The Republic of Karelia is located in the northwestern part of Russia. In the west it borders with Finland, in the south with the Leningrad and Vologda regions, in the north with Murmansk, in the east with the Arkhangelsk region, and in the northeast it is washed by the White Sea. The territory of the republic stretches from north to south (from 66°40" to 60°40" N), its length in this direction reaches 660 km. From west to east, the length at the latitude of the city of Kemi is 424 km. The area of Karelia is 172.4 thousand km2.
The geographical position of Karelia, the elongation of the territory from north to south largely determine the specificity of climatic conditions in its different parts, the nature and distribution of vegetation, and significant swampiness. A fairly humid climate and rugged terrain with frequently changing elevations and depressions were the reason for the formation of many lakes (from the largest - Onega and Ladoga - to drainless lambushki) and rivers with rapids and waterfalls.
The basis of the Karelian landscape is the geological history of the development of this unique region, as a result of which the corresponding rocks were formed here, sometimes unique, not found anywhere else, rich in various minerals.
Karelia is located on the southeastern slope of the Baltic Shield - one of the largest protrusions of the foundation of the ancient East European Platform. Here, over a large area, Precambrian crystalline rocks that make up the earth's crust are developed, overlain by a cover of the youngest Quaternary and modern sediments. Formations of other geological systems have insignificant distribution.
If you mentally remove the cover of Quaternary loose sediments, then among the original Precambrian foundation formations exposed on the surface of the Earth in the modern erosional section, you can see a picture that is usually schematically depicted on geographical maps. They show fields of rocks of different ages and compositions in different colors. Large areas here are composed of granites and gneiss granites.
Against their background, stripes of sedimentary-volcanic formations and irregularly shaped areas of ancient sediments stand out clearly; ovals or lines indicating the location of intrusive igneous rocks of mafic and other compositions. There are a large number of varieties of rocks, differing in composition, method of formation, degree and nature of transformations (metamorphism), as well as age. And they all make up the ancient earth's crust.
In recent years, based on complex geological and geographical studies, extensive information has been obtained on the deep structure of the earth's crust on the Baltic Shield, including in Karelia. It has been established that the continental-type earth's crust here has a layered block structure. The layered structure of the earth's crust is due to its heterogeneous composition across the section.
According to geological data, it has been revealed that at a depth of 30 to 42 km (different in different zones) there is the base of the earth’s crust, which is separated by the “Moss” section from the upper mantle lying below it. Inside the earth's crust, there are also dividing lines, the main one of which separates the lower “basalt” (or granulite-basalt) layer from the upper diorite-granite (or granite-metamorphic) layer. This dividing line, called the Conrad boundary, is located at a depth of 8 to 20 km.
The thickness of the earth's crust and its constituent layers varies in area. The combination of layers of the earth's crust with different thicknesses in different zones led to the emergence of sections of the earth's crust that differ in geological structure and possible ore content. These areas, or, as they are called, blocks of the earth's crust, have different areas and configurations. The largest blocks in area, for example the Karelo-Kola geoblock, are divided into megablocks, and those, in turn, into blocks of smaller sizes. The junction zones of megablocks of the earth's crust are large structural sutures, or zones of deep tectonic faults that cut through the earth's crust.
Thus, the structure of the modern earth’s crust in the Karelian region combines two main features: its layered and block structure. The emergence of this type of structure of the earth's crust was the result of a long and complex geological history.
The geological formations themselves, which formed at different times on the surface of the earth, in the upper part of its diorite-granite layer, help decipher the history of the formation of the earth's crust and the geological processes that took place on its surface. And although these sedimentary-volcanic formations have undergone uneven and sometimes very strong metamorphic transformations under the influence of time-varying pressure, temperatures, gas-water regime, magmatic activity and other factors, the primary signs of the formation of rocks on the earth’s surface are established in them.
The moraine of the last glaciation covers a significant part of the territory of Karelia. It is represented mainly by boulder sands and sandy loams; in the southern part there are also loamy and even clayey varieties. As a result of the melting of large masses of ice, the released glacial melt water washed and redeposited the moraine, forming fluvioglacial deposits represented by obliquely and horizontally layered coarse-grained pebble sands and gravel-pebble-boulder formations. Accumulating in depressions of the preglacial relief at the edge of the glacier, these waters formed lakes in which lacustrine-glacial sediments were deposited - ribbon clays, silts and sands, which currently make up the periglacial plains and kamas. In the northern regions of Karelia, late- and post-glacial marine clays, sands and pebbles are developed.
About 10 thousand years ago, organogenic peat-bog deposits and diatomites began to form. Glaciolacustrine basins shrank in size, gradually acquiring contours close to the modern outlines of lakes; near their coasts, post-glacial lacustrine sandy and sandy-pebble sediments came to the surface. Their most significant areas are observed near large lakes - Onega, Ladoga, Topozero, Pyaozero and others. Here, in small areas, aeolian deposits are developed, represented by clean fine-grained sands, without gravel and pebble inclusions.
On the surface of pre-Quaternary formations, immediately after the melting of the glacier, eluvial-deluvial deposits and weathering crusts began to form, noted in a number of places in the southern regions of Karelia.
The youngest alluvial sands, sandy loams (often with pebbles) and, less frequently, clays are developed in the valleys of large rivers, where they form floodplain channel areas.
The geological potential of a territory's subsoil is determined by the totality of all mineral deposits located within its boundaries. Depending on the characteristics of the geological structure, each territory is characterized by certain mineral resources, characterized by certain quantitative, qualitative and other parameters.
The territory of Karelia covers part of the Baltic Shield, which is a large Precambrian structure. Within such structures on all continents of the world, most or a significant part of the world's industrial reserves of ferrous, non-ferrous and precious metal ores and non-metallic minerals are concentrated. Based on this attribute, Karelia is considered to be promising for the listed types of mineral raw materials, which is confirmed by the presence within its borders of a number of large deposits and promising occurrences of various types of ores.
Most deposits are inaccessible or cannot be identified through direct observations; their identification and assessment are possible in the process of geological study. In this regard, the number of identified and explored deposits and, accordingly, the confirmed geological potential of the subsoil depends on the degree of geological knowledge of the territories.
Knowledge is assessed by the detail (scale) of research, the range of research methods used, and also depends on the degree of openness of the geological structures and rock complexes being assessed. Most of the promising structures of Karelia are covered by a cover of Quaternary sediments and assessment of their ore content is impossible without the use of a wide range of geophysical, geochemical and other special research methods. Each research method is constantly being improved as science and technology develop, and the effectiveness of its application increases over time. This is confirmed by the analysis of the results of geological exploration work carried out on the territory of Karelia during different periods of its study, which allows us to note the following features: - the first discoveries included mineral deposits that came directly to the surface and were easily diagnosed visually. These include deposits of mica-muscovite, developed since the 15th century, numerous deposits of lake iron ores, building materials, and small vein deposits of copper.
With the introduction of aeromagnetic surveys into the practice of geological exploration in a relatively short time in the late 40s of the 20th century, areas of distribution of iron ore formations and other rock complexes characterized by anomalous magnetic fields were identified in the territory of Karelia;
The use since the early 70s of a complex of geophysical (magnetic, electrical, gravity prospecting) and geochemical research methods, combined with significant volumes of drilling and mining work, led to the discovery of numerous deposits and occurrences of minerals (tin, nickel, molybdenum, chromium , vanadium, noble metals). At the same time, some of the promising objects were identified in territories that were considered relatively well studied (pg manifestations in the North Karelian layered massifs and the Pudozhgorsk titanomagnetite deposit, occurrences of gold in the Kostomuksha ore field, vanadium in the Onega structure, etc.).
Thus, the use of more advanced research methods in geological exploration practice led to the discovery of new, previously unknown types of mineral deposits in Karelia.
Unfortunately, with the beginning of market reforms in Russia, the volume of government funding for geological exploration has sharply decreased, and investments from other sources have not yet compensated for the resulting budget financing deficit. This led to a slowdown in the growth of the mineral resource potential of Karelia, the cessation of regional geological surveying and geophysical work, which creates the fundamental basis for the systematic geological study and forecasting of mineral resources in the subsoil.
KARELIA (Republic of Karelia), subject of the Russian Federation. Located in the north-west of the European part of Russia. In the northeast it is washed by the White Sea, in the south by Lakes Ladoga and Onega. In the west it borders with Finland. It is part of the Northwestern Federal District. Area 180.5 thousand km2. Population 693.2 thousand people (2007; 261.0 thousand people in 1926; 651.0 thousand people in 1959; 791.3 thousand people in 1989). The capital is Petrozavodsk. Administrative-territorial division: 15 districts, 13 cities, 11 urban-type settlements.
Government departments. The system of government bodies of the republic is determined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the Constitution of the Republic of Karelia (2001). State power in Karelia is exercised by the Legislative Assembly, the head of the republic, the government, and other executive authorities in accordance with the Constitution of the republic. The head of the republic is the highest official vested with powers by the Legislative Assembly on the proposal of the President of the Russian Federation. The Legislative Assembly of the Republic of Karelia is a permanent representative and the only legislative body of state power of the republic. Consists of 50 deputies elected on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot for a period of 5 years. Deputies of the Legislative Assembly work both on a professional permanent basis and on a non-permanent basis (the number of deputies working on a professional permanent basis is established by law and cannot be more than 1/3 of the established number of deputies of the Legislative Assembly). Executive power in the Republic of Karelia is exercised by the head of the republic, the government headed by him and other executive bodies.
Nature. Relief. The territory of Karelia is located mainly in the eastern part of Fennoscandia. In general, the relief is represented by a hilly mid-altitude denudation plain, complicated by basement elevations and massifs formed under the conditions of tectonic uplifts. In the most elevated western part of Karelia, the relief is represented by a peculiar denudation-tectonic small hills of the Maanselka hills (height up to 576 m, Mount Nuoruunen is the highest point of Karelia), West Karelian (height up to 417 m) and their spurs. In the central part stretch the low Tunguda Upland and the northwestern extremity of the relatively monolithic basement ridge Vetreny Poyas. The hilly ridge topography of the Olonets Upland (height up to 311 m) southwest of the city of Petrozavodsk and the adjacent Urskaya (in the west) and Shokshinskaya (in the east) ridges are formed at the outcrops of the foundation and in moraine deposits. Complex ridge complexes (selgi and depressions between them) are most characteristic of Zaonezhye, which abounds in bays and lakes stretching from northwest to southeast. Ridges are often represented by interlobate and end-moraine formations. There are eskers and kamas. In the southwest, east and southeast of Karelia there are lowlands: heavily swampy lacustrine-glacial Olonetskaya, marine abrasion-accumulative Pribelomorskaya and well-drained abrasion-accumulative Vodlinskaya. Among the cover of marine and lacustrine clays and sands, protrusions of crystalline rocks (“ram’s foreheads”) are not uncommon. The shores of the White Sea are subject to tidal influences (amplitude up to 2-3 m). The coast of the Onega Bay of the White Sea (most of the Pomeranian coast) is low-lying and marshy, gently sloping rocky hills (the so-called varaki) and capes are few in number. The Karelian coast and partly the Pomeranian coast are heavily indented. The bays (Kalgalakshskaya, Kemskaya, Sorokskaya, etc.) and straits (Great Salma, etc.) protruding deeply into the land, plowed out by ice in the rocky base along fault zones, between forested skerries and treeless luds turn the coast into a complex archipelago. Skerry shores are also typical for the northern part of the Ladoga region (the area of the city of Sortavala and the Valaam archipelago). Along the eastern shore of Lake Ladoga, dunes are developed in places.
