LECTURE 2

MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Measurement in the broad sense of the word is the establishment of correspondence between the phenomena being studied, on the one hand, and numbers, on the other.

Measurement of a physical quantity- this is the experimental determination of the connection between the measured quantity and the unit of measurement of this quantity, usually carried out using special technical means. In this case, a physical quantity is understood as a characteristic of various properties that are common in quantitative terms for many physical objects, but individual in qualitative terms for each of them. Physical quantities include length, time, mass, temperature and many others. Obtaining information about the quantitative characteristics of physical quantities is actually the task of measurements.

1. Elements of a system for measuring physical quantities

The main elements that fully characterize the system for measuring any physical quantity are presented in Fig. 1.

Whatever types of measurements of physical quantities are made, all of them are possible only if there are generally accepted units of measurement (meters, seconds, kilograms, etc.) and measurement scales that make it possible to organize the measured objects and assign numbers to them. This is ensured by the use of appropriate measuring instruments to obtain the required accuracy. To achieve uniformity of measurements, there are developed standards and rules.

It should be noted that the measurement of physical quantities is the basis of all measurements in sports practice without exception. It can have an independent character, for example, when determining the mass of body parts; serve as the first stage in assessing athletic performance and test results, for example, when assigning points based on the results of measuring the length of a standing jump; indirectly influence the qualitative assessment of performing skills, for example, in terms of amplitude of movements, rhythm, position of body parts.

Rice. 1. Basic elements of a system for measuring physical quantities

2. Types of measurements

Measurements are divided by means of measurement (organoleptic and instrumental) and by the method of obtaining the numerical value of the measured value (direct, indirect, cumulative, joint).

Organoleptic measurements are those based on the use of human senses (vision, hearing, etc.). For example, the human eye can accurately determine the relative brightness of light sources through pairwise comparison. One of the types of organoleptic measurements is detection - the decision of whether the value of the measured value is non-zero or not.

Instrumental measurements are those performed using special technical means. Most measurements of physical quantities are instrumental.

Direct measurements are measurements in which the desired value is found directly by comparing a physical quantity with a measure. Such measurements include, for example, determining the length of an object by comparing it with a measure - a ruler.

Indirect measurements differ in that the value of a quantity is established based on the results of direct measurements of quantities associated with the desired specific functional relationship. Thus, by measuring the volume and mass of a body, one can calculate (indirectly measure) its density or, by measuring the duration of the flight phase of a jump, calculate its height.

Cumulative measurements are those in which the values ​​of the measured quantities are found from the data of their repeated measurements with various combinations of measures. The results of repeated measurements are substituted into the equations, and the desired value is calculated. For example, the volume of a body can first be found by measuring the volume of displaced fluid, and then by measuring its geometric dimensions.

Joint measurements are simultaneous measurements of two or more inhomogeneous physical quantities to establish a functional relationship between them. For example, determining the dependence of electrical resistance on temperature.

3. Units of measurement

Units of measurement of physical quantities represent the values ​​of given quantities, which by definition are considered equal to one. They are placed behind the numerical value of a quantity in the form of a symbol (5.56 m; 11.51 s, etc.). Units of measurement are written with a capital letter if they are named after famous scientists (724 N; 220 V, etc.). A set of units related to a certain system of quantities and constructed in accordance with accepted principles forms a system of units.

The system of units includes basic and derived units. The main units are selected and independent from each other. Quantities whose units are taken as basic, as a rule, reflect the most general properties of matter (extension, time, etc.). Derivatives are units expressed in terms of base ones.

Over the course of history, quite a few systems of units of measurement have evolved. The introduction in 1799 in France of a unit of length - the meter, equal to one ten-millionth of a quarter of the arc of the Parisian meridian, served as the basis for the metric system. In 1832, the German scientist Gauss proposed a system called absolute, in which the millimeter, milligram, and second were introduced as the basic units. In physics, the CGS system (centimeter, gram, second) has been used, in technology - MKS (meter, kilogram-force, second).

The most universal system of units, covering all branches of science and technology, is the International System of Units (Systeme International ďUnites - French) with the abbreviated name “SI”, in Russian transcription “SI”. It was adopted in 1960 by the XI General Conference on Weights and Measures. Currently, the SI system includes seven main and two additional units (Table 1).

Table 1. Basic and additional units of the SI system

Magnitude
	Name	Designation
			international
	Basic
	Kilogram
Electric current strength
Thermodynamic temperature
Quantity of substance
The power of light
	Additional
Flat angle
Solid angle	Steradian

In addition to those listed in Table 1, the SI system includes units of the amount of information bits (from binary digit - binary digit) and bytes (1 byte is equal to 8 bits).

The SI system has 18 derived units with special names. Some of them, which are used in sports measurements, are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Some derived SI units

Magnitude
	Name	Designation
Pressure
Energy, work
Power
Electrical voltage
Electrical resistance
Illumination

Extra-system units of measurement, not related to the SI system or any other system of units, are used in physical culture and sports due to tradition and prevalence in reference literature. The use of some of them is limited. The most commonly used non-systemic units are: time unit - minute (1 min = 60 s), flat angle - degree (1 degree = π/180 rad), volume - liter (1 l = 10 -3 m 3), force - kilogram - force (1 kg m = 9.81 N) (do not confuse kilogram-force kg with kilogram of mass kg), work - kilogram meter (1 kg m = 9.81 J), amount of heat - calorie (1 cal = 4, 18 J), power - horsepower (1 hp = 736 W), pressure - millimeter of mercury (1 mm Hg = 121.1 N/m 2).

Non-systemic units include decimal multiples and submultiples, the names of which contain prefixes: kilo - thousand (for example, kilogram kg = 10 3 g), mega - million (megawatt MW = 10 6 W), milli - one thousandth (milliamp mA = 10 -3 A), micro - one millionth (microsecond μs = 10 -6 s), nano - one billionth (nanometer nm = 10 -9 m), etc. The angstrom is also used as a unit of length - one ten-billionth of a meter (1 Å = 10-10 m). This group also includes national units, for example, English: inch = 0.0254 m, yard = 0.9144 m, or such specific ones as nautical mile = 1852 m.

If measured physical quantities are used directly for pedagogical or biomechanical control, and no further calculations are made with them, then they can be presented in units of different systems or non-systemic units. For example, load volume in weightlifting can be defined in kilograms or tons; the angle of flexion of an athlete's leg when running - in degrees, etc. If the measured physical quantities are involved in calculations, then they must be presented in units of one system. For example, in the formula for calculating the moment of inertia of the human body using the pendulum method, the period of oscillation should be substituted in seconds, the distance in meters, and the mass in kilograms.

4. Measurement scales

Measurement scales are ordered sets of values ​​of physical quantities. Four types of scales are used in sports practice.

The name scale (nominal scale) is the simplest of all scales. In it, numbers serve to detect and distinguish the objects being studied. For example, each player on a football team is assigned a specific number - a number. Accordingly, player number 1 is different from player number 5, etc., but how different they are and in what way cannot be measured. You can only calculate how often a particular number occurs.

The order scale consists of numbers (ranks) that are assigned to athletes according to the results shown, for example, places in boxing competitions, wrestling, etc. Unlike the naming scale, using the order scale you can determine which of the athletes is stronger and who is weaker, but how much stronger or weaker it is impossible to say. The order scale is widely used to assess qualitative indicators of sportsmanship. With the ranks found on the order scale, you can perform a large number of mathematical operations, for example, calculate rank correlation coefficients.

The interval scale is different in that the numbers in it are not only ordered by rank, but also separated by certain intervals. This scale establishes units of measurement and assigns a number to the object being measured equal to the number of units it contains. The zero point in the interval scale is chosen arbitrarily. An example of the use of this scale can be the measurement of calendar time (the starting point can be chosen differently), temperature in Celsius, and potential energy.

