute a very small, ever-decreasing group of verbs. They are formed by adding suffixes - willow-/-va-/-a- to a limited range of stems of some imperfective verbs with the meaning of non-unidirectional movement, perception, speech, existence and change of position in space, a specific physical action: walk, sew, ride ( And ride), run, sing, talk, sit, see, hear. These verbs are called multiple or past tense forms because they are used primarily in the past tense form. “The use of multiple non-prefixive formations mainly in the past tense form has been noted by researchers of the Russian language since M.V. Lomonosov". (15, p.82). Shape type sat, walked have somewhat complicated semantics. They denote not only an action that was repeated in the (distant) past, but also emphasize that this repeated action at the moment of speech is no longer repeated. E.N. Prokopovich in the book “Stylistics of Parts of Speech” (p. 78) identifies multiple non-prefixed forms with suffixes in the system of expressive forms of the past tense - a-/-va-/-iva-(-yva) type spoke, ate, knew, wrote, which are carriers of special meanings: repeated (multiple) repetition of an action and the duration of an action in the past.
A.V. Isachenko (7, pp. 430-432) argues that past tense forms from multiple verbs have the meaning of long-past tense. The long past tense expresses processes that took place in the past (in relation to the “moment of speech”), but at the present time (at the “moment of speech”) are no longer repeated. Relation of processes expressed by forms walked around, peed, to the “long past” follows from the general meaning of the imperfect past tense forms. Any form of the past tense of the imperfect form indicates the disunity of this process with the moment of speech.
The forms considered quite widely were common in the literary language of the eighteenth century. They are found in Novikov’s satirical magazines, in Fonvizin’s comedies, in Maikov’s satirical poems and other works of Russian literature, closely related in their language and style to the popular spoken language of that time. In the first half of the nineteenth century, multiple non-prefixed forms were quite widely used in works of Russian fiction of that time: in Krylov’s fables, in Griboedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit”, in the poetry and prose of Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Lermontov.
In his work E.N. Prokopovich (15, p. 79) notes that a turning point in the use of the forms under consideration occurs in the Russian literary language of the second half of the nineteenth century. They become unproductive, and their use is sharply reduced. “Having found themselves, as a result of historical development, outside the living system of species relations, losing their use in a living language, multiple non-prefixed forms still remain in it. At the same time, they receive a new purpose and perform new functions, entering the arsenal of visual means of the language of Russian fiction.” (15, p.78). Multiple verbs serve as a means of archaizing style and are used mainly when depicting folk life.
“The range of multiple forms with negation used in the language becomes even narrower Not and meaning strongest denial" (15, p.102). Multiple verbs in the past tense form with negation have an expressive-intensifying character.
Verbs of multiple mode of action are also formed from prefixed verbs of movement of the imperfect form ( come in, carry out, bring, fly in) using morphs - willow- And - va-: visited, visited, attracted, flew in. All of them have stylistic coloring. This ability of imperfective prefixed verbs of motion to form multiple prefixed verbs of motion with the meaning of irregular repetition of an action, with the meaning of “act from time to time” was noted by V.V. Vinogradov. (1, pp.296-297).
Verbs of intermittent-mitigating mode of action mean a prolonged and weakened action, carried out from time to time. Such verbs are formed from imperfective verbs using the prefix By- and iterative suffixes - willow- / -yva- / -va- / -a -: walk, whistle, talk, look, glance, joke, praise, live, rub, ache, ring, chuckle. Prefix By- indicates intermittency and incompleteness of action, introduces a connotation of a softening effect, and the suffix indicates duration or repeated repetition. N.S. Avilova (1, p. 296) notes that the verbs of this method of action are formed from imperfective verbs with different meanings: from verbs of sensory and visual perceptions ( look, look); from state verbs ( to be afraid, to boast); from verbs meaning position in space (sit, lie down, stand); from polyphasic verbs (knock, jump); from verbs expressing the phenomena of color, smell (glitter, stink); from verbs of existence (live); from transitive verbs of active action directed to an object (scavenge, search). The formation of verbs of intermittent-mitigating mode of action from transitive verbs of active action is unproductive. All verbs of this mode of action have a colloquial connotation and are usually given with the mark “colloquial language”. “This is correct in the sense that verbs of this type are rarely found in book (scientific, journalistic) genres, but the language of the best Russian prose writers is replete with verbs of this mode of action, not only in dialogical passages, but also in the author’s speech.” (7, pp.282-283).