Geological structure and minerals . The territory of Karelia is located in the southeastern part of the Baltic shield of the ancient East European Platform, mostly within the Karelian block (granite-greenstone region), which in the east borders the White Sea block (granulite-gneiss belt), and in the extreme southwest - with the Svecofennian block (movable belt). The Karelian block is formed by Archean granitoids, gneisses, crystalline schists and greenstone belts (age 3.0-2.7 billion years), composed of komatiites, basalts, dacites, rhyolites (in the central part of Karelia also andesites), tuffs, intruded sills and diabase dikes and overlain by conglomerates, sandstones and ferruginous quartzites. The greenstone belts of Karelia extend mainly submeridionally. Archean formations are intruded by Early Proterozoic intrusions of basic and ultrabasic compositions (for example, the Burakovsko-Aganozero massif east of Lake Onega) and are overlain in superimposed graben-like depressions of northwest strike (the largest - the Onega trough - is located to the west and north-west of Lake Onega) Lower Proterozoic weakly metamorphosed sedimentary-volcanogenic strata (basalts, basaltic andesites, tuffs, tuffaceous-clastic rocks, conglomerates, breccias, gravelites, sandstones, siltstones, siliceous, clayey, carbonaceous shales, dolomites, limestones), which are penetrated by sills and dikes of gabbro and diabase . The ancient complexes of the Karelian block are intruded by rapakivi granites, as well as gabbro and anarthosites about 1.6 billion years old (for example, a large massif northeast of Lake Ladoga). The White Sea belt, stretching along the coast of the White Sea, is thrust over the Karelian block and is composed of Archean gneisses, amphibolites, migmatites (age 2.9-2.8 billion years) on the territory of Karelia, which underwent intensive tectonothermal processing in the Early Proterozoic. Gneisses and migmatites form dome structures. A fragment of the Svecofennian block (northwest of Lake Ladoga) is formed by Lower Proterozoic gneisses and crystalline schists, intruded by granites and gabbros. A Riphean astrobleme has been identified north of Lake Ladoga (Lake Yanisjärvi). In the south and southeast of Karelia, Precambrian rocks of the Baltic Shield are subducted under the Middle Riphean volcanic-terrigenous, as well as Upper Vendian, Upper Devonian and Carboniferous carbonate and terrigenous deposits of the Russian Plate. The bedrock is mostly covered by a thin (several meters, rarely several tens of meters) cover of glacial, fluvio-glacial, and in some places marine sediments of Quaternary age (boulder sandy loams and loams, clays, sands).
The most important mineral resources of Karelia are iron ores (Kostomuksha and Korpangskoye deposits), chromium and nickel (Aganozerskoye), and molybdenum (Lobash) deposits. There are deposits of uranium-vanadium ores with molybdenum, copper, gold, silver, platinum, palladium (Middle Padma), zinc-tin ores with silver, iron, cadmium (Kitelskoye), vanadium-containing titanomagnetite ores (Pudozhgorskoye), gold ores (Mayskoye), pegmatites (Khetolambina), muscovite (Crimson Varakka and other White Sea mica provinces), granites (Laskelya, Kashina Gora), gabbro and diabase (Kokkomyaki, Lizhemskoye, Goloday Gora), the so-called Shoksha quartzite sandstones (Pukhtinskoye), as well as natural building materials ( crushed stone, clay, sand, gravel), gemstone raw materials, etc. Only in Karelia are known industrial accumulations of shungite (Zazhoginskoe deposit, etc.). A special place among the mineral resources of Karelia is occupied by medicinal mineral waters (Marcial Waters, Olonetsky deposits). Prospects for diamond potential have been identified.
Climate. Natural conditions for the population's life are moderately favorable, favorable in the southern part. The moderate continental climate of Karelia, moderated by the influence of the White and Baltic seas, is characterized by high relative air humidity (especially in the northern part of Karelia), significant cloudiness, and unstable weather conditions. Winter is long and relatively mild; Thaws are frequent, followed by heavy snowfall and sudden cold snaps. Summer is short and cool, with frequent sharp drops in air temperature and heavy rains. Average annual temperatures (from 0°C in the north to 3°C in the south) are much higher than in similar latitudes of continental Russia. Average temperatures in January are from -9 to -14°C, in July from 14 to 16°C. Average annual precipitation generally increases from north to south from 450 to 700 mm, decreasing slightly in areas adjacent to large lakes and on the leeward slopes of hills. Most of the precipitation falls in the summer. Stable snow cover is observed from November to April, its thickness is 40-60 cm, less often up to 100 cm. The duration of the frost-free period is from 80-90 days in the north to 120-130 days in the Ladoga and Onega regions, the growing season is from 60 to 100 days.
Inland waters. Karelia is rich in surface water resources. Numerous rivers, lakes, and reservoirs occupy 23% of the republic’s area. A dense lake-river network is developed; The average long-term total river flow is 57 km 3 per year. The largest in terms of drainage basin area (over 10 thousand km 2) are the systems of the Kem, Vyg, Vodla, and Shuya rivers. The predominant rivers are no more than 10 km long, 30 rivers have a length of over 100 km. The rivers of the northern and central parts of Karelia (57% of the territory) belong to the White Sea basin (55% of the river flow): the largest are the Kem, Vyg, as well as the Vonga, Keret, Kuzema, Nyukhcha, Pongoma, etc. The Baltic Sea basin (43% of the territory ) belong to Vodla, Suna, Shuya (flow into Lake Onega, 25% of the river flow), Vidlitsa, Olonka, Tulemayoki (flow into Lake Ladoga, 20% of the river flow). The rivers are fed predominantly by snow (more than 1/2 of the river flow is formed due to spring snowmelt) and rain; The river flow is significantly regulated by numerous lakes and swamps. The bottom profiles of most of the river valleys have not been developed; rapids and waterfalls are frequent (Kivach and Girvas on the Suna River, etc.), the average drop is 10 m per 1 km. The rivers of Karelia have a high hydropower potential of 4900 GWh per year. Karelia has one of the highest lake content rates in the world (21%); There are over 61 thousand lakes in the republic, 20 of which have an area of over 100 km 2. In addition to the largest in Europe, Lake Ladoga (within Karelia - over 40% of the water area) and Lake Onega (80% of the water area), the most significant in size are Vygozero, Topozero, Segozero, Pyaozero. Large lakes are predominantly of glacial-tectonic, glacial and moraine-dammed origin, while swamp lakes predominate in the group of small reservoirs. Swamps occupy about 20% of the territory; the White Sea and Olonets lowlands have the highest degree of swampiness (up to 80%), the least are the Maanselka and West Karelian uplands (5-15%). In the 1950-80s, 720 thousand hectares of swamps were drained in central and southern Karelia. 29 lake reservoirs with a total volume of 80.2 km 3 were created, including Verkhnesvirskoye, Segozerskoye, Kumskoye. In the eastern part, the territory of Karelia is crossed by the White Sea-Baltic Canal.
Soils, flora and fauna. The territory is located within the subzones of the northern and middle taiga. The fine dissection of the relief, the diversity of soil-forming rocks, the high degree of lake content and swampiness determine the significant diversity and frequent contrasting changes in soil and vegetation cover. In general, the soil cover of the northern taiga is dominated by illuvial-ferruginous podzols (often gravelly and bouldered) in combination with illuvial-humus podzols along relief depressions; characterized by vast tracts of peat oligotrophic soils (Belomorskaya lowland, etc.). Within the middle taiga, alpha-humus and bog soils occupy slightly smaller areas. Gleyzems developed on marine and lacustrine clays and loams are typical for the Olonets Lowland. In the North-Western Ladoga region, under conditions of a warmer and milder climate, coarse humus brown soils were formed. Soddy shungite soils with high natural fertility, common in Zaonezhye and Northwestern Prionezhye, are unique. Among swamp soils, the peat soils of lowland and transitional swamps are more typical for the middle taiga. Marsh soils are developed along the White Sea coast.
The forest cover of Karelia is 52.6%, the total standing timber stock is 946 million m 3 (2003). Forests with a predominance of pine occupy 64.5% of the forested area, spruce - 24.2%; The share of small-leaved species (silver and downy birch, aspen, gray alder, etc.) accounts for 11.3% of the forest area. In the north of Karelia, up to the latitude of the Kem River, sparse lichen and green moss spruce and pine forests, as well as sphagnum pine forests, predominate. In the central regions of Karelia, pine forests dominate: mainly lichen, green moss and rock. The relative predominance of northern taiga spruce forests is typical for the extreme north-west of Karelia, middle taiga (shrub-green moss and blueberry) - for Zaonezhye and Prionezhye. The widespread rock outcrops in Karelia are characterized by peculiar low-growing pine and spruce forests with a predominance of lichens and shrubs in the ground cover. Small-leaved species usually dominate in secondary forests, which are most common in the southern part of the republic. Most of the forest areas of Karelia have been repeatedly subjected to industrial logging. At the same time, in the western part of the republic along the Russian-Finnish border, the largest tracts of native old-growth forests in Europe have been preserved, occupying 7% of the territory of Karelia (part of the so-called Green Belt of Fennoscandia) and having enormous environmental and environmental significance.
One of the symbols of Karelia is the Karelian birch, which has a decorative patterned wood texture and is widely used for making furniture and souvenirs. Since the early 1930s, its artificial cultivation has been practiced; the few natural plantings that have survived in the southern regions of Karelia are protected within several botanical reserves. Of the known 150 species of medicinal plants, 70 species are used in medicine (bearberry, lingonberry, blueberry, wild rosemary, cinquefoil erecta, etc.). Of the 100 types of food plants, the most important are cranberries, lingonberries, blueberries, and cloudberries. The biological reserve of edible mushrooms (about 200 species) is about 164 thousand tons per year.
Swamps occupy over 25% of the territory in the northern taiga and over 15% in the middle taiga. Among the 7 main types of bogs in Karelia, the most common in area are the so-called Karelian ring aapa bogs - grass-sphagnum-hypnous ridge-hollow and ridge-lake bogs; sphagnum ridge-hollow oligotrophic bogs are more typical for the northern taiga. On the islands of the White Sea, tundra-like shrub communities predominate, with crowberries dominating, with elfin forms of birch and juniper. In the extreme north-west, on the slopes of the Maanselkä upland, altitudinal zonation is expressed: birch-spruce woodlands give way to birch crooked forests at the tops, and mountain shrub-lichen tundras on the highest peaks.