The relationship scale has a strictly defined zero point. Using this scale, you can find out how many times one measurement object is larger than another. For example, when measuring the length of a jump, they find how many times this length is greater than the length of the body taken as a unit (meter ruler). In sports, distance, force, speed, acceleration, etc. are measured using a ratio scale.

5. Measurement accuracy

Measurement accuracy- this is the degree of approximation of the measurement result to the actual value of the measured quantity. Measurement error is the difference between the value obtained during measurement and the actual value of the measured quantity. The terms “measurement accuracy” and “measurement error” have opposite meanings and are equally used to characterize the measurement result.

No measurement can be carried out absolutely accurately, and the measurement result inevitably contains an error, the value of which is smaller, the more accurate the measurement method and measuring device.

Based on the reasons for their occurrence, errors are divided into methodological, instrumental and subjective.

The methodological error is due to the imperfection of the measurement method used and the inadequacy of the mathematical apparatus used. For example, an exhaled breath mask makes breathing difficult, which reduces measured performance; the mathematical operation of linear smoothing at three points of the dependence of the acceleration of an athlete’s body link on time may not reflect the features of the kinematics of movement at characteristic moments.

Instrumental error is caused by imperfection of measuring instruments (measuring equipment), non-compliance with the rules of operation of measuring instruments. It is usually given in the technical documentation for measuring instruments.

Subjective error occurs due to inattention or lack of preparedness of the operator. This error is practically absent when using automatic measuring instruments.

Based on the nature of changes in results during repeated measurements, the error is divided into systematic and random.

Systematic is an error whose value does not change from measurement to measurement. As a result, it can often be predicted and eliminated in advance. Systematic errors are of known origin and known significance (for example, a delay in the light signal when measuring reaction time due to the inertia of a light bulb); known origin, but unknown value (the device constantly overestimates or underestimates the measured value by different amounts); of unknown origin and unknown significance.

To eliminate systematic errors, appropriate corrections are introduced that eliminate the sources of errors themselves: the measuring equipment is correctly positioned, its operating conditions are observed, etc. Calibration is used (German tariren - to calibrate) - checking the instrument readings by comparison with standards (standard measures or standard measuring instruments devices).

Random is an error that occurs under the influence of various factors that cannot be predicted and taken into account in advance. Due to the fact that many factors influence the athlete’s body and sports performance, almost all measurements in the field of physical culture and sports have random errors. They are fundamentally irremovable, however, using the methods of mathematical statistics, it is possible to estimate their value, determine the required number of measurements to obtain a result with a given accuracy, and correctly interpret the measurement results. The main way to reduce random errors is to carry out a series of repeated measurements.

A separate group includes the so-called gross error, or misses. This is a measurement error significantly greater than expected. Errors arise, for example, due to an incorrect reading on the instrument scale or an error in recording the result, a sudden power surge in the network, etc. Errors are easily detected, since they sharply fall out of the general series of obtained numbers. There are statistical methods for detecting them. Misses must be discarded.

According to the form of presentation, the error is divided into absolute and relative.

Absolute error (or simply error) ΔX equal to the difference between the measurement result X and the true value of the measured quantity X 0:

ΔX = X - X 0 (1)

The absolute error is measured in the same units as the measured value itself. The absolute error of rulers, resistance stores and other measures in most cases corresponds to the division value. For example, for a millimeter ruler ΔX= 1 mm.

Since it is usually not possible to establish the true value of the measured quantity, the value of this quantity obtained in a more accurate way is taken as its value. For example, determining cadence while running by counting the number of steps over a period of time measured using a hand-held stopwatch gave a result of 3.4 steps/s. The same indicator, measured using a radio telemetry system that includes contact sensors-switches, turned out to be 3.3 steps/s. Therefore, the absolute measurement error using a hand-held stopwatch is 3.4 - 3.3 = 0.1 steps/s.

The error of the measuring instruments must be significantly lower than the measured value itself and the range of its changes. Otherwise, the measurement results do not carry any objective information about the object being studied and cannot be used for any type of control in sports. For example, measuring the maximum strength of the wrist flexors with a dynamometer with an absolute error of 3 kg, taking into account that the strength value is usually in the range of 30 - 50 kg, does not allow the measurement results to be used for routine monitoring.

Relative error ԑ represents the percentage of absolute error ΔX to the value of the measured quantity X(sign ΔX not taken into account):

(2)

The relative error of measuring instruments is characterized by the accuracy class K. Accuracy class is the percentage of the absolute error of the device ΔX to the maximum value of the quantity it measures Xmax:

(3)

For example, according to the degree of accuracy, electromechanical devices are divided into 8 accuracy classes from 0.05 to 4.

In the case when the measurement errors are random in nature, and the measurements themselves are direct and are carried out repeatedly, then their result is given in the form of a confidence interval at a given confidence probability. With a small number of measurements n(sample size n≤ 30) confidence interval:

(4)

with a large number of measurements (sample size n≥ 30) confidence interval:

(5)

where is the sample arithmetic mean (the arithmetic mean of the measured values);

S- sample standard deviation;

t α- boundary value of Student's t-test (found from the table of Student's t-distribution depending on the number of degrees of freedom ν = n- 1 and significance level α ; the significance level is usually accepted α = 0.05, which corresponds to a sufficient confidence level for most sports studies of 1 - α = 0.95, that is, 95% confidence level);

u α- percentage points of the normalized normal distribution (for α = 0,05 u α = u 0,05 = 1,96).

In the field of physical culture and sports, along with expressions (4) and (5), the result of measurements is usually given (with an indication n) as:

(6)

where is the standard error of the arithmetic mean .

Values And in expressions (4) and (5), as well as in expression (6) represent the absolute value of the difference between the sample average and the true value of the measured value and, thus, characterize the accuracy (error) of the measurement.

Sample arithmetic mean and standard deviation, as well as other numerical characteristics can be calculated on a computer using statistical packages, for example, STATGRAPHICS Plus for Windows (working with the package is studied in detail in the course of computer processing of experimental data - see the manual by A.G. Katranova and A.V. Samsonova, 2004).

It should be noted that the quantities measured in sports practice are not only determined with one or another measurement error (error), but they themselves, as a rule, vary within certain limits due to their random nature. In most cases, measurement errors are significantly less than the value of the natural variation of the determined value, and the overall measurement result, as in the case of a random error, is given in the form of expressions (4)-(6).

As an example, we can consider measuring the results in the 100 m run of a group of 50 schoolchildren. The measurements were carried out with a hand-held stopwatch with an accuracy of tenths of a second, that is, with an absolute error of 0.1 s. Results ranged from 12.8 s to 17.6 s. It can be seen that the measurement error is significantly less than the running results and their variations. The calculated sample characteristics were: = 15.4 s; S= 0.94 s. Substituting these values, as well as u α= 1.96 (at 95% confidence level) and n= 50 in expression (5) and taking into account that there is no point in calculating the boundaries of the confidence interval with greater accuracy than the accuracy of measuring running time with a hand-held stopwatch (0.1 s), the final result is written as:

(15.4 ± 0.3) s, α = 0,05.

Often when carrying out sports measurements, the question arises: how many measurements must be taken to obtain a result with a given accuracy? For example, how many standing long jumps must be performed when assessing speed-strength abilities in order to determine with 95% probability an average result that differs from the true value by no more than 1 cm? If the measured value is random and obeys the normal distribution law, then the number of measurements (sample size) is found by the formula:

(7)

Where d- the difference between the sample average result and its true value, that is, the measurement accuracy, which is specified in advance.

In formula (7), the sample standard deviation S calculated based on a certain number of previously taken measurements.

6. Measuring instruments

Measuring instruments- these are technical devices for measuring units of physical quantities that have standardized errors. Measuring instruments include: measures, sensors-converters, measuring instruments, measuring systems.

A measure is a measuring instrument designed to reproduce physical quantities of a given size (rulers, weights, electrical resistances, etc.).

A sensor-converter is a device for detecting physical properties and converting measurement information into a form convenient for processing, storage and transmission (limit switches, variable resistances, photoresistors, etc.).