Verbs of long-term emollient mode of action mean a long-term and at the same time weakened effect. Such verbs are formed by adding morphs - willow-, -yva- And -va- and prefixes at-, under- and obviously re-, on-, up- to the basics of imperfective verbs with different meanings: from verbs with the meaning “to be busy with something” (to play tricks, to make fun of, to steal, to click, to haggle); from verbs of sound and speech (howl); from relationship verbs (to make love, to incite); from state verbs (get sick); external manifestations of feelings (play the fool). This also obviously includes verbs with the same meaning of weakness of long-term multiple action, formed with the prefix re-: call back, change your mind; with attachment on the-: hum, dribble, whistle, whisper, play; with attachment vz- mainly from basics with a multiple multi-act value: to lick, to flare, to flare, to flinch, to fling, to flap, to flutter, to flutter.
Verbs of a long-distributive mode of action mean a leisurely action, doing something. N.S. Avilova points out that the long-distributive mode of action gives the verbs the meaning of “spreading the action in different directions” or “spending time doing something with a touch of leisure in its implementation.” (1, p.298). Verbs of this mode of action are formed using the prefix once- and morphs - willow-, -yva- And - va- from some verbs of non-unidirectional movement and close to them: walk, stroll; from polyphasic verbs: swing; from verbs meaning “to be busy with something” smoke; from verbs of speech and sound phenomena: sing, talk. Verb talk in modern language has weakened this meaning.
Verbs of an accompanying mode of action mean that the named action, somewhat weakened in its course, accompanies another action. Such verbs are formed using prefixes at- And under- and morphs - willow-, -yva- And - va- from verbs of sound and speech and polyphasic verbs: click, stamp, sentence, whistle, dance, chorus, sing along, assent, howl, whistle, hum. A.V. Isachenko (7, p. 284) notes that “some verbs formed through prefixes at- or under- in combination with suffixes, have the following connotation of meaning in Russian: the action expressed by the verb should not be considered the main, main action, but only a secondary one, performed together with another action and, therefore, somewhat weakened in the intensity of its manifestation.” All of them have a colloquial coloring, belong to an imperfect form and do not form species pairs.
Verbs of the complex-intensive mode of action in the Russian language are represented weakly and not very clearly. The verbs of this method of action mean that the action is performed intensively, with repetition and isolation of its individual components. They are formed using prefixes you-, from-, on- and morphs -- willow-,-yva- And - va- from verbs of sound: to call, to click, to jingle, to whistle, to call; from verbs meaning “to be busy with something”: to dance, to dance, to whip, to dance, to chop off (numbers), to scramble, to play. They also have a colloquial tone.
Verbs of multiple-distributive-reciprocal mode of action mean an action consisting of many acts, occurring between several subjects. A.V. Isachenko (7, pp. 285-286) believes that the semantics of these verbs can be revealed as follows: “to exchange certain actions.” Such verbs are formed using three morphemes: the prefix re-, postfix - Xia and suffixes - iva-/ yva- / -va- / -a-: talk over each other, laugh at each other, exchange fire, exchange glances, wink at each other, squabble, call each other, correspond, squabble, exchange. The multiple-distributive-reciprocal mode of action comprises a relatively small group of verbs. Verbs of this mode of action are reflexive and have an imperfect form.
Verbs of a multiple-distributive-reciprocal mode of action can be considered as opposed in meaning to verbs of the diminutive-mitigating variety like wink, whisper, exchange: with the general meaning of reciprocity, the latter express the one-act nature and weakening of the action.
The above about the quantitative-temporal modes of action of verbs meaning duration or repeated repetition can be presented in the following table:
Quantitative-temporal modes of action of verbs meaning duration or repeated repetition.
|
Modes of action verbs |
Semantics |
Education |
|
Multiple verbs mode of action |
Repeated repeatability |
-iva-/-va-/-a- |
|
Verbs are intermittent Emollient mode of action |
Prolonged and weakened in its manifestation action carried out occasionally |
po- + -iva-/-va-/-a- |
|
Continuous verbs Emollient mode of action |
Prolonged and weakened action |
up-, at-, under-, over-, na- + -iva-/-va- |
|
Continuous verbs Distributive mode of action |
Leisurely ongoing action doing something |
ras- (raz-) + -iva-/-va- |
|
accompanying mode of action |
Action, several weakened in its flow and accompanying other action |
at-, under- + -iva-/-va- |
|
Complex verbs Intensive mode of action |
The action is carried out intensely, with repetition and highlighting individual its components |
you-, from-, on-, + -iva-/-va- |
|
Verbs multiple times
actions |
foldable many acts of action, carried out several subjects |
re-, + -iva-/-va-/-a + -xia |
The very nature of the semantics of this variety of quantitative-temporal modes of action determines that only non-correlative imperfective verbs belong to them.