Among the main hunting and commercial species: elk, wild boar, wolf, brown bear, grouse birds. Hunting of wolverine, lynx and wild reindeer, whose populations have been declining since the early 1990s, is prohibited. The Canadian beaver, raccoon dog, and American mink, unintentionally introduced in the mid-20th century, have spread widely across the territory of Karelia (almost replacing the native European mink); the European beaver has been successfully reacclimatized. Among the birds, typical forest species predominate; in areas of intensive logging, the number of about 40 bird species (owls, diurnal raptors, etc.) sharply decreases. The avifauna includes a high proportion of waterfowl and semi-aquatic birds. On the islands of the Onega Bay of the White Sea (Russky Kuzov, etc.) large colonies of seabirds (auk, herring gull, common eider, etc.) are known; in the southeastern Ladoga region there are large concentrations of Anseriformes that stop here on migration. Of the fish, about 30 species are of commercial importance, including freshwater (whitefish, European vendace, pike perch, bream) and sea (White Sea herring, navaga, flounder).
The flora includes over 1,770 species of plants; 18 species of plants and fungi are included in the Red Book of the RSFSR, including lake grass, Dortman's lobelia, Traunsteiner's palmate root, calypso bulbosa, etc. The fauna includes 42 species of terrestrial mammals, about 300 species of birds, including 140 nesting ones. 21 species of vertebrates are included in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (Ladoga subspecies of ringed seal, white-tailed eagle, osprey, etc.); 26 species of mammals and about 130 species of birds are regionally rare.
Condition and protection of the environment. The ecological situation in the northern part, in the vicinity of the main industrial centers, is moderately acute. Its deterioration is facilitated by clear cuttings and fires in timber processing areas. Emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere from stationary sources amount to 129 thousand tons, discharge of contaminated wastewater is 295 million m 3 (2005). The main contribution to air pollution is made by enterprises of the metallurgical and pulp and paper industries (mills in the cities of Kondopoga, Segezha, Pitkyaranta), and to water pollution by enterprises of the pulp and paper industry and housing and communal services.
The system of protected natural areas, occupying about 6% of the republic's area, is represented by state nature reserves: Kivach, Kostomuksha Nature Reserve, a section of the Kandalaksha Nature Reserve; national parks Paanajärvi, Kalevalsky (created in 2006), Vodlozersky (partially within Karelia), and the Valaam Archipelago natural park. Of the 47 natural reserves, the Kizhi and Olonets zoological reserves are of federal importance; among the regional reserves, hunting (Keretsky, Tulotsky), landscape (Kuzova), forest and botanical (Sortavalsky, etc.) predominate. Over 100 natural monuments of regional significance, including marshes (Selga Swamp, Klim Mountain), botanical (Giant Linden, Shwedler Maple), geological (Shunga section, Uksinskaya ozovaya ridge), hydrological (Solyannaya Yama spring), etc. Status Protected areas include the forests of the Martialnye Vody resort and the health zones of the Kizhi and Valaam museum-reserves. However, most protected areas often lose their environmental functions, since there are no restrictions on industrial and selective logging on their territory. It is planned to organize 3 nature reserves along the Russian-Finnish border (Tulos, Koitajoki, Ladoga Skerries) to preserve large tracts of indigenous taiga forests. Wetlands of international importance include the islands of Kandalaksha Bay (a section of the Kandalaksha Nature Reserve) and Onega Bay (Kuzova Nature Reserve).
A. A. Lukashov (relief, geological structure and minerals); N. O. Telnova.
Population. The majority of the population of Karelia are Russians - 76.6%. Karelians number 9.2%, Finns - 2%, Vepsians - 0.7% (mainly in the southeast of Karelia). There are also Belarusians (5.3%), Ukrainians (2.7%), Poles (0.4%), Tatars (0.4%), Azerbaijanis (0.2%), Armenians (0.2%), Gypsies (0.2%), Chuvash (0.2%), etc.
Since the beginning of the 1990s, natural population decline has been characteristic: mortality (16.8 per 1000 inhabitants, 2006) exceeds birth rate (10.0 per 1000 inhabitants); infant mortality rate is 7.6 per 1000 live births. The share of women is 54.2%. The share of the population under working age (up to 16 years) is 15.5%, over working age 19.7%. The average life expectancy is low - 63.8 years (men - 57.3, women - 71.0). In the 1990s - early 2000s, there was a migration outflow of the population, which was replaced in 2003 by a small migration influx (6 per 10 thousand inhabitants, 2006). The average population density is 3.8 people/km2. The southern part of Karelia is the most densely populated, mainly the Olonetsky, Pitkyaranta and Kondopoga regions. The share of the urban population is 75.8% (2007; 62.8% in 1959; 81.6% in 1989). Over 1/3 of the population of Karelia lives in Petrozavodsk (266.3 thousand people, 2007). Other significant cities (thousands of people): Kondopoga 33.9, Segezha 32.9, Kostomuksha 30.0, Sortavala 19.8.
M. D. Goryachko, P. I. Puchkov.
Religion. Most believers are Orthodox. 78 Orthodox organizations are registered (January 1, 2008), belonging to the Petrozavodsk and Karelian diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church (founded in 1828, abolished in 1937, renewed in 1947-1949 and since 1990). On the territory of Karelia there are about 70 parishes, as well as 8 monasteries, among which is the Valaam Monastery. In 1997, the Vygoretskaya monastery of the Old Orthodox Pomeranian Church (Old Believer) was opened in Karelia. Registered are 44 communities of the Union of Christians of the Evangelical Faith (Pentecostals), 20 Lutheran parishes, 17 communities of the Church of Christians of the Evangelical Faith of the Republic of Karelia, 5 Muslim organizations belonging to the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of the Republic of Karelia (Karelian Muftiate, created in 2001), 2 Roman Catholic communities, 1 Jewish and some other associations.
Historical sketch. Human development of the territory of modern Karelia began after the retreat of the Valdai glaciers and the formation of conditions for economic activity (in the Mesolithic, no earlier than the end of the 8th millennium BC). One migration path (of the Arensburg culture carriers) came from the west, through Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula, the other (of the Svider culture carriers) - from the south through the Karelian and Olonets isthmuses. The bulk of Mesolithic monuments (including the Oleneostrovsky burial ground) are concentrated in the Lake Onega basin and are united in the Obonezh culture; The monuments of the northern regions are similar in the characteristics of quartzite tools to the Komsa culture, widespread in Northern Fennoscandia. In the early Neolithic, on the basis of the Obonezh traditions, the Sperrings culture was formed; in the south it bordered on the Narva culture and the Valdai culture, in the north - on the Säräisniemi I culture, which was formed on the basis of the Komsa culture. By the beginning of the 4th millennium, Karelian culture had spread across these lands (except in the north). Petroglyphs appeared in the Neolithic (Besov Nos, Peri Nos, Besovy Sledki, Zalavruga, etc.).
The beginning of the early metal era (the development of the technology of cold forging of native copper) is reflected by the culture of rhombic-pit ceramics (3rd millennium), associated with local traditions or newcomers from the Desin region (Desninskaya culture, etc.). It was replaced by the asbestos ceramics culture, known throughout northeastern Fennoscandia. In the Bronze Age (end of the 2nd millennium - 1st half of the 1st millennium BC), the territory of modern Karelia entered the zone of textile ceramics cultures. For the Early Iron Age, the following cultures are distinguished: Luukonsaari (in the southern and middle regions); Kjelmo, or arctic type (in the north and western White Sea region); Late Kargopol (in Zaonezhye) and Late White Sea (in the southern White Sea region). Their formation took place during the interaction of local traditions and Ananyino culture; it is assumed that this reflects one of the stages of “Finno-Ugricization” of the local population. For the 3rd-8th centuries AD, there is a phenomenon called the “Sami Iron Age”, associated with the loss of the traditions of producing ceramic dishes by mobile hunters and fishermen, which were replaced by vessels made of organic materials and imported metal cauldrons. From this time there are accidental finds of so-called block-shaped flints made of quartzite, sandstone or slate with a steel edging for striking a spark.
In the Middle Ages, the southwest of modern Karelia was occupied by an agricultural population (ancient Vepsians and Korelas), while hunters and fishermen (Sami) lived to the north. The Sami own unique monuments of the 10th-11th centuries in central and northern Karelia (seids, menhirs, stonework, stone heaps and labyrinths). Thanks to the formation of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” the population of the southwest of modern Karelia was involved in international trade.
In the 12th century, the Novgorod Republic established direct power over Korela: this people was baptized into Orthodoxy (1227); The Karelian Isthmus, the North-Western Ladoga region, as well as the territories to the north-east of it to the Karelian coast of the White Sea and to the north-west - to the Gulf of Bothnia constituted a separate administrative-territorial unit of the Novgorod Republic - the Korela land with its center in the Korela fortress (now the city Priozersk). The Korelian land was ruled by feeding princes; at the end of the 13th century it was divided into pogosts (rural areas). The lands in the North-Eastern Ladoga region and Prisvirye, where the tribes of the Ladoga region (also baptized into Orthodoxy) lived, formed a separate administrative-territorial unit of the Novgorod Republic - the Obonezhsky row (about 1259). It was also divided into graveyards, but was controlled directly by the princely administration from Novgorod. In the middle of the 13th century, on the territory developed by all Russian settlers around lakes Onega and Vygozero, the administrative district Obonezhskaya thousand arose; A large boyar landholding developed there. The agricultural colonization of the Onega region by peasants from the Novgorod Republic intensified from the beginning of the 14th century.
For the first time, the border of the Novgorod Republic and Sweden was determined by the Treaty of Orekhov in 1323: it passed east of Vyborg from the Sestra River on the Gulf of Finland to the Gulf of Bothnia.
In 1478, the Korelsky land, the Obonezhsky row and the Obonezhsky thousand, together with other lands of the Novgorod Republic, were annexed to the Moscow Grand Duchy. Northwestern Ladoga region and the Karelian Isthmus became part of the Korelsky district (1500). The shores of Lake Onega and the Svir River (Zaonezhsky graveyards - the former Obonezh thousand and part of the former Obonezhsky row) and the territory from the Kem River basin in the north to Lake Syamozero in the south (Lopsky graveyards - the northeastern part of the former Korelsky land) entered the Novgorod district. The estates of the Novgorod boyars were confiscated in favor of the treasury, and almost all the peasants of the region became black farmers (from the 18th century - state-owned). Landownership on the lands that make up the modern territory of Karelia was practically not widespread; a small part of the peasants, before the secularization of 1764, lived in monastic estates (including in the territory of the Solovetsky Monastery district formed in 1592). In 1582, the northern part of modern Karelia became part of the newly created Kola district with its center in the city of Kola.