Measuring instruments are measuring instruments that allow you to obtain measurement information in a form that is convenient for the user to understand. They consist of converting elements forming a measuring circuit and a reading device. In the practice of sports measurements, electromechanical and digital instruments (ammeters, voltmeters, ohmmeters, etc.) are widely used.

Measuring systems consist of functionally integrated measuring instruments and auxiliary devices connected by communication channels (system for measuring interlink angles, forces, etc.).

Taking into account the methods used, measuring instruments are divided into contact and non-contact. Contact means involve direct interaction with the subject’s body or sports equipment. Contactless means are based on light registration. For example, the acceleration of a sports implement can be measured by contact means using accelerometer sensors or by non-contact means using strobing.

Recently, powerful automated measurement systems have appeared, such as the MoCap (motion capture) system for recognizing and digitizing human movements. This system is a set of sensors attached to the athlete’s body, information from which is sent to a computer and processed by appropriate software. The coordinates of each sensor are determined by special detectors 500 times per second. The system provides spatial coordinate measurement accuracy of no worse than 5 mm.

Measurement tools and methods are discussed in detail in the relevant sections of the theoretical course and workshop on sports metrology.

7. Unity of measurements

Unity of measurements is a state of measurements in which their reliability is ensured, and the values ​​of the measured quantities are expressed in legal units. The unity of measurements is based on legal, organizational and technical foundations.

The legal basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements is presented by the law of the Russian Federation “On ensuring the uniformity of measurements”, adopted in 1993. The main articles of the law establish: the structure of public administration for ensuring the uniformity of measurements; regulatory documents to ensure the uniformity of measurements; units of quantities and state standards of units of quantities; measurement tools and techniques.

The organizational basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements lies in the work of the metrological service of Russia, which consists of state and departmental metrological services. There is also a departmental metrological service in the sports field.

The technical basis for ensuring the uniformity of measurements is a system for reproducing certain sizes of physical quantities and transmitting information about them to all measuring instruments in the country without exception.

Questions for self-control

1. What elements does a system for measuring physical quantities include?
2. What types of measurements are divided into?
3. What units of measurement are included in the International System of Units?
4. What non-systemic units of measurement are most often used in sports practice?
5. What are the known measurement scales?
6. What is measurement accuracy and error?
7. What types of measurement error are there?
8. How to eliminate or reduce measurement error?
9. How to calculate the error and record the result of direct measurement?
10. How to find the number of measurements to obtain a result with a given accuracy?
11. What measuring instruments exist?
12. What are the basics for ensuring the uniformity of measurements?

ISBN 5900871517 The series of lectures is intended for full-time and part-time students of physical education departments of pedagogical universities and institutes. And the term measurement in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as establishing a correspondence between the phenomena being studied and numbers. In modern theory and practice of sports, measurements are widely used to solve a wide variety of problems in managing the training of athletes. Multidimensionality - a large number of variables that are needed...

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PAGE 2

UDC 796

Polevshchikov M.M. Sports metrology. Lecture 3: Measurements in physical education and sports. / Mari State University. Yoshkar-Ola: MarSU, 2008. - 34 p.

ISBN 5-900871-51-7

The series of lectures is intended for full-time and part-time students of physical education faculties of pedagogical universities and institutes. The collections contain theoretical material on the basics of metrology, standardization, and reveal the content of management and control in the process of physical education and sports.

The proposed manual will be useful not only for students when studying the academic discipline “Sports Metrology”, but also for university teachers and graduate students engaged in research work.

Mari State

University, 2008.

MEASUREMENTS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

Testing indirect measurement

Rating unified meter

Sports results and tests

Features of measurements in sports

The subjects of sports metrology, as part of general metrology, are measurements and control in sports. And the term “measurement” in sports metrology is interpreted in the broadest sense and is understood as establishing a correspondence between the studied phenomena and numbers

In modern theory and practice of sports, measurements are widely used to solve a wide variety of problems in managing the training of athletes. These tasks relate to the direct study of pedagogical and biomechanical parameters of sportsmanship, diagnostics of energy-functional parameters of sports performance, taking into account the anatomical and morphological parameters of physiological development, and control of mental states.

The main measured and controlled parameters in sports medicine, the training process and in scientific research on sports are: physiological (“internal”), physical (“external”) and psychological parameters of training load and recovery; parameters of the qualities of strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and agility; functional parameters of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems; biomechanical parameters of sports equipment; linear and arc parameters of body dimensions.

Like any living system, an athlete is a complex, non-trivial object of measurement. An athlete has a number of differences from the usual, classical objects of measurement: variability, multidimensionality, quality, adaptability and mobility. Variability inconstancy of variables characterizing the athlete’s condition and his activities. All indicators of the athlete are constantly changing: physiological (oxygen consumption, heart rate, etc.), morpho-anatomical (height, weight, body proportions, etc.), biomechanical (kinematic, dynamic and energy characteristics of movements), psycho-physiological and etc. Variability makes necessary multiple measurements and processing of their results by methods of mathematical statistics.

Multidimensionality - a large number of variables that must be simultaneously measured in order to accurately characterize the athlete's condition and performance. Along with the variables that characterize the athlete, “output variables,” “input variables” that characterize the influence of the external environment on the athlete should also be controlled. The role of input variables can be played by: the intensity of physical and emotional stress, oxygen concentration in the inhaled air, ambient temperature, etc. The desire to reduce the number of measured variables is a characteristic feature of sports metrology. It is due not only to the organizational difficulties that arise when trying to simultaneously register many variables, but also to the fact that as the number of variables increases, the complexity of their analysis increases sharply.

Qualityqualitative character (from Latin qualitas quality), i.e. lack of an accurate, quantitative measure. The physical qualities of an athlete, the properties of the individual and the team, the quality of equipment and many other factors of sports performance cannot yet be accurately measured, but nevertheless must be assessed as accurately as possible. Without such an assessment, further progress is difficult both in elite sports and in mass physical education, which is in dire need of monitoring the health status and workload of those involved.

Adaptability the ability of a person to adapt (adapt) to environmental conditions. Adaptability underlies learning ability and gives the athlete the opportunity to master new elements of movements and perform them in normal and difficult conditions (in heat and cold, under emotional stress, fatigue, hypoxia, etc.). But at the same time, adaptability complicates the task of sports measurements. With repeated studies, the athlete gets used to the research procedure (“learns to be studied”) and as such training begins to show different results, although his functional state may remain unchanged.

Mobility - a feature of an athlete, based on the fact that in the vast majority of sports, the athlete’s activity is associated with continuous movements. Compared to studies conducted with an immobile person, measurements in conditions of sports activity are accompanied by additional distortions in the recorded curves and errors in measurements.

Testing indirect measurement.

Testing replaces measurement whenever the object being studied is not accessible to direct measurement. For example, it is almost impossible to accurately determine the performance of an athlete's heart during intense muscular work. Therefore, indirect measurement is used: heart rate and other cardiac indicators characterizing cardiac performance are measured. Tests are also used in cases where the phenomenon being studied is not entirely specific. For example, it is more correct to talk about testing agility, flexibility, etc., than about measuring them. However, flexibility (mobility) in a specific joint and under certain conditions can be measured.

Test (from English test sample, test) in sports practice is a measurement or test carried out to determine the condition or abilities of a person.

A lot of different measurements and tests can be made, but not all measurements can be used as tests. A test in sports practice can only be called a measurement or test that meets the followingmetrological requirements:

• the purpose of the test must be determined; standardization (methodology, procedure and testing conditions must be the same in all cases of application of the test);
• the reliability and information content of the test should be determined;
• the test requires a grading system;
• it is necessary to indicate the type of control (operational, current or stage-by-stage).

Tests that meet the requirements of reliability and information content are calledgood or authentic.

The testing process is called testing , and the numerical value obtained as a result of the measurement or test istest result(or test result). For example, a 100-meter run is a test, the procedure for conducting races and timing testing, running time test result.