Verbs of quantitative-temporal modes of action, meaning duration or repeated repetition, in modern Russian literary language have a very limited scope of application. Many of them have lost their use in the living language and are found mainly in works of fiction. Verbs of quantitative-temporal modes of action, meaning duration or repeated repetition, are used by writers who include forms of oral folk speech in their works. Most of the verbs considered are characteristic of conversational style. Some of them are characterized by a tendency towards vernacular language.
MODE OF ACTION(mode of verbal action, perpetuation, Aktionsart), type of modification of verbal action, expressed by certain word-forming means (prefixes, suffixes, a combination of prefix and suffix or prefix and postfix). So, verb make some noise represents the initial mode of action denoted by a verb make noise, walk around multiple mode of action from a verb walk, cough intermittent softening mode of action from the verb cough, A cough one-time action from the same verb, etc.
The category of mode of action is closely related to the category of type. According to A.V. Isachenko, the type and mode of action are different manifestations of the same phenomenon, located in an additional distribution. Therefore, a verb correlated with some original verb of the opposite aspect is either its aspectual correlate or its regular semantic modification, i.e. way of action. Thus, a distinctive feature of verbal action modes is their lack of aspectual correlates. This point of view is not shared, however, by all aspectologists. The most compelling argument against the inclusion of the sign of species non-pairing in the definition of the method of action is the fact that the ban on the formation of the secondary imperfective in the Russian language is almost always not absolute: for example, the forms buy up or fade(not sov. to buy And bloom) are simply normative, and forms like sit out, be on duty, get sick or get sick do not contradict the Russian morphological system and constantly appear in speech.
Currently, a more accepted approach is that the type and mode of action are considered as phenomena of a different order, although they belong to the same conceptual sphere. Namely, aspect is a grammatical category, and mode of action is word-formative. Moreover, since the content side of both categories is largely common (internal structure and the way the action proceeds in time), in principle, the same verb can turn out to be both an aspectual correlate of some verb of the opposite aspect and one of its modes of action if it simultaneously satisfies the functional criterion of species correlativity ( cm. TYPE) and, in addition, in its form and meaning it corresponds to one of the modes of action. So, for example, the verb like it is at the same time a species correlate to like and its initial mode of action in contrast to the verb fall in love, which is only a mode of action, but not a species correlate to be in love. Verbs like jump, throw or bite are simultaneously a one-time mode of action to jump, throw And bite and their species correlates. In other words, the content side of the category of type and the content side of the category of method of action are very close; the difference between them concerns the functional side and ultimately comes down to the fact that belonging to one of the two types is obligatory for any Russian verb, but belonging to one of the modes of action is not. Yes, we can say He often visited me(multiple mode of action) if we want to specifically express the idea of multiplicity in the verb. But we can express the same situation with the words He often came to see me, leaving this idea unexpressed in the verb.
Most modes of action are formed from imperfective verbs: by adding a prefix, the process designated by the original imperfective verb is limited in a certain way, either quantitatively or qualitatively (cf. speak"stop talking" dissuade= "stop talking", talk all evening, talk about the weather, talk nonsense, reach an agreement to the point of absurdity, etc.); such modes of action themselves belong to the perfect form with the exception of those that include an imperfective suffix ( Hajj willow t, By smatr willow yeah, at dance yva t). On the other hand, there are some modes of action formed from perfective verbs ( come up with something stories; all the trees in the garden frozen over).
The main modes of action of a Russian verb include the following.
Beginners methods of action, among which there are inchoative And invasive. The inchoative mode of action is formed using the prefix behind- and is among the most productive; it is regularly formed from the designations of homogeneous situations that have neither an initial nor a final phase different from the middle one, for example: make some noise, ring, meow, whistle, mumble, whisper, drum, stink;turn white, flash, get excited, doubt, be capricious, put on airs; come in around the room, run in, dance, breathe and so on. Inchoative verbs seem to “cut out” the initial segment of the situation, by which the entire situation can be identified as a whole. Therefore, the verbs from which this mode of action is formed must describe relatively “simple” situations, those that can be identified in this short period of their occurrence. Yes, you can say The telephone rang, but not * She rang the phone, since the action of “calling the phone,” in contrast to simply “calling,” is not homogeneous: it consists of a sequence of heterogeneous actions, united by a certain goal and comprehended through it. Therefore, most verbs with inchoative behind- denote phenomena perceived by the senses. An important feature of inchoative verbs is the absence of secondary imperfectives. Inchoative verbs are accompanied by a number of verbs that could be called improperly inchoative: get sick, bloom, light a cigarette, speak, sing, catch fire, boil, having, in contrast to the actual inchoative verbs, correlative forms of the imperfect form (respectively: get sick, bloom, light a cigarette, talk, start singing, light up, boil); These correlative verbs of the imperfect form have the meaning of the process of passing through the initial phase. The productivity of the inchoative mode of action is manifested in the abundance of new formations made according to this model; compare: to respect, to despise, to have, get ready home, request walk, sob and so on.