The territory of modern Karelia, which occupied a border position, repeatedly suffered from military operations during the Russian-Swedish wars. At the final stage of the Livonian War of 1558-83, Korelsky district was captured by Swedish troops and returned to the Russian state as a result of the Russian-Swedish war of 1590-93. According to the Treaty of Tyavzin 1595, the Russian-Swedish border ran from the mouth of the Sestra River to the western shore of Lake Orivesi, then along the Suomenselkä hill to the area west of the village of Luzhma and from there north to the mouth of the Pechenga River on the Barents Sea. According to the secret protocol to the Treaty of Vyborg 1609 (secured by the Treaty of Stolbov in 1617), the Korela district together with the city of Korela (received the name Kexholm) was again transferred to Sweden (occupied by Swedish troops in 1611), forming its Kexholm fief. From there, the resettlement of Karelians began to the Russian lands devastated during the Time of Troubles, mainly to the Olonetsky district (to the lands of the Karelian-Livviks and Karelian-Ludiks), as well as to the Tver district, where a group of Tver Karelians was formed; Swedish authorities resettled Finns to Kexholm County. The northern border volosts of the former Korelsky district, which remained part of the Russian state, were transferred to the Kola district (around 1620; from 1708 it was part of the Arkhangelsk province). In 1649, Zaonezhsky and Lopsky churchyards were included in the newly formed Olonets district (in 1708-27 and 1781-84 it was part of the St. Petersburg province, in 1727-81 - in the Novgorod province). At the end of the 17th century, to the northeast of Lake Onega, an all-Russian center of Old Believers arose - the Vygo-Leksinsky hostel (Vygovskaya Pustyn), which laid the foundation for the Pomeranian Concord (the Pustyn was liquidated by the authorities in the mid-19th century).
At the beginning of the 18th century, a state-owned Petrovsky plant was built in Zaonezhye, which supplied the army and navy with cannons, rifles and bladed weapons (Petrovskaya Sloboda at the plant in 1777 was transformed into the city of Petrozavodsk, which in 1784 became the center of the Olonets province formed on the basis of the Olonets district). In the 1st half of the 18th century, the healing Marcial Waters began to be developed in the valley of Lake Gabozero. During the Northern War of 1700-21, the Karelian Isthmus and the North-Western Ladoga region with the cities of Vyborg and Kexholm again became part of Russia (secured by the Treaty of Nystadt in 1721) and were included in the St. Petersburg province. In 1744, the lands of the former Kexholm County went to the newly formed Vyborg Governorate (transferred in 1811 to the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland after its annexation to the Russian Empire). After secularization in 1764, the area around the Solovetsky Monastery became part of the Arkhangelsk province.
In 1744-82, gold was mined near the village of Voitsy (now the urban-type settlement of Nadvoitsy). From the mid-18th century, on the territory of modern Karelia, the extraction of decorative stone began to develop, which was used mainly in the construction of St. Petersburg: crimson quartzite in the village of Shoksha (Prionezhye), marble in the village of Ruskeala (Northern Ladoga region) and the village of Tivdiya (Prionezhye). In 1773-74, during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-74, the Aleksandrovsky Cannon Plant (now the Onega Tractor Plant) was created in Petrovskaya Sloboda, which became one of the leading enterprises in the defense industry. In the 2nd half of the 18th century, private sawmills also appeared in the region, otkhodnichestvo spread, and trade expanded. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, steam engines appeared at sawmills, Karelia became an important supplier of round timber and lumber, including for export. The Murmansk Railway, built in 1915-1916, during the First World War, passed through the whole of Karelia, and was of great strategic importance for ensuring communications with Russia’s allies through the ice-free ports of the Murmansk coast.
In November 1917 - April 1918, Soviet power was established in Karelia. Since the spring of 1918, during the Civil War of 1917-22 and foreign military intervention in Russia of 1918-22, battles broke out in Karelia between the Red Army, on the one hand, and the troops of the Entente and the Provisional Government of the Northern Region, as well as volunteer detachments of the “White Finns” - with another. As part of the Red Army in Karelia there were detachments of “Red Finns” who crossed into the territory of the RSFSR after the defeat of the Finnish Revolution of 1918. By the summer of 1919, the Allied Expeditionary Force and the Northern Region troops occupied the Karelian Pomorie and reached Lake Onega, and the detachments of the “White Finns” occupied the western border regions of Karelia. In the battles near Petrozavodsk, the villages of Vidlitsa and Lizhma (summer - autumn 1919), the Red Army stopped their advance, and in February - March 1920 occupied the entire Russian Karelia. By decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of June 8, 1920, the Karelian Labor Commune (KTC) was formed on the territory of modern Karelia, which included the areas of Arkhangelsk (the main part of the Kem district) and Olonetsk (most of Olonetsky, western volosts of Petrozavodsk and Povenets districts) provinces populated mainly by Karelians. The population of the KTK was 144.4 thousand people, of which about 60% were Karelians, 37% were Russians. To create Karelian autonomy, the Soviet leadership actively attracted political immigrants from among the “Red Finns” (E. A. Gülling and others), who dreamed of turning Karelia into a kind of base for promoting the ideas of socialism to Scandinavia.
In October 1921, an uprising of Karelian peasants, dissatisfied with the shortage of bread and labor mobilizations, broke out in the north-west of the KTK. The rebels were joined by Finnish troops invading from abroad. As a result of the Karelian Operation of 1921-22 carried out by the Red Army, the uprising was suppressed, Finnish troops retreated to Finland. In 1922, in connection with the liquidation of the Olonets province, most of the Pudozh district and the eastern volosts of the former Povenets and Petrozavodsk districts, mainly with a Russian population, were transferred to the CPC. By decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of July 25, 1923, the KTK was transformed into the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The restoration of the destroyed economy of the region was largely completed by 1925. By the end of the 1930s, as a result of the industrialization policy, new industries appeared in Karelia: pulp and paper (mills were built in Kondopoga in 1929 and Segezha in 1939), furniture, mining, and energy. At the end of the 1930s, Karelia produced 5% of the country's forest products (15% of timber exports), 5% of paper, 25% of skis, 80% of spar and quartz, 30% of granite were mined there. During this period, the labor of prisoners played a significant role in the economy of Karelia: in 1929-40, Karelia included the Solovetsky Islands, on which the Solovetsky special purpose camp was located, reorganized in the early 1930s into the White Sea-Baltic forced labor camp of the OGPU-NKVD ( by the beginning of 1939 - 86.5 thousand prisoners). The camp administration was located in the village of Medvezhya Gora (since 1938 the city of Medvezhyegorsk), it served the White Sea-Baltic Combine of the OGPU - NKVD, which by 1939 harvested over 50% of the Karelian forest. The White Sea-Baltic Canal, the Pindush Shipyard and some other large industrial and infrastructure facilities were built by the hands of prisoners.
According to the 1939 census, 486.9 thousand people lived in the Karelian ASSR; 63.3% of the population were Russians, 23.2% were Karelians, 2% were Vepsians, 1.8% were Finns (9.8% were other nationalities).
As a result of the Soviet-Finnish War of 1939-40, the territory of the former Vyborg province was annexed to the USSR, and therefore the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, by a resolution of the USSR Supreme Council dated March 31, 1940, was transformed into the Karelo-Finnish SSR, which was withdrawn from the RSFSR.
During the Great Patriotic War, most of Karelia, including its capital Petrozavodsk, was occupied by Finnish and German troops; The temporary capital of the unoccupied territory was the city of Belomorsk. During stubborn defensive battles, the troops of the Karelian Front thwarted the enemy’s plans to capture the northern regions of the USSR, did not allow Finnish and German troops to unite and close the second ring of encirclement around Leningrad, and held the strategic northern section of the Kirov (formerly Murmansk) railway, which provided communication between the center of the country and the ice-free port of Murmansk, as well as the bases of the Northern Navy. As a result of the Svir-Petrozavodsk operation of the Karelian Front (June - August 1944), Soviet troops liberated Petrozavodsk (June 28) and approached the state border with Finland (September 19, 1944, a Soviet-Finnish armistice agreement was concluded). In 1944, the cities of Vyborg and Kexholm and their surroundings, occupied by the Red Army, were transferred to the Leningrad Region, and the modern administrative border of Karelia with the Leningrad Region was formed. The new state border of the USSR with Finland was secured by the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947 (see the article Paris Peace Treaties of 1947).
By 1950, the national economy of the region had been largely restored, reaching its pre-war level. On July 16, 1956, the USSR Supreme Council adopted the Law on the transformation of the Karelo-Finnish SSR into the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic within the RSFSR. Since the mid-1960s, the pulp and paper, mining, engineering and metalworking industries have accelerated in Karelia. In 1982, the Kostomuksha mining and processing plant (now Karelian Okatysh), built with the participation of Finland, was launched - one of the largest enterprises in Karelia.
The Law of the Russian Federation dated April 21, 1992 “On Amendments and Additions to the Constitution (Basic Law) of the RSFSR” approved the name Republic of Karelia (adopted by the Supreme Court of the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991).
A. Yu. Zhukov, N. A. Korablev (historical sketch); S. V. Kuzminykh (archaeology).
Farm. Karelia is part of the Northern Economic Region. The volume of industrial products (manufacturing, mining, production and distribution of electricity, gas and water) in value is 20.4 times higher than the volume of agricultural products (2006). Karelia is one of the largest Russian producers of timber products (% of Russian production): industrial wood - 5.8, lumber - 3.6, cellulose - 8.3, paper - 23.8 (including newspaper - about 35), paper bags - about 60. Karelia provides over 5% of Russian timber exports. The country's economy also stands out for its iron ore mining (9.8%).
GRP structure by type of economic activity (2005, %): mining 19.5, manufacturing 17.8, transport and communications 15.6, wholesale and retail trade, various household services 10.5, agriculture and forestry, hunting 6.1, public administration and military security, compulsory social security 5.2, construction 5.1, real estate transactions, rental and services 5.0, healthcare and social services 4.5, production and distribution of electricity, gas and water 4.3, education 3.8, other sectors 2.6. The ratio of enterprises by type of ownership (by number of organizations, 2006, %): private 74.1, municipal 9.0, public and religious organizations (associations) 7.7, state 4.6, other forms of ownership 4.6.
The economically active population is 382 thousand people, of which 92.3% are employed on the farm. Employment structure (%): wholesale and retail trade, various household services 15.2, manufacturing 13.6, transport and communications 11.9, agriculture and forestry, hunting, fishing, fish farming 10.9, education 10.1 , healthcare and provision of social services 8.3, construction 6.4, real estate transactions 4.6, provision of other communal, social and personal services 3.6, production and distribution of electricity, gas and water 3.4, mining 3.0, other activities 9.0. Unemployment rate 3.6%. Cash income per capita is 13.8 thousand rubles per month (December 2007; 70.5% of the average for the Russian Federation); over 15% of the population of Karelia have incomes below the subsistence level.