As for the classification of tests, an analysis of foreign and domestic literature shows that there are different approaches to this problem. Depending on the area of ​​application, there are tests: pedagogical, psychological, achievement, individual-oriented, intelligence, special abilities, etc. According to the methodology for interpreting test results, tests are classified into norm-oriented and criterion-oriented.

Normatively oriented test(in English norm - referenced test ) allows you to compare the achievements (level of training) of individual subjects with each other. Norm-referenced tests are used to obtain reliable and normally distributed scores for comparison between test takers.

Point (individual score, test score) a quantitative indicator of the severity of the measured property in a given subject, obtained using this test.

Criteria-Based Test(in English criterion - referenced test ) allows you to assess the extent to which the subjects have mastered the required task (motor quality, movement technique, etc.).

Tests based on motor tasks are calledmotor or motor. Their results can be either motor achievements (time to complete the distance, number of repetitions, distance traveled, etc.), or physiological and biochemical indicators. Depending on this, as well as on the goals, motor tests are divided into three groups.

Table 1. Types of motor tests

Name of the test Assignment to the athlete Test result Example

Control Show maximum motor Running 1500 m,

exercise result achievement running time

Standard Same for everyone, Physiological or Heart rate recording

At

Functional is dosed: a) according to size - biochemical indicators - standard work

Samples of work not performed at standard work - 1000 kgm/min

Or those.

B) in terms of physiological- Motor indicators Running speed at

Gical shifts. at standard heart rate 160 beats/min

Not physiological

Shifts.

Maximum Show maximum Physiological or Definition of maximum

Functional result biochemical indicators - oxygen

Debt or poppy

Samples of the simal

Consumption

Oxygen

Tests whose results depend on two or more factors are called heterogeneous , and if predominantly from one factor, then - homogeneous tests. More often in sports practice, not one, but several tests are used that have a common final goal. This group of tests is usually called a set or battery of tests.

Correct definition of the purpose of testing contributes to the correct selection of tests. Measurements of various aspects of athletes’ preparedness should be carried out systematically . This makes it possible to compare the values ​​of indicators at different stages of training and, depending on the dynamics of gains in tests, normalize the load.

The effectiveness of rationing depends on accuracy control results, which in turn depends on the standard of conducting tests and measuring the results in them. To standardize testing in sports practice, the following requirements should be observed:

1) the daily routine preceding testing should follow one pattern. It excludes medium and heavy loads, but classes of a restorative nature can be conducted. This will ensure that the current conditions of the athletes are equal and the baseline before testing will be the same;

2) warm-up before testing should be standard (in duration, selection of exercises, sequence of their implementation);

3) testing should, if possible, be carried out by the same people who know how to do it;

4) the test execution scheme does not change and remains constant from testing to testing;

5) the intervals between repetitions of the same test should eliminate the fatigue that arose after the first attempt;

6) the athlete must strive to show the highest possible result in the test. Such motivation is real if a competitive environment is created during testing. However, this factor works well in monitoring children’s preparedness. For adult athletes, high quality testing is possible only if comprehensive control is systematic and the content of the training process is adjusted based on its results.

The description of the methodology for performing any test must take into account all these requirements.

Testing accuracy is assessed differently than measurement accuracy. When assessing the accuracy of a measurement, the measurement result is compared with the result obtained by a more accurate method. When testing, there is most often no possibility of comparing the results obtained with more accurate ones. And therefore, it is necessary to check not the quality of the results obtained during testing, but the quality of the measuring instrument itself - the test. The quality of a test is determined by its informativeness, reliability and objectivity.

Reliability of tests.

Test reliabilityis the degree of agreement between results when the same people are repeatedly tested under the same conditions. It is quite clear that complete agreement of results with repeated measurements is practically impossible.

The variation of results with repeated measurements is calledintra-individual or intragroup, or intraclass. The main reasons for such variation in test results, which distorts the assessment of the true state of the athlete’s preparedness, i.e. introduces a certain error or error into this assessment, the following circumstances are present:

1) random changes in the state of the subjects during testing (psychological stress, addiction, fatigue, changes in motivation to perform the test, changes in concentration, instability of the initial posture and other conditions of the measurement procedure during testing);

2) uncontrolled changes in external conditions (temperature, humidity , wind, solar radiation , presence of unauthorized persons, etc.);

3) instability of metrological characteristicstechnical measuring instruments(TSI) used in testing. Instability can be caused by several reasons due to the imperfection of the applied TSI: the error of measurement results due to changes in the network voltage, instability of the characteristics of electronic measuring instruments and sensors with changes in temperature, humidity, the presence of electromagnetic interference, etc. It should be noted, that for this reason, measurement errors can be significant;

1. changes in the state of the experimenter (operator, trainer, teacher, judge), carrying out or evaluating test results

And replacing one experimenter with another;

1. imperfection of a test to assess a given quality or a specific indicator of preparedness.

There are special mathematical formulas for determining the test reliability coefficient.

Table 2 shows the gradation of test reliability levels.

Tests whose reliability is less than the values ​​indicated in the table are not recommended.

When talking about the reliability of tests, a distinction is made between their stability (reproducibility), consistency, and equivalence.

Under stability test understand the reproducibility of results when repeated after a certain time under the same conditions. Retesting is usually called retest . The stability of the test depends on:

Type of test;

Contingent of subjects;

Time interval between test and retest.

To quantify stability, analysis of variance is used, according to the same scheme as in the case of calculating ordinary reliability.

ConsistencyThe test is characterized by the independence of the test results from the personal qualities of the person conducting or evaluating the test. If the results of athletes in a test conducted by different specialists (experts, judges) coincide, then this indicates

high degree of test consistency. This property depends on the coincidence of testing methods among different specialists.

When you create a new test, you must check it for consistency. This is done like this: a unified test methodology is developed, and then two or more specialists take turns testing the same athletes under standard conditions.

Equivalence of tests.The same motor quality (ability, side of preparedness) can be measured using several tests. For example, maximum speed - based on the results of running segments of 10, 20 or 30 m on the move. Strength endurance - based on the number of pull-ups on the bar, push-ups, number of lifts of the barbell while lying on your back, etc. Such tests are called equivalent.

Test equivalence is determined as follows: athletes perform one type of test and then, after a short rest, a second, etc.

If the results of the assessments are the same (for example, the best in pull-ups are the best in push-ups), then this indicates the equivalence of the tests. The equivalence coefficient is determined using correlation or variance analysis.

The use of equivalent tests increases the reliability of assessing the controlled motor skills of athletes. Therefore, if you need to conduct an in-depth examination, it is better to use several equivalent tests. This complex is called homogeneous . In all other cases it is better to use heterogeneous complexes: they consist of nonequivalent tests.

There are no universal homogeneous or heterogeneous complexes. So, for example, for poorly trained people such a complex as running 100 and 800 m, jumping and standing, pull-ups on the horizontal bar will be homogeneous. For highly qualified athletes it may be heterogeneous.

To a certain extent, the reliability of tests can be increased by:

More stringent standardization of testing,

Increasing the number of attempts

Increasing the number of appraisers (judges, experts) and increasing the consistency of their opinions,

Increasing the number of equivalent tests,

• better motivation of subjects,
• metrologically substantiated choice of technical means of measurement, ensuring the specified accuracy of measurements during the testing process.

Information content of tests.

Information content of the testis the degree of accuracy with which it measures the property (quality, ability, characteristic, etc.) that it is used to evaluate. In the literature before 1980, instead of the term “information content,” the corresponding term “validity” was used.

Currently, information content is divided and classified into several types. The structure of information types is shown in Figure 1.

Rice. 1. Structure of types of information.

So, in particular, if the test is used to determine the condition of the athlete at the time of examination, then we talk aboutdiagnosticinformation content. If, based on the test results, they want to draw a conclusion about the athlete’s possible future performance, the test must haveprognosticinformative. A test can be diagnostically informative, but not prognostically, and vice versa.