Another type of initial meaning is represented by the ingressive mode of action, which includes verbs with the prefix By- . This includes two groups of verbs. On the one hand, these are verbs denoting directed movement; in combination with attachment By- they indicate the beginning of the corresponding movement (as well as the action as a whole): go, run, fly, ride, jump, rush, blow(about the wind) water(about rain) knock down(about snow) crumble and so on. Moreover, if the inchoative mode of action allows one to “see” the action being described, to imagine the way it will proceed, the ingressive mode of action only indicates the fact that the action has begun and, thus, will most likely be carried out. On the other hand, the ingressive mode of action includes a number of verbs with the prefix By-, formed from verbs of perception and internal state: to seem, to feel, to fancy, to imagine, to think, to love, to please. However, all these verbs (except fall in love) also describe not only the beginning of the state, but also the very fact of its presence.
Delimitative(= restrictive) mode of action is formed from verbs denoting unlimited processes using the prefix By- ; verbs of a given mode of action describe a certain “portion” of an action, assessed as small and limited by the time during which it was performed, for example: take a walk, travel, live, play, fly, wave, keep quiet, do some work and many more etc. Verbs of a delimitive mode of action tend to turn into a specific correlate. So, verb eat, depending on the circumstances, can act in both functions, cf.: Eat my ice cream while you're at it(delimitative mode of action) and Have you already eaten? (used as an aspectual correlate of the verb There is). Delimitative verbs are never subject to secondary imperfectification; verbs like cough, smoke, walk, which can be taken as secondary imperfectives to cough, smoke, take a walk, they are not: they represent another mode of action, namely intermittent-mitigating, the formal indicator of which is the combination of the prefix By- with the suffix - willow-.
Perdurative(= long-term restrictive) mode of action is formed using the prefix pro- and denotes an action that seems to completely “fill” a certain period of time. If we say that a person worked for thirty years at a factory, I've been idle for three years, lay in bed all day or I talked on the phone for an hour and a half, we report that the named period of time has passed and he was entirely occupied with this activity. Perdurative verbs sit out, lie down, stand still are subject to secondary imperfectification, cf.: He every day sits out ten hours at the computer, lies before lunch in bed, idle three hours in line. With other perdurative verbs, the formation of the secondary imperfect is difficult.
Finitive the mode of action is formed using the prefix from- and denotes the cessation of some activity or state, emphasizing that the situation has not just ceased to take place, but will no longer take place, cannot continue: Dissuaded golden grove; Have faded There have been chrysanthemums in the garden for a long time.
Finitive verbs are characterized by compatibility with the word yours, introducing into consideration the idea of a certain amount of action “measured” by fate to a given person or object, cf.: The car has left its mark(it doesn’t matter if she had an accident or rotted in the garage, the main thing is that she won’t drive anymore); The clock was running out(broken and impossible to repair); The ship has sailed; I've done my part, was on duty, won back, fell out of love, unlearned, tired out etc. Finitive verbs have some expressive coloring and often contain an evaluative component, with an unfixed evaluation sign. Yes, a proposal I've done my part can express both regret and pleasure that the speaker will no longer have to work. This method of action is very productive. It is freely formed from almost any verbs denoting unlimited homogeneous processes or states. (When joining verbs denoting limiting processes, the prefix from- has a completely different meaning, namely resultative, represented in many verbs like repair, chip away, scold, rehearse, adjust and so on.)