Industry. The volume of industrial production in Karelia is 64.0 billion rubles (2006); of which 57.2% is in manufacturing, 27.0% is in mining, 15.8% is in the production and distribution of electricity, gas and water. Structure of the manufacturing industry (%): pulp and paper production and printing activities 44.4, metallurgy and production of metal products 18.2, woodworking, production of wood products 12.3, food industry 9.8, mechanical engineering 9.0, chemical industry 3.1, other industries 3.2.
The energy system of Karelia is part of the United Energy System of the North-West. Own electricity production (Table 1) satisfies internal needs by 40%. The main generating company is TGK-1. The installed capacity of power plants is 1100 MW. Most of the electricity is produced by hydroelectric power plants. There are cascades of hydroelectric power stations on the rivers Kem (4 power plants, total capacity 330 MW), Vyg (5 power plants, 240 MW), Suna (2 power plants, 50.6 MW). Petrozavodsk CHPP (280 MW). Among the investment projects in the industry is the construction of the Beloporozhskaya hydroelectric power station (on the Kem River), small and mini hydroelectric power stations.
The ferrous metallurgy of Karelia is based on its own resources of ferruginous quartzites (the Kostomuksha deposit is being developed, the Korpangskoe deposit is being prepared for development). Production is carried out by the Karelian Okatysh enterprise (established in 1993 on the basis of the Kostomuksha mining and processing plant; part of the Severstal company) - one of the largest Russian producers of iron ore pellets (9.4 million tons, 2006; over 20% of Russian production; the main consumer of the products is the Severstal company), the Vyartsila hardware plant (the city of Sortavala; since 2003 as part of the Mechel company; 62.5 thousand tons of hardware, 2006) is a large manufacturer of hardware products in the Russian North-West. Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented by the Nadvoitsky aluminum smelter (Segezha district; since 2003 as part of the SUAL company, since 2006 - as a united company RUSAL; 80 thousand tons of primary aluminum, 2006).
The main products of mechanical engineering are equipment for the pulp and paper, chemical and petrochemical industries, military and civilian ships, and logging equipment. The leading enterprise in the industry is Petrozavodskmash (as part of the holding company of the same name), one of the Russian leaders in the production of technological lines for the production of pulp, paper and cardboard, equipment for the chemical and petrochemical industries, iron castings; carries out the modernization of large pulp and paper mills (pulp and paper mills; Segezhsky, Kondopoga, Solikamsky, Syassky), supplies equipment for foreign companies (Finnish “Metso Paper”, Brazilian “Foit Paper”, Austrian “Andritz”). Other enterprises in the industry include: Onega shipyards (part of the ORIMI concern; dry cargo ships, also carries out repairs and modernization of ships) and Avangard (military and civilian ships, ship repair), Onega Tractor Plant (tractors and various tracked equipment for logging under the brand "Onezhets"; all - in Petrozavodsk); In Kostomuksha there is an AEK enterprise (production of automotive electrical wiring).
The timber industry complex is the basis of the economy of Karelia; it includes about 30 large logging enterprises, 10 specialized sawmills, 3 pulp and paper mills. The largest enterprises: Kondopoga (one of the Russian leaders in the production of paper, including newsprint, cardboard), the Pitkyaranta pulp mill (commercial pulp, forest chemical products, including turpentine), Segezha Pulp and Paper Mill (logging, lumber production, craft paper, kraft liner, wood chemical products), Segezha Packaging (in 2007 separated from the Segezha Pulp and Paper Mill into an independent structure; produces paper bags under the Segezha Packaging brand), Segezha sawmill and woodworking plant (since 2006 all 3 enterprises are part of the Investlesprom holding). Large logging and wood processing enterprises: Swedwood Karelia (Kostomuksha; a subsidiary of the Swedish concern IKEA; also produces furniture), Solomensky timber mill (Petrozavodsk; since 2005 part of the ASPEK group of companies), Nord Inter House (unites a timber mill in the village of Esterlo, Lakhdenpokhsky district and a plant for advanced wood processing in the city of Lakhdenpokhya), Medvezhyegorsky timber industry enterprise, Pegasus International (Prionezhsky district), Setles (village of Impilahti, Pitkyaranta district; sawmill of the Finnish concern Stora Enso).
The main products of the chemical industry are emulsion explosives (Sibirit-3 company) and components for them (Eastern Mining Services company), initiation systems and blasting means (a subsidiary of the Swedish-Norwegian company Dyno Nobel); all in the city of Kostomuksha.
Among the enterprises of the food industry, the Petrovsky distillery, the Slavmo dairy plant, the Kholod Slavmo enterprise (ice cream), the Karelian meat processing plant (all in Petrozavodsk), a dairy plant (Medvezhyegorsk city), a meat processing plant (Pudozh city), and a bakery plant stand out. (Kondopoga). Large enterprises in the fishing industry: fishing collective farm "Belomor" (Belomorsky district, village of Nyukhcha; fishing and processing of fish), "Union of Fishermen of Karelia" (Petrozavodsk; fishing, trout farming, production of chilled and frozen fish, semi-finished products), "Fish Products" (Petrozavodsk; hot and cold smoked fish, etc.). There are also about 30 trout farms (6.8 thousand tons of trout, 2006).
On the territory of Karelia, shungite (Zazhoginskoe deposit; company "Carbon-Shungit"), pegmatites (Khetolambina deposit), so-called Shoksha quartzite sandstones (Pukhtinskoe deposit), as well as natural building materials are mined. Therapeutic mud (Gabozero deposit) and mineral waters (Marcial Waters and Olonetsky deposits) are used.
Large industrial centers are Petrozavodsk, Kondopoga, Segezha, Kostomuksha, Pitkyaranta.
Foreign trade turnover of Karelia is 1416.9 million dollars (2006), including exports of 1206 million dollars. Main export items: timber products (about 60% of the value), mainly paper, including newsprint, and cardboard, as well as commercial timber and lumber; iron ore pellets (about 30%). The main buyers are EU countries (about 65% of the cost; about 1/3 comes from Finland), Asian countries (about 20%). They import mainly engineering products (about 60% of the value) from Finland, Germany and Sweden (machinery and industrial equipment, trucks), China (electrical equipment), chemical products, as well as food products.
Agriculture. The cost of agricultural products is 3135 million rubles (2006), the shares of livestock and crop production are approximately equal. Domestic agricultural production does not meet Karelia's food needs. Due to the natural features of the territory, agricultural lands occupy 0.5% of the area of Karelia, of which over 50% is arable land. They grow (Table 2) fodder crops (77.4% of the sown area), potatoes and vegetables (21.4%), grain crops (1.2%). Dairy and beef cattle breeding, pig farming, and poultry farming are developed (Tables 3, 4).
The predominant part of agricultural land (75.6%) belongs to the lands of agricultural organizations; for personal use of citizens - 18%; the remaining part is occupied by farm (peasant) lands. Over 50% of agricultural products are produced in households, in agricultural organizations - 44%, in farms - 2.6%. Almost all grain (about 95%) is produced in agricultural organizations, most of the potatoes (over 80%) and vegetables (over 60%) are produced in households. Large producers of agricultural products: breeding farm "Ilinskoye", breeding farm "Megrega", agricultural firm "Tuksa" (all in the Olonets region; production of milk, cattle meat, as well as potatoes and vegetables), poultry farm (Kondopoga), "Korm" ( Petrozavodsk; broiler farming).
Services sector. Karelia has a high tourism and recreational potential (over 4 thousand unique historical, cultural and natural monuments, including the Kizhi Museum, national parks and reserves, numerous lakes). In 2006, approximately 1.7 million people visited Karelia (estimate). The main types of tourism: cultural and educational, environmental, sports, water.
Transport. The main mode of transport is railway (about 90% of cargo and about 10% of passengers are transported). The length of the railways is 2226 km (2006). The main railway lines: St. Petersburg - Lodeynoye Pole (Leningrad region) - Petrozavodsk - Belomorsk - Murmansk (with branches Tomitsa - Suoyarvi, Kochkoma - Kivijarvi, Belomorsk - Malenga, Loukhi - Pyaozero); Yanisjärvi - Yushkozero; Lodeynoye Pole - Olonets - Yanisjärvi - Hiitola - St. Petersburg. The electrification of railways continues (2008): the sections Idel - Svir (Leningrad Region), Sumsky Posad - Malenga have been electrified; Freight service has been opened on the Ledmozero - Kochkoma section. The length of paved roads is 6689 km. The main highway is the federal highway "Kola" (St. Petersburg - Petrozavodsk - Murmansk; length 756 km). The road network of Karelia is characterized by a sharp decline in the quality of road surfaces as one moves away from the main highways. In 2006, highways were built connecting Karelia with the Arkhangelsk and Vologda regions.
Shipping is important. The length of inland waterways is 3744 km (2006); the main water artery is the White Sea-Baltic Canal. Shipping is also carried out on Lakes Onega and Ladoga, and the White Sea. Main ports: Petrozavodsk, Belomorsk, Kem, Medvezhyegorsk (currently operating at a load of 20-40% due to a decrease in cargo flows). Besovets International Airport near Petrozavodsk. The main gas pipeline Kirishi (Leningrad Region) - Petrozavodsk - Kondopoga runs through the territory of Karelia. There are border crossings on the border with Finland, including Värtsilä - Niirala, Kivijärvi (Lyttä) - Vartius (road and rail).
M. D. Goryachko.
Healthcare. In Karelia there are 45 hospitals, 5 dispensaries, 53 outpatient clinics, 195 feldsher-midwife stations, 10 nursing homes, 1 perinatal center, 3 specialized medical centers, 1 specialized children's home; per 10 thousand inhabitants there are: 44.2 doctors, 113.9 paramedical personnel (2006), 117.1 hospital beds (2005). The overall incidence per 1 thousand inhabitants is 1962.3 cases (diseases of the circulatory, respiratory and musculoskeletal systems predominate); HIV infection - 54.9 per 100 thousand inhabitants (2006). Main causes of death: diseases of the circulatory system (55.0%); injuries, poisonings and accidents (14.8%); malignant neoplasms (11.9%) (2006). Resorts: Martialnye Vody, Sortavala, etc.
A. N. Prokinova.
Education. Scientific and cultural institutions. In the republic (2005) there are 278 preschool institutions (about 29 thousand students), over 290 daytime general education institutions (over 81 thousand students), 75 institutions of additional education (over 73 thousand students), 20 institutions of primary and 17 institutions of secondary vocational education ( in total over 23 thousand students), 14 state universities (including branches; over 613 thousand students). About 20 museums.