The degree of information content can be characterized quantitatively on the basis of experimental data (the so-called empirical information content) and qualitative based on a meaningful analysis of the situation (meaningful or logicalinformation content). In this case, the test is called substantively or logically informative based on the opinions of expert experts.

Factorial information content one of the very common models theoretical information content. The informativeness of tests in relation to a hidden criterion, which is artificially compiled from their results, is determined on the basis of the indicators of a battery of tests using factor analysis.

Factorial informativeness is related to the concept of test dimension in the sense that the number of factors necessarily determines the number of hidden criteria. Moreover, the size of the tests depends not only on the number of motor abilities assessed, but also on the other properties of the motor test. When this influence can be partially excluded, then factor information content remains a flexible model approximation of theoretical or constructive information content, i.e. validity of motor tests for motor abilities.

Simple or complexinformativeness is distinguished by the number of tests for which the criterion is selected, i.e. for one or two or more tests. The following three types of information content are closely related to the issues of the mutual relationship between simple and complex information content. Clean informativeness expresses the degree to which the complex informativeness of a battery of tests increases when a given test is included in a battery of higher order tests. Paramorphic informativeness expresses the internal informativeness of the test within the framework of predicting talent for a certain activity. It is determined by specialist experts taking into account the professional assessment of giftedness. It can be defined as the hidden (for specialists, “intuitive”) information content of individual tests.

Obvious informativeness is largely related to content and shows how obvious the content of tests is for the persons being tested. It is related to the motivation of the subjects. Information contentinternal or externalarises depending on whether the informativeness of the test is determined based on comparison with the results of other tests or on the basis of a criterion that is external in relation to a given battery of tests.

Absolute informativeness concerns the definition of one criterion in an absolute sense, without involving any other criteria.

Differentialinformativeness characterizes the mutual differences between two or more criteria. For example, when selecting sports talents, a situation may arise when the test taker shows abilities in two different sports disciplines. In this case, it is necessary to decide the question of which of these two disciplines he is most capable of.

In accordance with the time interval between measurement (testing) and determination of the criterion results, two types of information content are distinguished -synchronous and diachronic. Diachronic informativeness, or informativeness to non-simultaneous criteria, can take two forms. One of them is the case when the criterion would be measured earlier than the testretrospectiveinformation content.

If we talk about assessing the preparedness of athletes, the most informative indicator is the result in a competitive exercise. However, it depends on a large number of factors, and the same result in a competitive exercise can be shown by people who differ markedly from each other in the structure of their preparedness. For example, an athlete with excellent swimming technique and relatively low physical performance and an athlete with average technique but high performance will compete equally successfully (other things being equal).

Informative tests are used to identify the leading factors on which the result in a competitive exercise depends. But how can we find out the degree of information content of each of them? For example, which of the listed tests are informative when assessing the readiness of tennis players: simple reaction time, choice reaction time, standing jump, 60 m run? To answer this question, you need to know methods for determining information content. There are two of them: logical (substantive) and empirical.

Boolean methoddetermining the information content of tests. The essence of this method of determining information content is a logical (qualitative) comparison of biomechanical, physiological, psychological and other characteristics of the criterion and tests.

Let's assume that we want to select tests to assess the preparedness of highly qualified 400 m runners. Calculations show that in this exercise, with a result of 45.0 s, approximately 72% of the energy is supplied through anaerobic mechanisms of energy production and 28% through aerobic ones. Consequently, the most informative tests will be those that reveal the level and structure of a runner’s anaerobic capabilities: running in segments of 200 x 300 m at maximum speed, jumping from foot to foot at maximum pace at a distance of 100 x 200 m, repeated running in segments of up to 50 m with very short rest intervals. As clinical and biochemical studies show, the results of these tasks can be used to judge the power and capacity of anaerobic energy sources and, therefore, they can be used as informative tests.

The simple example given above is of limited value, since in cyclic sports the logical information content can be tested experimentally. Most often, the logical method of determining information content is used in sports where there is no clear quantitative criterion. For example, in sports games, logical analysis of game fragments allows one to first construct a specific test and then check its information content.

Empirical methoddetermining the information content of tests in the presence of measured criterion. Earlier we talked about the importance of using a single logical analysis for a preliminary assessment of the information content of tests. This procedure makes it possible to weed out obviously uninformative tests, the structure of which does not closely correspond to the structure of the main activity of athletes or athletes. The remaining tests, the content of which is considered high, must undergo additional empirical testing. For this, the test results are compared with the criterion. The criteria usually used are:

1) result in a competitive exercise;

2) the most significant elements of competitive exercises;

3) test results, the information content of which for athletes of this qualification was previously established;

4) the amount of points scored by the athlete when performing a set of tests;

5) qualifications of athletes.

When using the first four criteria, the general scheme for determining the informativeness of the test is as follows:

1) quantitative values ​​of the criteria are measured. To do this, it is not necessary to hold special competitions. You can, for example, use the results of previous competitions. It is only important that the competition and testing are not separated by a long time period.

If any element of a competitive exercise is to be used as a criterion, it is necessary that it be the most informative.

Let's consider the methodology for determining the information content of indicators of a competitive exercise using the following example.

At the national cross-country skiing championship over a distance of 15 km on an incline with a steepness of 7°, the length of steps and running speed were recorded. The obtained values ​​were compared with the place taken by the athlete at the competition (see table).

The relationship between results in a 15 km cross-country ski race, step length and speed on the ascent

Already a visual assessment of the ranked series indicates that athletes with greater speed on the rise and with a greater stride length achieved high results in competitions. Calculation of rank correlation coefficients confirms this: between place in competitions and step length r tt = 0.88; between place in competition and speed on the climb - 0.86. Consequently, both of these indicators are highly informative.

It should be noted that their meanings are also interrelated: r = 0.86.

This means that the stride length and running speed on the rise are equivalent tests and any of them can be used to monitor the competitive activity of skiers.

2) the next step is testing and evaluating it

results;

3) the last stage of work is the calculation of correlation coefficients between the values ​​of the criterion and tests. The highest correlation coefficients obtained during the calculations will indicate the high information content of the tests.

An empirical method for determining the information content of testsin the absence of a single criterion. This situation is most typical for mass physical culture, where there is either no single criterion, or the form of its presentation does not allow the use of the methods described above to determine the information content of tests. Let's assume that we need to create a set of tests to monitor the physical fitness of students. Taking into account the fact that there are several million students in the country and such control must be massive, certain requirements are imposed on the tests: they must be simple in technique, performed under the simplest conditions and have a simple and objective measurement system. There are hundreds of such tests, but you need to choose the most informative ones.

This can be done in the following way: 1) select several dozen tests, the content of which seems indisputable; 2) with their help, assess the level of development of physical qualities in a group of students; 3) process the results obtained on a computer using factor analysis.

This method is based on the assumption that the results of many tests depend on a relatively small number of reasons, which are named for convenience factors . For example, results in the standing long jump, grenade throwing, pull-ups, maximum weight barbell press, and 100 and 5000 m running depend on endurance, strength and speed qualities. However, the contribution of these qualities to the result of each exercise is not the same. So, the result in the 100 m run depends heavily on speed-strength qualities and a little on endurance, the barbell press - on maximum strength, pull-ups - on strength endurance, etc.

In addition, the results of some of these tests are interrelated, since they are based on the manifestation of the same qualities. Factor analysis allows, firstly, to group tests that have a common qualitative basis, and, secondly (and this is the most important thing), to determine their share in this group. Tests with the highest factor weight are considered the most informative.

The best example of using this approach in domestic practice is presented in the work of V. M. Zatsiorsky and N. V. Averkovich (1982). 108 students were examined using 15 tests. Using factor analysis, it was possible to identify the three most important factors for this group of subjects: 1) muscle strength of the upper limbs; 2) muscle strength of the lower extremities; 3) strength of the abdominal muscles and hip flexors. According to the first factor, the test that had the greatest weight was the push-up, the second - the standing long jump, the third - raising straight legs while hanging and transitioning to a squat from a position lying on your back for one minute. These four tests out of 15 examined were the most informative.