Cumulative(= cumulative) mode of action is formed using the prefix on the- and denotes the “accumulation of the result” of an action: buy(a lot of) things make a mess(lots of) mistakes; file firewood, tune houses, cook jam, promise with three boxes, mess up trouble, invent ; piled up , attacked and so on. This mode of action is sometimes also formed from intransitive verbs: mischief, cause mischief, inhale, spray For verbs of a cumulative mode of action, built on the basis of intransitive verbs of indefinite movement, an object appears with the meaning of time or distance: run over, fly over, find(many hours or kilometers). Many verbs of cumulative mode of action contain a slight negative evaluation: not just “a lot”, but perhaps “too much”. This introduces a shade of condemnation into the meaning of the verbs of a given mode of action, sometimes barely noticeable, and sometimes pronounced, cf. characteristic combinations with a figurative evaluative value of the type make a mess. The cumulative mode of action can be formed from verbs of both the perfect and imperfect form: buy(Soviet) ® buy; break(non-sov.) ® break; come up with(Soviet) ® come up with something; invent(non-sov.) ® invent. Verbs of a cumulative mode of action can be appended with a prefix By-, forming a verb of a cumulative-distributive mode of action, the meaning of which sometimes includes an additional shade of diversity of accumulated objects: dial / recruit , stuff/stuff. Verbs of the cumulative-distributive mode of action contain the same disparaging connotation as the distributive ones themselves, moreover, this connotation is even intensified, cf.: configure, open again, make things up ,give birth , make mistakes in dictation>, name,train etc.
Saturated the mode of action is formed by attaching a prefix on the- simultaneously with the reflexive particle (postfix) -xia and indicates that the action was carried out until complete saturation or even satiety: run up, take a walk, ride around, buy up, eat up, eat, get drunk, get high and so on. Verbs of this mode of action are often accompanied by words like plenty, to your heart's content, satiated, until exhaustion, to capacity, until you're blue in the face, to the point of insanity and so on. In its content, this method of action is close to cumulative (and is sometimes interpreted as a special case of it) with the difference that the focus is on the subject himself. Some of the saturative verbs are used predominantly with negation, cf. He couldn't stop looking at her(look at it); I can't see enough; you can't save him and so on.
Various intensively effective modes of action are formed using a combination of prefixes before-, for-, once- with postfix -xia: call,play too hard, talk.
Achieving method of action ( to-…-xia ) indicates bringing an action to the desired result by applying great effort, with difficulty, overcoming obstacles, etc., cf.: call to someone on the phone, dig down to the truth shout out, reach out to someone wait someone or something, etc. However, the same model can also be used to express a somewhat opposite idea, denoting the bringing of an action to an undesirable result that was not intended in advance, cf. buy more to pneumonia, finish drinking to delirium tremens/to green devils, finish smoking to the point of nausea finalize to a nervous breakdown, etc.
Verbs with circumfix for-…-sya form a mode of action that is sometimes called excessively prolonged and which indicates that the action has exceeded some measure in its continuation, that most likely this happened regardless of the will of the subject (because he was too carried away by this action) and, possibly, led to some - negative consequences. For example: stay too long visiting, start talking, play too hard, get engrossed in, take a walk, get philosophical, make a living in this world, lie low. Verbs associated with this mode of action think about it, take a look, stare at it, listen, daydream. They differ in that they primarily express the idea of passion, “immersion” in a certain state and do not emphasize the idea of excessive duration.
There is also a group of verbs of the evolutive mode of action with circumfix un-…-sya , denoting the final phase of a gradual increase in the intensity of the action and, as a consequence, the achievement of a high degree of realization of a certain state: get sick, get lazy, go wild, talk, flare up and so on.
One-time(= one-act, semelactive) mode of action is formed by adding the suffix -Well- or -anu- and denotes one “quantum” of activity described by the original verb. Wed. with suffix -Well- : swallow swallow, look look, move move, yawn yawn, swing swing, throw throw, prick prick, shout scream, scold scold, sparkle sparkle, throw throw, to pinch to pinch and so on. A one-time mode of action is formed from verbs denoting simple physical actions, as well as acoustic and optical phenomena. In this case, the situation described by the original verb may either already consist of these “quanta” (i.e., for example, blink represents repeated repetition of an action blink; such verbs are called multi-phase or multi-act), or be homogeneous (cf. blow, look, scold, frighten, go on a spree). In the latter case, the quantification is created by the suffix itself -Well-, Wed blow, take a look, swear, scare, go on a spree. Verbs to -Well-, formed from verbs denoting homogeneous processes (such as smear or take a look), usually stylistically colored: the components “quickly” and “strongly” contained in the meaning of this method of action, transforming on a pragmatic plane into the idea of “brute force” and at the same time presenting the action as being performed “at a walk”, create a shade of some cynical swagger, deliberate vulgarity cf. especially neoplasms of the type smoke, speculate criticize communicate. Besides the suffix -Well- to form a one-time mode of action, the suffix is also used -anu- , less frequent and with a more pronounced expressive-colloquial or even colloquial coloring, cf. to bang, to flail, to say, to smear, to freak out, to push, to flutter, to brag and so on. All such verbs denote a one-time action, performed sharply, with force and rudely, but at the same time it is spoken of with some irony, the speaker treats it as if “not seriously.”