The main universities, scientific institutions, libraries and museums are located in Petrozavodsk. There are also: Museum of the History of the First Russian Resort Marcial Waters (1946); Olonets National Museum of Karelian-Livviks named after N. G. Prilukin (1959); Sheltozero Vepsian Ethnographic Museum (since 1967, since 1980 a branch of the State Museum of Local Lore); State Historical, Architectural and Ethnographic Museum-Reserve Kizhi [included in the UNESCO World Heritage List (1990) and in the State Code of Especially Valuable Objects of Cultural Heritage of the Russian Federation (1993)]; Valaam Research, Church, Archaeological and Natural Museum-Reserve (founded in 1979 as a historical, architectural and natural museum-reserve; liquidated in 1992; reopened in 2005), etc.
Mass media. Leading republican publications: newspapers “Karelia” (since 1992, 3 times a week, total circulation 20 thousand copies, in Russian), “Karjalan Sanoman” (“News of Karelia”, since 1920, in Finnish), “Youth Newspaper of Karelia "(since 1920, in Russian), "Leninskaya Pravda" (since 1918, in Russian), "Oma mua" ("Native Land", since 1995, in Karelian), "Vienan Karjala" ("White Sea Karelia" , in Karelian), "Kodima" ("Native Land", in Vepsian; all - the city of Petrozavodsk); regional and city newspapers: “Petrozavodsk” (city of Petrozavodsk, since 1991, 12.5 thousand copies), “Novaya Kondopoga” (city of Kondopoga, weekly, 5 thousand copies), “Doverie” (city of Segezha, 2 times a week, 3 ,6 thousand copies), “News of Kostomuksha” (city of Kostomuksha), “Suoyarvi Herald” (city of Suoyarvi), “White Sea Tribune” (city of Belomorsk), “Pudozhsky Herald” (city of Pudozh), etc. Radio broadcasting since 1926, television since 1959. Broadcasting of television and radio programs is carried out by the State Television and Radio Broadcasting Company "Karelia" (since 1992) and others.
Literature. The literature of the peoples of Karelia develops in Finnish, Karelian, Vepsian and Russian on the basis of folklore traditions (expressed, in particular, in the Karelian-Finnish epic “Kalevala”). Finnish writers who emigrated to Karelia after the defeat of the Finnish Revolution of 1918 participated in the creation of Karelian literature: J. Virtanen, O. Joganson, H. Tihlya and others. The Finnish language, which throughout the 20th century served the Karelians as the main (along with Russian) literary language , was closest to the North Karelians. The writers who came from White Sea Karelia were N. M. Yakkola, A. N. Timonen, Y. V. Rugoev, P. Perttu, N. Laine, O. Stepanov, whose works were dominated by narratives about folk life with detailed descriptions of local activities, customs, beliefs: the historical tetralogy “On the Banks of Pirttijärvi” by Yakkola (1949-66), the poetic dilogy “The Tale of the Karelians” by Rugoev (1956-59), the series of novels “Relatives” by Stepanov (1969-89), etc. Lyrical poetry in Finnish language in the 20th century is represented by the works of T. O. Guttari, T. K. Summanen, A. Mishin, R. Takaly and others.
Literature in the Karelian language began to actively develop in the last decades of the 20th century; its founders were the poet V. Brandoev and the prose writer P. Lukin. At the turn of the 20th-21st centuries, Karelian-language literature was represented by A. Volkov, V. Veikki, Z. Dubinina, O. Mishina, M. Pakhomov, I. Pekshueva and others. Vepsian literature has developed since the early 1980s in Russian (prose by V A. Pulkin, poetry by N. V. Abramov, V. Ershov). After the revival of national writing (at the end of the 1980s), the reading book “Reading and Speaking Vepsian” (1991) was published, poetic and prose works appeared in the Vepsian language, the main theme of which was the harmony of peasant life and the life of nature; among their authors are N.V. Abramov (collection of poems “Let’s Talk, Brother,” 2005), V. Yashov, A. Andreeva. Russian-language literature of Karelia is represented by the epic prose of A. M. Linevsky (historical tetralogy “White Sea”, 1954-65), D. Ya. Gusarov (chronicle novel “Beyond the Line of Mercy”, 1977), F. A. Trofimov; poetry by I. Kostin, Yu. V. Linnik, V. V. Sergin, E. Soini, V. P. Sudakov, M. Tarasov and others.
Yu. I. Dyuzhev, E. G. Karhu.
Architecture and fine arts. On the coast of the White Sea (Besovy Sledki, Zalavruga, etc.) and Lake Onega (Besov Nos, Peri Nos, Karetsky Nos, Kochkovnavolok Peninsula, etc.) many petroglyphs of the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods have been preserved. The conventional silhouettes of moose and other animals, people, scenes of hunting, sea fishing, battles, rituals, etc., embossed using a dot technique, are very expressive. Later images are more realistic and narrative in nature. Fragments of ornamented pottery go back to the Neolithic; elk heads carved from stone and horns (Oleneostrovsky burial ground on Lake Onega), and schematic male and female figurines go back to the Mesolithic. Archaeological finds (jewelry, ceramics, etc.) indicate broad ties of the local population with Scandinavia, the Volga region, etc. From the 12th to 14th centuries, the development of the artistic culture of Karelia was closely intertwined with the development of Russian art.
In Karelia, rich in forests, wooden architecture became widespread. Wooden log churches of various types have been preserved. The “Kletsky” type (a rectangular frame under a 2-pitched roof) is represented by the Lazarevskaya Church from the Murom Monastery (15th century), a chapel from the village of Lelikozero (2nd half of the 18th century; now both are in the Kizhi Museum-Reserve), a chapel in the village of Volkostrov near Kizhi (17-18 centuries). There are numerous tented churches with a central 4-sided frame (“quadrangle”), turning into an “octagon”, crowned with an 8-sided tent with a dome: churches in the village of Chelmuzhi (Medvezhyegorsky district, 1605), on Lychny Island on Lake Sandal (Kondopoga district, 1620), in the villages of Yandomozero (1650), Kosmozero (1720, according to other sources - 1768-70), Tipinitsy (1781, bell tower - 1829-30, burned down in 1976), etc. The most perfect example of such a temple is the Assumption Church in Kondopoga (1774), harmonious in proportions, a majestic structure 42 m high, perfectly integrated into the landscape. The refectory St. Nicholas Church of the Muezersky Trinity Monastery (1602-05), located near the Karelian coast of the White Sea, has been preserved. From the 2nd half of the 17th century, “cubelike” churches appeared (their basis is a high quadrangle, covered with a square dome-“cube”, topped with one or several onion-shaped domes), multi-tent, multi-domed churches with a complicated silhouette, elegant and picturesque. An outstanding example of a multi-tent church is the Assumption Cathedral in Kem (1711-17). Churches in the village of Virma (Belomorsky district, around 1625, according to other sources - 1696, refectory - 1909) and in the Ilyinsky churchyard on Vodlozero (Pudozhsky district, 1798) are of the “blocky” type. Multi-domed churches are represented in Karelia by the masterpieces of wooden architecture of the Kizhi churchyard (on the island of Kizhi). Under the strong influence of the forms of stone architecture, the following were built: the Church of Saints Florus and Laurus near the village of Megrega (Olonets district, 1613), the Peter and Paul Church in the village of Dvortsy near the village of Marcial Waters (1721).
In folk housing, the predominant type is the “house-yard”, or the North Russian version of the hut. The “wallet” construction is also widespread, in which all the rooms are grouped into a square log house with a roof with 2 slopes of unequal length (Oshevnev’s house, 1876, now in the Kizhi Museum-Reserve). Characteristic features include figured processing of pillars on porches, balconies and walkways, openwork carving of piers, valances, and “towels.” Stone construction began in Karelia in the 18th century in connection with the development of industry and the growth of cities (Petrozavodsk, Olonets, Kem, Pudozh; Serdobol, now Sortavala). A valuable monument of classicism architecture of the 1770-80s is the ensemble of the former Round Square (now Lenin Square) in Petrozavodsk (originally designed by E. S. Nazarov); it attracts with its clarity of composition and harmonious unity of simple noble forms. The majestic Cathedral of St. Alexander Nevsky in Petrozavodsk (1826-31) was also built in the classicist style. Among the significant monuments of stone architecture of the 19th - early 20th centuries: Holy Cross Cathedral in Petrozavodsk (1847-52), St. George Church in the village of Tolvuya (1869), Church of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker in Sortavala (1873, architect N. P. Grebenko), Church of St. Alexander Nevsky in Pudozh (1903), ensembles of the Valaam Monastery, Murom Monastery (2nd half of the 19th century), Vazheozersky Monastery (2nd half of the 19th - early 20th century).
The iconography of Karelia is original. In the 14th-15th centuries, it was almost inseparable from the Novgorod school, mainly from its archaizing branch, associated with folk origins. Gradually, examples of other icon painting schools (Vladimir-Suzdal, Moscow) penetrated into Karelia. As a result of diverse influences, a unique art of local masters was formed, in which the connection with folk art is noticeable. Artists painted saints in the form of peasants, surrounding them with real details of peasant life. Icons of another direction are more refined and subtle in design, the painting is transparent, the color tones are gentle, light, inspired by northern nature (icon painters of the mid-17th century Ignatius and Mokey Panteleev).
At the end of the 19th century - the 1930s, the cities of the northern Ladoga region were built with buildings in the style of Art Nouveau, Finnish national romanticism, and neoclassicism: Sortavala (wooden town hall, 1885, architect F. A. Sjostrem; building of the People's Joint Stock Bank, early 20th century, architect E. Saarinen; restaurant "Ladoga", 1926, architect K. Borg), Pitkäranta, Lahdenpohja and their surroundings (Lutheran church in the village of Lumivaara, 1935, architect I. Launis). In the 20th century, the appearance of Petrozavodsk changed, new cities grew - Medvezhyegorsk, Kondopoga, Belomorsk, Segezha, etc. In the architecture of the 1930s, as well as the late 1940s-50s, colonnades, pilasters, pediments, etc. were widely used (Musical-dramatic theater in Petrozavodsk, 1953-55, architect S. G. Brodsky, sculptor S. T. Konenkov); in some buildings, decorative elements were introduced with restraint and tact [the building of the local history museum in Medvezhyegorsk, 1938; Public Library, 1959, architect K. Ya. Gutin (now the National Library); House of Communications, 1950, architect A.K. Andreev, both in Petrozavodsk; cultural centers in Segezha, Kondopoga, etc.]. Decorative motifs of folk wooden architecture are used in a number of buildings (summer cinema in the park of culture and recreation in Petrozavodsk, 1949, M. G. Starchenko). In the 2nd half of the 20th century, the search for new architectural forms led to successful solutions in industrial architecture (the building of the Vygostrovskaya hydroelectric power station, 1961, chief engineer G. I. Konenkov) and in the architecture of public buildings. By 1994, the construction of the Onega embankment was completed in Petrozavodsk, along which monumental sculptures are located - gifts from sister cities.