The amount (degree) of information content of the same test varies depending on a number of factors influencing its performance. The main such factors are shown in the figure.

Rice. 2. Structure of factors influencing the degree

Information content of the test.

When assessing the informativeness of a particular test, it is necessary to take into account factors that significantly influence the value of the informativeness coefficient.

Assessment unified meter of sports results and tests.

As a rule, any comprehensive control program involves the use of not one, but several tests. Thus, a complex for monitoring the fitness of athletes includes the following tests: running time on a treadmill, heart rate, maximum oxygen consumption, maximum strength, etc. If one test is used for control, then there is no need to evaluate its results using special methods: this way you can see who is stronger and how much. If there are many tests and they are measured in different units (for example, strength in kg or N; time in s; MOC - in ml/kg min; heart rate - in beats/min, etc.), then compare the achievements in absolute values indicators is impossible. This problem can only be solved if the test results are presented in the form of grades (points, points, grades, ranks, etc.). The final assessment of athletes' qualifications is influenced by age, health, environmental and other features of the control conditions. The athlete's control test does not end with the receipt of the measurement or testing results. It is necessary to evaluate the results obtained.

By assessment (or pedagogical assessment)is called a unified measure of success in any task, in the special case in a test.

There are educational grades given by the teacher to students during the educational process, andqualifications,which refers to all other types of assessments (in particular, the results of official competitions, testing, etc.).

The process of determining (deriving, calculating) estimates is called assessment . It consists of the following stages:

1) a scale is selected that can be used to convert test results into grades;

2) in accordance with the selected scale, the test results are converted into points (points);

3) the points received are compared with the norms, and the final score is displayed. It characterizes the level of preparedness of the athlete relative to other members of the group (team, team).

Action name Used

Testing

Measurement Measurement scale

Test result

Interim assessment Grading scale

Glasses

(interim assessment)

Final assessment Norms

final grade

Rice. 3. Scheme for assessing sports performance and test results

Not in all cases assessment occurs according to such a detailed scheme. Sometimes midterm and final assessments are combined.

The tasks that are solved during assessment are diverse. The main ones include:

1) based on the assessment results, it is necessary to compare different achievements in competitive exercises. Based on this, it is possible to create scientifically based rank standards in sports. The consequence of lower standards is an increase in the number of dischargers who are not worthy of this title. Excessive standards become unattainable for many and force people to stop playing sports;

2) comparison of achievements in different sports allows us to solve the problem of equality and their rank standards (the situation is unfair if we assume that in volleyball it is easy to fulfill the 1st category standard, but in athletics it is difficult);

3) it is necessary to classify many tests according to the results that a particular athlete shows in them;

4) the training structure of each of the athletes subjected to testing should be established.

There are different ways to convert test results into scores. In practice, this is often done by ranking, or ordering a recorded series of measurements.

Example This ranking is given in the table.

Table. Ranking of test results.

The table shows that the best result is worth 1 point, and each subsequent result is worth a point more. Despite the simplicity and convenience of this approach, its injustice is obvious. If we take the 30 m run, then the differences between 1st and 2nd place (0.4 s) and between 2nd and 3rd (0.1 s) are assessed equally, at 1 point. It’s exactly the same in assessing pull-ups: a difference of one repetition and a difference of seven are assessed equally.

Assessment is carried out in order to stimulate the athlete to achieve maximum results. But with the approach described above, Athlete A, doing 6 more pull-ups, will receive the same amount of points as for an increase of one repetition.

Taking into account all that has been said, the transformation of test and assessment results should not be carried out using ranking, but special scales should be used for this. The law of converting sports results into points is called rating scale. The scale can be specified in the form of a mathematical expression (formula), table or graph. The figure shows four types of such scales found in sports and physical education.

Glasses Glasses

A B

600 600

100m running time (sec) 100m running time (sec)

Glasses Glasses

V G

600 600

12,8 12,6 12,4 12,2 12,0 12,8 12,6 12,4 12,2 12,0

100m running time (sec) 100m running time (sec)

Rice. 4. Types of scales used when assessing control results:

A - proportional scale; B - progressive; B - regressive,

G - S-shaped.

First (A) proportionalscale. When using it, equal increases in test results are rewarded with equal increases in points. So, on this scale, as can be seen from the figure, a decrease in running time by 0.1 s is estimated at 20 points. They will be received by an athlete who ran 100 m in 12.8 s and ran this distance in 12.7 s, and an athlete who improved his result from 12.1 to 12 s. Proportional scales are adopted in modern pentathlon, speed skating, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, biathlon and other sports.

Second type progressivescale (B). Here, as can be seen from the figure, equal increases in results are assessed differently. The higher the absolute increases, the greater the increase in valuation. So, for improving the result in the 100 m run from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s 30 points. Progressive scales are used in swimming, certain types of athletics, and weightlifting.

The third type is regressive scale (B). In this scale, as in the previous one, equal increases in test results are also assessed differently, but the higher the absolute increases, the smaller the increase in assessment. So, for improving the result in the 100 m race from 12.8 to 12.7 s, 20 points are given, from 12.7 to 12.6 s - 18 points... from 12.1 to 12.0 s - 4 points . Scales of this type are accepted in some types of athletics jumping and throwing.

Fourth type sigmoid (or S-shaped) scale (G). It can be seen that here gains in the middle zone are valued most highly, and improvements in very low or very high results are poorly encouraged. So, for improving the result from 12.8 to 12.7 s and from 12.1 to 12.0 s, 10 points are awarded, and from 12.5 to 12.4 s 30 points. Such scales are not used in sports, but they are used in assessing physical fitness. For example, this is what the scale of physical fitness standards for the US population looks like.

Each of these scales has both its advantages and disadvantages. You can eliminate the latter and strengthen the former by correctly using one or another scale.

Assessment, as a unified measure of sports performance, can be effective if it is fair and usefully applied in practice. And this depends on the criteria on the basis of which the results are assessed. When choosing criteria, you should keep in mind the following questions: 1) what results should be placed at the zero point of the scale? And 2) how to evaluate intermediate and maximum achievements?

It is advisable to use the following criteria:

1. Equality of time intervals required to achieve results corresponding to the same categories in different sports. Naturally, this is only possible if the content and organization of the training process in these sports do not differ sharply.

2. Equality of the volume of loads that must be spent to achieve the same qualification standards in different sports.

3. Equality of world records in different sports.

4. Equal ratios between the number of athletes who have fulfilled the category standards in different sports.

In practice, several scales are used to evaluate test results.

Standard scale. It is based on a proportional scale, and it got its name because the scale in it is the standard (mean square) deviation. The most common is the T-scale.

When using it, the average result is equal to 50 points, and the whole formula looks like this:

X i -X

T = 50+10  = 50+10  Z

where Tis the score of the test result; X i result shown;

Xaverage result; standard deviation.

For example , if the average value in the standing long jump was 224 cm, and the standard deviation was 20 cm, then 49 points are awarded for a result of 222 cm, and 71 points for a result of 266 cm (check the correctness of these calculations).

Other standard scales are also used in practice.

Table 3. Some standard scales

Name of the scale Basic formula Where and for what it is used

С scale С=5+2  · Z During mass examinations, when

No great precision required

School grade scale H=3-Z In several European countries

Binet scale B =100+16  Z In psychological research

Vaniyah intellect

Exam scale E =500+100  Z In the USA, upon admission to higher education

Educational institution

Percentile scale. This scale is based on the following operation: each athlete from the group receives for his result (in a competition or in a test) as many points as the percentage of athletes he is ahead of. Thus, the winner's score is 100 points, the last one's score is O points. The percentile scale is most suitable for assessing the results of large groups of athletes. In such groups, the statistical distribution of results is normal (or almost normal). This means that only a few from the group show very high and low results, and the majority show average results.