Emollient(= attenuative) mode of action is formed by adding prefixes By- , under- And at- from perfective verbs that already contain a prefix: get used to it, stretch, have some fun, reflect, dry off, subside; forget about it, get tipsy, get bored, accumulate money; think about it, lie down, open slightly, open a little, suspend, lower flag, etc. Verbs of a softening mode of action mean “to do something lightly, without making an effort, for a short time” and express a somewhat condescending (but rather benevolent) attitude towards the action itself or towards its subject on the part of the speaker. For the most part, emollient verbs have a distinctly colloquial tone.
Multiple(= iterative, frequent) mode of action is formed using suffixes -yva- /-willow-, -va- , -á- , the same ones that are used for imperfectification, but attached to imperfective verbs: walk stroll, sit sit, talk talk, hear hear And hear, to see to see And apparently, eat eat, to drink to drink, live live, to know to know, to be to happen(cf. with imperfectification: rewrite rewrite, open open, start begin). In the literary language of the 19th century. There were significantly more multiple verbs. Although almost all verbs of this type existing in the modern language have an archaic connotation, it cannot be said that this model is unproductive. In speech, you can often find frequentatives formed using the suffix -yva-/-willow-, For example: read read, lie down lie down, stand melt, play play, ride ride and so on.
Intermittent softening the mode of action is formed by adding a prefix By- , under- or at- in combination with the suffix -yva-/-willow- and mean “to do something from time to time and little by little.” The most productive model is with an attachment By- : smoke, drink, take a walk, cough, ache, walk around, pinch weed, pee poems, fool around, beat wife, etc.
Verbs formed according to this model are of two types. Some denote actions that are identified only over large intervals. In response to the question What is he doing now? you can say: Drinks wine and smokes; Sits at the table and writes an article; Lying in bed and reading a book. But you can't: drinks and smokes; sits and pees; lies down and reads. Other verbs, on the contrary, denote actual actions and states: cough, sparkle, snuffle, sway. Some verbs have both types of usage, cf.: The judge is already looking at the stopwatch And Our son is already looking at women. Prefixes are somewhat less common under- And at- : steal, laugh at, make fun of, plow up, bargain, limp. Verbs of intermittent-mitigating mode of action belong to the imperfect form. It should be emphasized that they are single-species, i.e. are not imperfective correlates of verbs of delimitive mode of action: take a walk does not form a pair with take a walk, sit to sit etc.
Distributive(= distributive) mode of action is formed by attaching a prefix re- or By- ; a prerequisite for the realization of this meaning is the plurality of the object or subject (depending on the transitivity of the verb). Verbs of the distributive mode of action denote an action affecting all objects from the set called the direct object for transitive verbs and the subject for intransitive verbs; Accordingly, within the distributive mode of action, two subtypes are distinguished: object ( interrupt all the dishes overwash all linen stay at all resorts; transplant to the prisons of all bandits; quarrel with all my friends; kiss all girls; lock up all doors throw away all the trash, etc.) and subjective (All the old people in the village died; By that time all her friends had already went out get married). It is also possible to use both prefixes at once (All animals in the zoo got some rest; All apple trees over the winter frozen over). Verbs of this class often contain a slight shade of cynicism, associated with the fact that the participants in the event are considered as a kind of undifferentiated multitude, and the event itself as something ordinary. From the point of view of their morphological structure, verbs of the distributive mode of action have the peculiarity that the prefix forming this mode of action can be attached to the verb of both the perfect and imperfect form, cf.: All the old people died/died; All doors locked up/locked up.
The variety of shades concerning the way an action proceeds and the speaker’s attitude towards it, expressed by word-formation means, is no less striking feature of the Russian verbal system than the presence in it of the grammatical category of aspect. As A.V. Isachenko writes, “from the point of view of the specific weight of the expressive means of the Slavic verb, it is the fulfillment, with its unusually rich palette of subtle and subtle shades of meaning, that gives the Slavic verb that versatility and flexibility that knows no parallel among European languages.” .
Anna Zaliznyak