In the development of professional fine art in Karelia in the 1st third of the 20th century, a significant role was played by V. N. Popov, a portrait and landscape painter, and A. Ya. Andriyanov; in the 1930s, several painters were already working in Petrozavodsk, depicting the formation of a new way of life (D. S. Ershov, A. I. Katseblin), and wood carver Yu. O. Rautanen, who devoted his work to historical themes and folk customs of Karelia. In painting of the 1950-1970s, the most common landscape was landscape, often with genre motifs (V. M. Avdysheva, B. N. Pomortsev). The originality of the nature of Karelia, the peculiarities of its coloring were conveyed in his works by S. H. Juntunen; a series of portraits of partisans, fishermen, storytellers, and artists was performed by G. A. Stronk, who also works in the technique of etching; L. F. Langinen (Lankinen), V. M. Avdysheva and others turned to still life; K. L. Butorov and B. N. Pomortsev worked in the field of everyday genre. Since the 1950s, graphics have been successfully developing (O. P. Borodkin, A. F. Kozlov, A. V. Semyashkin, Z. E. Lvovich, S. I. Gryazeva, V. P. Tervinsky, A. I. Avdyshev , M. A. Ignatieva, M. M. Mechev, etc.), since the 1960s - sculpture, mainly portrait and genre (L. F. Langinen, V. V. Afanasyev, E. A. Akulov). In the 1970-1990s, artists V. S. Chekmasov, F. E. Nieminen, O. S. Juntunen, E. K. Pekhova, T. G. Yufa, A. I. Morozov, A. A. Trifonov worked and etc.
In Karelia, notched and openwork wood carving has long been developed (temples, huts, outbuildings, furniture, dishes, spinning wheels, sleighs, arcs, etc.). In addition to carvings, buildings and utensils were decorated with decorative paintings (flowers, etc.). Embroidery is widespread and has its own characteristics in different regions. Until recently, gold embroidery and pearl embroidery were common in Pudozh and Pomorie. Zaonezh, so-called Olonets, embroidery is especially famous.
Music. The folklore traditions of Karelians, Russians (including Pomors), Vepsians, and Finns are supported by the work of many groups in the cities and villages of Karelia, among them the Vepsian Folk Choir (village of Sheltozero, Prionezhsky District, 1936), Pomorsky Folk Choir (Belomorsk, 1937), Segozersky folk choir (village Padany, Medvezhyegorsk region, 1935), Karelian folk choir “Oma pajo”, Ingrian academic choir “Inkeri” (both - Petrozavodsk, 1990). The Kalevalsky region of Karelia is the center of the rune singing tradition; runic songs have been studied since the 1st half of the 19th century, systematically since the 1930s. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, epics were first recorded in the Onega region. In 1918, a music school, an academic choir, a brass band, and an orchestra of folk instruments were created in Petrozavodsk; in 1933 - a symphony orchestra (conductor L. Ya. Teplitsky). In 1932, folklorist and composer V.P. Gudkov organized a kantele playing circle, which served as the basis of the State Song and Dance Ensemble of the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic "Kantele" (1936, since 1939 as part of the State Philharmonic Society formed in the same year; now the National Song and Dance Ensemble of Karelia "Kantele). In 1937, the Union of Composers of the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created, in 1938 - the Petrozavodsk Music School. In the 1930s in Medvezhyegorsk, the so-called Theater of the White Sea-Baltic Combine (a troupe of prisoners) staged the operas “Eugene Onegin” by P. I. Tchaikovsky and “Carmen” by J. Bizet.
The beginning of professional composing in Karelia is associated with the development of folklore. Arrangements of folk songs were created by L. K. Jousinen, K. E. Rautio, L. Ya. Teplitsky, R. S. Pergament. Symphonic works were written by Parchment (“Aino”, 1935, based on “Kalevala”), G.-R. N. Sinisalo (first Karelian symphony “Heroes of the Forest”, 1948), K. E. Rautio, R. E. Rautio. The musical folklore of Karelia was also used in the works of Leningrad composers who worked in Petrozavodsk - N. N. Levi (children's opera "Karelian Tale", 1940), L. V. Vishkarev (opera "Sampo", 1945, not staged), etc.
The operas “Kumokha” by R. S. Parchment (comic, based on Karelian fairy tales) and “Daughter of the People” by L. V. Vishkarev (on a military theme), written in 1948, were subject to official party criticism in 1948-49 (2nd edition “ Kumohi" was staged in 1959). In 1955, the Musical Drama Theater was opened in Petrozavodsk, where, in particular, the operettas “Real Guys” by A. I. Golland (1963), “The Age of a Woman” by Golland and G.-R. N. Sinisalo (1966), opera “The Blacksmith’s Sword” by Yu. M. Zaritsky (based on the play “Maiden Lake” by D. A. Shcheglov, 1972); musicals have been staged since the late 1970s. Among the best productions is the opera “Three Brothers” (based on Karelian epic songs) by Parchment (1948, orchestrated by V.K. Koshelev, staged in 1985). The children's opera “The Princess of the Cat's Castle” by P. B. Kozinsky (based on Karelian fairy tales, 1980) and “The Song of the Flame Flower” by B. D. Napreev (based on the novel by J. Linnankoski, 1982) were also created. The author of the first ballets in Karelia is Sinisalo ["Sampo" (1959), "I Remember a Wonderful Moment" (based on the works of Glinka, 1962), "Stronger than Love" (1965), "Leader of the Redskins" (together with Holland, 1971), “The Kizhi Legend” (1973)]. Other ballets include “Hiawatha” by E. N. Patlaenko (1972). National cantatas and oratorios were created by Parchment (“Poem about partisan girls”, 1947; oratorio “Found Happiness”, 1952), Holland (ode “My Land”), romances and songs by Parchment, Holland, Sinisalo. Parchment’s significant contribution to the development of chamber instrumental music (“Northern Album” for violin and piano, 1950; pieces for cello, 6 pieces for cantele-viola and string quartet, 1955). Since the 1960s, symphonic and chamber works were created by S. G. Leonchik (Children’s concert for piano and orchestra, sonata for cello and piano, “Lyrical songs” based on the poems “Kanteletar”, Poem for violin and string orchestra), E. N. Patlaenko [symphony-cantata “Kanteletar”, 1963; 3rd (1967) and 4th (1984) symphonies; concert for orchestra, 1971; symphony-oratorio “Russia and the Sword”, 1978], Kozinsky (sonatas for clarinet and piano, concertino for clarinet and string orchestra), G. A. Vavilov (“Epic Poem” for orchestra, 1970; symphonietta, 1969; symphonies - 1969 , 1972; “Chorale and Fugue”, 1978; symphonic poem “Memory”, 1985), V. A. Konchakov (suite “Vepsian Tunes”, 1978), Koshelev (concert music for orchestra, 1978, 1979), Napreev (symphony , 1982), A. S. Beloborodov (“Symphony of Runes”, 1985). Works on the history of music were created by G. I. Lapchinsky, in various areas of musical theory - by Yu. G. Konom. Among the figures of Karelian musical culture: singers S. Rikka, I. Gridchina, Z. Petchenko, V. Krasilnikov, R. Sabirova, L. Tepponen, M. Kubli. Conductor I.E. Sherman made a great contribution to the development of Karelian musical culture.
Karelian State Philharmonic (1939) includes: Symphony Orchestra (1933; one of the largest in the region; since 1992 chief conductor and artistic director O. Soldatov, since 2006 - M. Stravinsky), Orchestra of Russian folk instruments "Onego" (1975, artistic director G.I. Mironov). In 1991, the Petrozavodsk Conservatory was opened (founded in 1967 as a branch of the Leningrad Conservatory; since 2003 named after A.K. Glazunov). International festivals: in the cities of Karelia - Days of Chamber Music (since 1988), “Golden Roving” (since 1989; both annual); in Petrozavodsk - folk music “Kantele”, choral assembly “Laulu” (“Song”); in Kostomuksha - chamber art (since 1988), etc.
There are 2 automatic carillons installed in Kondopoga.
Theater. In the 1870s, the Society of Lovers of Music and Dramatic Art was formed in Petrozavodsk, whose performances took place in the premises of the Charitable Society and the city library. In 1907, the first professional theater troupe was created under the direction of I. F. Savelyev, which debuted with the play “Kashirskaya Antiquity” by D. V. Averkiev. In 1918-20, the People's Drama Theater operated in Petrozavodsk under the direction of N.V. Petrov. In March 1921, the first Finnish troupe was organized under the direction of V. Linden. On November 1, 1929, the Karelian Drama Theater opened (since 1932 the Russian Drama Theater). At the end of 1931, from graduates of the Karelian department of the Leningrad Theater Studio, a Finnish troupe was formed under the direction of K. Sevander, on the basis of which the Finnish Drama Theater arose in 1932 (now the National Theater of the Republic of Karelia). In 1955, on the basis of the Russian Drama Theater, the Musical Drama Theater was organized, in 1968 the theater was divided into Russian Drama and Musical. In 1997, a national theater studio was opened at the Petrozavodsk Conservatory. There are also theaters in Petrozavodsk: puppet theaters (1935), youth theater “Creative Workshop” (1988), music and drama studio “Theater of the Three Muses” (1988), children’s “Persona” (2000), chamber “Podvalchik” (2001), poetry “CREDO” (2003), etc. International theater festivals are held in Petrozavodsk: chamber performances “Lambushka” (since 1998), “North Star” (since 2005).