The main advantage of this scale is its simplicity, no formulas are needed here, and the only thing that needs to be calculated is how many athletes’ results fit into one percentile (or how many percentiles there are per person). Percentile This is the scale interval. With 100 athletes in one percentile, one result; at 50 one result fits into two percentiles (i.e. if an athlete beats 30 people, he gets 60 points).

Fig.5. An example of a percentile scale constructed based on the results of testing Moscow university students in the long jump (n=4000, data from E. Ya. Bondarevsky):

on the abscissaresult in the long jump, on the ordinatethe percentage of students who showed a result equal to or better than this (for example, 50% of students long jump 4 m 30 cm and beyond)

The ease of processing the results and the clarity of the percentile scale have led to their widespread use in practice.

Scales of selected points.When developing tables for sports, it is not always possible to obtain a statistical distribution of test results. Then they do the following: they take some high sports result (for example, a world record or 10th result in the history of a given sport) and equate it, say, to 1000 or 1200 points. Then, based on the results of mass tests, the average achievement of a group of poorly prepared individuals is determined and equated to, say, 100 points. After this, if a proportional scale is used, all that remains is to perform arithmetic calculations because two points uniquely define a straight line. A scale constructed in this way is calledscale of selected points.

The subsequent steps for constructing tables for sports choosing a scale and establishing interclass intervals have not yet been scientifically substantiated, and a certain subjectivity is allowed here, based

based on the personal opinion of experts. Therefore, many athletes and coaches in almost all sports where point tables are used consider them to be not entirely fair.

Parametric scales.In cyclic sports and weightlifting, the results depend on parameters such as the length of the distance and the weight of the athlete. These dependencies are called parametric.

It is possible to find parametric dependencies, which are the locus of points of equivalent achievements. Scales built on the basis of these dependencies are called parametric and are among the most accurate.

GCOLIFK scale. The scales discussed above are used to evaluate the results of a group of athletes, and the purpose of their use is to determine inter-individual differences (in points). In sports practice, coaches are constantly faced with another problem: assessing the results of periodic testing of the same athlete at different periods of the cycle or preparation stage. For this purpose, the GCOLIFK scale is proposed, expressed in the formula:

Best result Evaluated result

Score in points =100 x (1-)

Best result Worst result

The meaning of this approach is that the test result is considered not as an abstract value, but in relation to the best and worst results shown by the athlete in this test. As can be seen from the formula, the best result is always worth 100 points, the worst - 0 points. It is advisable to use this scale to assess variable indicators.

Example. The best result in the standing triple jump is 10 m 26 cm, the worst is 9 m 37 cm. Current result is 10 m exactly.

10.26 10.0

His score=100 x (1- -) =71 points.

10,26 - 9,37

Evaluation of a set of tests. There are two main options for assessing the results of testing athletes using a set of tests. The first is to derive a generalized assessment that informatively characterizes the athlete’s preparedness in competitions. This allows you to use it for forecasting: a regression equation is calculated, solving which, you can predict the result in the competition based on the sum of points for testing.

However, simply summing up the results of a particular athlete across all tests is not entirely correct, since the tests themselves are not equal. For example, of two tests (reaction time to a signal and time to maintain maximum running speed), the second is more important for a sprinter than the first. This importance (weight) of the test can be taken into account in three ways:

1. An expert assessment is given. In this case, experts agree that one of the tests (for example, retention time) V ma x ) a coefficient of 2 is assigned. And then the points awarded for this test are first doubled and then summed up with the points for the reaction time.

2. The coefficient for each test is established on the basis of factor analysis. As is known, it allows you to identify indicators with greater or lesser factor weight.

3. A quantitative measure of the weight of a test can be the value of the correlation coefficient calculated between its result and achievement in competitions.

In all these cases, the resulting estimates are called “weighted.”

The second option for assessing the results of integrated control is to build a “ profile » athlete graphical form of presenting test results. The lines of the graphs clearly reflect the strengths and weaknesses of athletes’ preparedness.

Norms basis for comparisons of results.

The norm in sports metrology, the limit value of a test result is called, on the basis of which athletes are classified.

There are official standards: discharge standards in the EVSK, in the past - in the GTO complex. Unofficial norms are also used: they are established by coaches or specialists in the field of sports training to classify athletes according to certain qualities (properties, abilities).

There are three types of norms: a) comparative; b) individual; c) due.

Comparative standardsare established after comparing the achievements of people belonging to the same population. The procedure for determining comparative norms is as follows: 1) a set of people is selected (for example, students of humanities universities in Moscow); 2) their achievements in a set of tests are determined; 3) average values ​​and standard (mean square) deviations are determined; 4) value X±0.5 is taken as the average norm, and the remaining gradations (low - high, very low - very high) - depending on the coefficient at .For example, the test result value is above X+2 considered a “very high” norm.

The implementation of this approach is shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Classification

Men by level

Performance

(according to K. Cooper)

Individual normsbased on comparison of indicators

the same athlete in different states. These standards are extremely important for individualizing training in all sports. The need to determine them arose due to significant differences in the structure of athletes’ training.

The gradation of individual norms is established using the same statistical procedures. The average norm here can be taken as test indicators corresponding to the average result in a competitive exercise. Individual norms are widely used in monitoring.

Due standards are established on the basis of the requirements imposed on a person by living conditions, profession, and the need to prepare for the defense of the Motherland. Therefore, in many cases they are ahead of actual indicators. In sports practice, proper standards are established as follows: 1) informative indicators of the athlete’s preparedness are determined;

2) results in a competitive exercise and corresponding achievements in tests are measured; 3) a regression equation of the type y=kx+b is calculated, where x is the expected result in the test, and y is the predicted result in the competitive exercise. Proper results in the test are the proper norm. It must be achieved, and only then will it be possible to show the planned result in competitions.

Comparative, individual and proper standards are based on a comparison of the results of one athlete with the results of other athletes, the indicators of the same athlete in different periods and different states, available data with the proper values.

Age norms. In the practice of physical education, age standards are most widespread. A typical example is the norms of a comprehensive physical education program for secondary school students, the norms of the GTO complex, etc. Most of these norms were compiled in the traditional way: test results in various age groups were processed using a standard scale, and norms were determined on this basis.

This approach has one significant drawback: focusing on a person’s passport age does not take into account the significant impact on any indicators of biological age and body size.

Experience shows that among 12-year-old boys there are large differences in body length: 130 - 170 cm (X = 149 ± 9 cm). The higher the height, the longer, as a rule, the length of the legs. Therefore, in the 60 m race at the same step frequency, tall children will show a shorter time.

Age standards taking into account biological age and body type. Indicators of a person’s biological (motor) age do not have the disadvantages inherent in indicators of passport age: their values ​​​​correspond to the average calendar age of people. Table 5 shows motor age based on results in two tests.

Table 5. Motor

Boys age

According to the results

Long jump with

Running and throwing

Ball (80 g)

In accordance with the data in this table, a boy of any passport age will have a motor age of ten years, long jump with a run of 2 m 76 cm and throw a ball 29 m. More often, however, it happens that according to one test (for example , jumping) the boy is two to three years ahead of his passport age, and in another (throwing)by one year. In this case, the average for all tests is determined, which comprehensively reflects the child’s motor age.

The determination of norms can also be carried out taking into account the joint influence on the results in tests of passport age, length and body weight. Regression analysis is carried out and the equation is drawn up:

Y=K 1 X 1 +K 2 X 2 +K 3 X 3 + b,

where Y is the expected result in the test; X 1 - passport age; X 2 - length and X 3 - body weight.

Based on the solutions of regression equations, nomograms are compiled, from which it is easy to determine the proper result.

Suitability norms.Norms are drawn up for a specific group of people and are suitable only for that group. For example, according to Bulgarian experts, the norm in throwing a ball weighing 80 g for ten-year-old children living in Sofia is 28.7 m, in other cities 30.3 m, in rural areas 31.60 m. The same situation is in our country: the norms developed in the Baltic states are not suitable for the center of Russia, and especially for Central Asia. The suitability of norms only for the population for which they were developed is called relevance of norms.