Lit.: Linevsky A.M. Petroglyphs of Karelia. Petrozavodsk, 1939. Part 1; Gabe R. M. Karelian wooden architecture. M., 1941; Songs of the peoples of the Karelo-Finnish SSR / Comp. V. Gudkov, N. Levi. Petrozavodsk, 1941; Opolovnikov A.V. Monuments of wooden architecture of the Karelo-Finnish SSR. M., 1955; Smirnova E. S. Painting of Obonezhie XIV-XVI centuries. M., 1967; she is the same. Along the shores of Lake Onega. L., 1969; Lapchinsky G.I. Musical culture of Karelia. L., 1968; aka. Music of Soviet Karelia. Petrozavodsk, 1970; Bryusova V. G. On the Olonets land. M., 1972; Songs of the Karelian region / Comp. T. Krasnopolskaya. Petrozavodsk, 1977; Chicherov V.I. Schools of storytellers of Zaonezhye. M., 1982; Musical art of Karelia. L., 1983; Mullo I.M. Monuments of history and culture of Karelia. Petrozavodsk, 1984; Vygolov V.P., Udralova N.V. To the land of white nights. M., 1986; Yamshchikov S.V. Ancient painting of Karelia. Petrozavodsk, 1986; Settlements of ancient Karelia: (from the Mesolithic to the Middle Ages). Petrozavodsk, 1988; Atlas of the Karelian ASSR. M., 1989; Grishin A. S. Geoblocks of the Baltic Shield. Petrozavodsk, 1990; Plotnikov V. Fine art of Soviet Karelia. L., 1990; Chronology and periodization of archaeological monuments of Karelia. Petrozavodsk, 1991; Music of the North. Petrozavodsk, 1994; History of literature of Karelia. Petrozavodsk, 1994-2000. T. 1-3; Archeology of Karelia. Petrozavodsk, 1996; History of Karelia from ancient times to the present day. Petrozavodsk, 2001; North of Russia. XXI century: Artists of the northern, Siberian and Far Eastern regions of Russia. M., 2001. Book. 1; Baltic-Finnish peoples of Russia. M., 2003; Diversity of the nature of Karelia: conditions of formation, communities, species. Petrozavodsk, 2003; German K. E., Melnikov I. V., Spiridonov A. M. Fundamentals of the archeology of Karelia. Petrozavodsk, 2004; History of the economy of Karelia: In 3 books. Petrozavodsk, 2005-2006; Bioresource potential of geographical landscapes in the north-west of the taiga zone of Russia (using the example of the Republic of Karelia). Petrozavodsk, 2005; Early Precambrian of the Baltic Shield / Edited by V. A. Glebovitsky. St. Petersburg, 2005; Forestry complex of the Republic of Karelia: state and development paths. Petrozavodsk, 2006; Innovative path of development of the Republic of Karelia / Edited by A. E. Kurilo. Petrozavodsk, 2007; Priority national projects in Karelia / Chief editor T. Kolesova. Petrozavodsk, 2007; Kurilo A. E., Nemkovich E. G., Senyushkin E. N. Socio-economic transformations in the Republic of Karelia (1990-2005). Petrozavodsk, 2007; Savvateev Yu. A. Eternal writings (rock carvings of Karelia). Petrozavodsk, 2007; Archaeological monuments of Karelia. Catalog. Petrozavodsk, 2007; Dyuzhev Yu. I., Chikina A. V. Writers of Karelia: Bibliographical Dictionary. Petrozavodsk, 2006.
UDC 546.26-022.532: 553.9+620.22-022.332
Nanostructures of shungite carbon in nature, dispersions and hybrid materials. Rozhkova N.N., Mikhailina A.A., Rozhkov S.S. // Geology and minerals of Karelia. Vol. 17. Petrozavodsk: Karelian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2014. pp. 86-93: ill. 7, table. 2. Bibliography 24 titles To describe shungite nanocarbon, a structural model of the formation of globular particles of amorphous carbon during the “merging” of graphene clusters into associates was used. In the model, graphenes are defined as the main structural elements of shungite carbon (SC), and graphene clusters are defined as intermediate elements from which the carbon material itself is built and on the nature of the packing of which its texture depends. In an aqueous dispersion under normal conditions, globular clusters were isolated and stabilized, which confirms the important role of water in the formation of shungite rocks, the structure and electronic structure of shungite. When replacing water with isopropyl alcohol, the globular nanoclusters at the mesh nodes are deformed and the mesh breaks. The connection between nanoparticles in clusters disappears in nonpolar organic solvents. Non-globular types of GC morphological structures: stacked, scaly and film-like were obtained in non-polar solvents, in which a graphene fragment of ~1 nm was isolated. Hybrid materials are obtained through the interaction of shungite nanocarbon with metals and silica. A reduction in the size of platinum particles deposited on GC is achieved due to the electronic interactions of nanocarbon with metal particles, which is due to the specificity of the structure of nanocarbon, namely, the cluster-aggregate morphology of the surface formed by graphene fragments. Nano-sized particles of the nanocarbon-silica hybrid material inherited the ability to structure (form a network) from the carbon component of the hybrid material.
A structural model of the formation of globular amorphous carbon particles upon the coalescence of graphene clusters to form associates was used to describe shungite nanocarbon. In the model, graphenes are understood as the basic structural elements of shungite carbon (SC), and graphene clusters as intermediate elements used to build up carbonaceous matter proper. Carbonaceous matter structure depends on the way the elements are packed. Globular clusters were identified and stabilized in water dispersion under normal conditions. This supports the essential contribution of water to the formation of shungite rocks and the texture and electronic structures of SC. Upon replacement of water by isopropyl alcohol, globularclusters at grid nodes are deformed and the grid is broken up. Connection between nanoparticles in clusters disappears in nonpolar organic solvents. The nonglobular clusters of the morphological structures of SC, such as package, imbricate and film, were produced in nonpolar solvents from which a graphene fragment, ~1 nm in size, was extracted. Hybrid materials were produced upon the interaction of shungite nanocarbon with metals and silica. The size of platinum particles placed on SC is decreased by the electronic interaction of nanocarbon with metal particles, which is due to distinctive nanocarbon structure, namely the cluster-aggregate morphology of the surface formed of graphene fragments. The nanodimensional particles of such a hybrid material as nanocarbon-silica have inherited a structuring (grid formation) ability from the carbon constituent of hybrid material.
Editor(s): Glebova-Kulbakh G.O., Kratz K.O.
Publication: State Scientific and Technical Publishing House of Literature on Geology and Subsoil Protection, Moscow, 1962, 473 pp.
Language(s) Russian
The Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic is home to a variety of mineral resources.
Since ancient times, iron and bronze have been produced in Karelia. The mining industry reached its peak in the 17th-18th centuries. During this period, Karelia played a prominent role in iron mining in Russia, mica mining was developed in the Western White Sea region, and decorative marbles and granites were mined in the southern regions.
With changing economic conditions, during the capitalist period of the country's life, the mining industry fell into decline. The small deposits of iron and copper ores known from time immemorial were exhausted or their development was unprofitable; mica, which was used in ancient times as window material, was replaced by glass; the demand for decorative stones has fallen.
Searches and exploration of minerals in the 19th century. and at the beginning of the 20th century. were carried out sporadically, without knowledge of the geological structure of the territory and did not lead to the discovery of valuable deposits.
Edition: Moscow, 2011, 185 pages.
Language(s) Russian
Organic matter in continental runoff is the most dynamic and large geochemical reservoir, changes in which reflect the characteristics of climatic zonation, rapid and long-term climate changes in individual regions. The efforts of many researchers in environmental geochemistry are focused on studying these problems. It is assumed that differences in the migration patterns of microelements in specific climatic conditions may be characteristic and specific indicators. However, this problem is far from completely resolved, and the results of individual researchers are quite contradictory. The emergence of new research methods inevitably gives rise to new approaches. In addition to previously existing approaches, we have fully developed and substantiated the cascade filtration method for studying changes in the molecular weight distribution (MWD) of OM when changing flow regimes in drainage basins.<...>
Edition: Moscow, 2011, 25 pages.
Language(s) Russian
Organic matter in continental runoff is the most dynamic and large geochemical reservoir, changes in which reflect the characteristics of climatic zonation, rapid and long-term climate changes in individual regions. The efforts of many researchers in environmental geochemistry are focused on studying these problems. It is assumed that differences in the migration patterns of microelements in specific climatic conditions may be characteristic and specific indicators. However, this problem is far from completely resolved, and the results of individual researchers are quite contradictory. The emergence of new research methods inevitably gives rise to new approaches. In addition to previously existing approaches, we have fully developed and validated the cascade filtration method for studying changes in molecular weight distribution (MWD) with changing flow regimes in watersheds.<...>
Edition: Leningrad, 1969, 21 pages.
Language(s) Russian
The dissertation work is based on research conducted by the author in 1965-1967. They are an integral part of the regional theme “Magmatism of areas of junction of mobile and stabilized structures”, developed by the team of the White Sea expedition of the Institute of Geology and Geodynamics of the USSR Academy of Sciences under the scientific supervision of Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences K. A. Shurkin.
On the territory of the Karelian part of the Baltic Shield, the regional geostructural areas are the White Sea middle massif, which completed the geosynclinal cycle of development in the Archean, and the Proterozoic Karelian mobile zone of the Karelides. One of the areas of comprehensive research on the Baltic Shield is the study of the junction zone of these largest structures, which, according to modern geological and geophysical data, represents a deep fault zone with a long history of development. The specific structure of the deep fault zone is determined by intrusions of different composition and age, some of which are not found in other geological settings and with which manifestations of rare metals, sulfide-nickel ores, titanium-magnetite, etc. are associated.<...>
Editor(s): Polkanov A.A.
Edition: Main editorial office of geological exploration and geodetic literature, Leningrad-Moscow, 1937, 150 pp.
Language(s) Russian
I. Introductory remarks. A.A. Polkanov
II.Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Karelian ASSR) A. Volkov
III. Brief overview of the pre-Quaternary geology of Karelia. N.G. Sudovikov
IV. Geological sketch of the southwestern coast of Lake Onega. N.G. Sudovikov
Excursion to the area of the southwestern coast of Lake Onega
V. Geological outline of the area, Suisari Islands. N.G. Sudovikov
Excursion to the Suisar district
VI. Geological sketch of the Zaonezhye Peninsula. N.G. Sudovikov
Excursion to the Zaonezhye Peninsula area
VII. Geological sketch of the Chebino-Pokrovskoye region. L.Ya. Kharitonov
Excursion to the Chebino-Pokrovskoye area
VIII.Deeply metamorphosed formations of the Karelians of central Karelia. L.G. Sudovikov
IX. Geological sketch of the surroundings of Shueretskaya. N.G. Sudovikov
Excursion in the Shueretskaya area
X. Geological sketch of the Kuzemo-Pongomsky region. N.G. Sudovikov
Excursion to the Kusemo-Pongomsky district
XI-A. Geological outline of the Chupa region. L.G. Sudovikov
XI-B. Pegmatites of the Chupinsky fiord L.A. Borisov
Excursion to the Chupa pegmatite area
Edition: Karelian Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, 2008, 146 pages.
Language(s) Russian
Precambrian sedimentary and volcanic-sedimentary rocks containing metamorphosed organic matter are widely represented in various structures in the territory of Karelia. Of these, the Onega synclinor structure is the most studied, within which organic matter is found in Lower Proterozoic deposits with a total thickness of up to 1000 m and an area of about 10 thousand km2. The total amount of carbon accumulated in this structure is estimated at 25x1010 tons. The level of carbonization of organic matter corresponds to the meta-anthracite stage and is traditionally called shungite matter (SH). The forms of manifestation of SH in rocks are very diverse. Most of it is presented in a dispersed form, but there are also concentrated forms: rocks with a SH content of up to 80%, as well as ancient solid bitumen (migration forms of OM), corresponding in level of carbonization to higher anthraxolites.
Edition: Paconi, Petrozavodsk, 2006, 96 pp., UDC: 553.5, ISBN: 5-98219-005-5
Language(s) Russian
The Karelian stone, the history of its study and use are described in a publicly accessible and concise form. An attempt has been made to show the capabilities of facing stone in Karelia using examples of its use in various buildings of the past and present. A catalog of the main types of rocks has been compiled that represent prospects for the development of the stone mining industry, characterizing the palette and diversity of Karelian stone. For a wide range of readers interested in natural stone.
The book uses photographs of exhibits from the collections of the Karelian State Local History Museum (KGKM) and the Sholtozero Vepsian Ethnographic Museum (SHVEM).