Another characteristic of the norms isrepresentativeness. It reflects their suitability for assessing all people from the general population (for example, for assessing the physical condition of all first-graders in Moscow). Only norms obtained on typical material can be representative.

The third characteristic of norms is their modernity . It is known that results in competitive exercises and tests are constantly growing and it is not recommended to use standards developed long ago. Some standards established many years ago are now perceived as naive, although at one time they reflected the actual situation characterizing the average level of a person’s physical condition.

Quality measurement.

Quality this is a generalized concept that can relate to products, services, processes, labor and any other activity, including physical education and sports.

High quality are indicators that do not have specific units of measurement. There are many such indicators in physical education, and especially in sports: artistry, expressiveness in gymnastics, figure skating, diving; entertainment in sports games and martial arts, etc. To quantify such indicators, qualimetric methods are used.

Qualimetry this is a section of metrology that studies issues of measurement and quantitative assessment of quality indicators. Quality measurement- this is the establishment of correspondence between the characteristics of such indicators and the requirements for them. At the same time, the requirements (“quality standard”) cannot always be expressed in an unambiguous and unified form for everyone. A specialist who evaluates the expressiveness of an athlete's movements mentally compares what he sees with what he imagines as expressiveness.

In practice, however, quality is assessed not by one, but by several criteria. Moreover, the highest generalized score does not necessarily correspond to the maximum values ​​for each characteristic.

Qualimetry is based on several starting points:

• any quality can be measured; quantitative methods have long been used in sports to assess the beauty and expressiveness of movements, and are currently used to assess all aspects of sportsmanship without exception, the effectiveness of training and competitive activities, the quality of sports equipment, etc.;
• quality depends on a number of properties that form “tree of quality."

Example: tree of the quality of execution of exercises in figure skating, consisting of three levels: highest (quality of execution of the composition as a whole), average (technique of execution and artistry) and lowest (measurable indicators characterizing the quality of execution of individual elements);

• Each property is defined by two numbers:relative indicator K and weight M;
• the sum of the property weights at each level is equal to one (or 100%).

The relative indicator characterizes the identified level of the measured property (as a percentage of its maximum possible level), and weight - the comparative importance of different indicators. For example, The skater received a mark for his technique K s = 5.6 points, and for artistry score K t = 5.4 points. The weight of performance technique and artistry in figure skating is recognized as equal(M s = M t = 1.0). Therefore the overall assessment Q = M s K s + M t K t was 11.0 points.

Methodological techniques of qualimetry are divided into two groups: heuristic (intuitive) based on expert assessments and questionnaires and instrumental or instrumental.

Conducting examinations and surveys is partly a technical work, which requires strict adherence to certain rules, and partly an art that requires intuition and experience.

Method of expert assessments. Expert is an assessment obtained by seeking the opinions of experts. Expert (from Latin e xpertus experienced) a knowledgeable person invited to resolve an issue that requires special knowledge. This method allows, using a specially selected scale, to make the required measurements by subjective assessments of expert specialists. Such estimates are random variables; they can be processed by some methods of multivariate statistical analysis.

As a rule, expert assessment or examination is carried out in the form survey or survey groups of experts. Questionnaire called a questionnaire containing questions that must be answered in writing. The technique of examination and questioning is the collection and synthesis of the opinions of individual people. The motto of the examination is “A mind is good, but two are better!” Typical examples of expertise: judging in gymnastics and figure skating, competition for the title of the best in the profession or the best scientific work, etc.

The opinion of specialists is sought whenever it is impossible or very difficult to carry out measurements using more accurate methods. Sometimes it is better to get an approximate solution immediately rather than spend a long time searching for an exact solution. But the subjective assessment significantly depends on the individual characteristics of the expert: qualifications, erudition, experience, personal tastes, state of health, etc. Therefore, individual opinions are considered as random variables and processed by statistical methods. Thus, modern expertise is a system of organizational, logical and mathematical-statistical procedures aimed at obtaining information from specialists and analyzing it in order to develop optimal solutions. And the best trainer (teacher, leader, etc.) is the one who relies simultaneously on his own experience, scientific data, and the knowledge of other people.

The group examination methodology includes: 1) formulation of tasks; 2) selection and recruitment of a group of experts; 3) drawing up an examination plan; 4) conducting a survey of experts; 5) analysis and processing of the information received.

Selection of expertsan important stage of the examination, since reliable data cannot be obtained from every specialist. An expert can be a person: 1) with a high level of professional training; 2) capable of critical analysis of the past and present and forecasting the future; 3) psychologically stable, not inclined to compromise.

There are other important qualities of experts, but the ones mentioned above are a must. So, for example, the professional competence of an expert is determined: a) by the degree of closeness of his assessment to the group average; b) according to indicators of solving test problems.

To objectively assess the competence of experts, special questionnaires can be compiled, by answering questions within a strictly defined time frame, candidate experts must demonstrate their knowledge. It is also useful to ask them to complete a self-assessment questionnaire. Experience shows that people with high self-esteem make fewer mistakes than others.

Another approach to selecting experts is based on determining the effectiveness of their activities.Absolute efficiencyThe expert’s activity is determined by the ratio of the number of cases when the expert correctly predicted the further course of events to the total number of examinations carried out by this specialist. For example, if an expert participated in 10 examinations and his point of view was confirmed 6 times, then the effectiveness of such an expert is 0.6.Relative efficiencyof an expert’s activity is the ratio of the absolute effectiveness of his activity to the average absolute effectiveness of the activity of a group of experts.Objective assessmentThe suitability of an expert is determined by the formula:

 M=| M - M source | ,

Where M ist true assessment; M expert assessment.

It is desirable to have a homogeneous group of experts, but if this fails, then a rank is introduced for each of them. It is obvious that an expert is of greater value, the higher his performance indicators. To improve the quality of the examination, they try to improve the qualifications of experts through special training, training and familiarization with the most extensive objective information on the problem being analyzed. Judges in many sports can be seen as experts of sorts, assessing the skill of an athlete (for example, in gymnastics) or the progress of a fight (for example, in boxing).

Preparation and conduct of examination. Preparation of the examination comes down mainly to drawing up a plan for its implementation. Its most important sections are the selection of experts, the organization of their work, the formulation of questions, and the processing of results.

There are several ways to conduct an examination. The simplest of them ranging , which consists in determining the relative importance of the objects of examination based on their ordering. Typically, the most preferred object is assigned the highest (first) rank, and the least preferred object is assigned the last rank.

After evaluation, the object that received the greatest preference from the experts receives the smallest sum of ranks. Let us recall that in the accepted rating scale, the rank determines only the place of the object relative to other objects that have undergone examination. But ranking does not allow us to assess how far these objects are from each other. In this regard, the ranking method is used relatively rarely.

The method has become more widespreaddirect assessmentobjects on a scale, when the expert places each object in a certain evaluation interval. Third examination method:sequential comparison of factors.

Comparison of objects of examination using this method is carried out as follows:

1) first they are ranked in order of importance;

2) the most important object is assigned a score equal to one, and the rest (also in order of importance) are given scores less than one to zero;

3) experts decide whether the assessment of the first object will exceed all others in importance. If so, then the estimate of the "weight" of this object increases even more; if not, then a decision is made to reduce its score;

4) this procedure is repeated until all objects are evaluated.

And finally, the fourth methodpaired comparison methodbased on pairwise comparison of all factors. In this case, the most significant one is determined in each compared pair of objects (it is assessed with a score of 1). The second object of this pair is scored 0 points.

The following method of expert assessments has become widespread in physical culture and sports: survey . The questionnaire is presented here as a sequential set of questions, the answers to which are used to judge the relative importance of the property in question or the likelihood of certain events occurring.

When compiling questionnaires, the greatest attention is paid to the clear and meaningful formulation of questions. By their nature they are divided into the following types:

1) a question, in answer to which it is necessary to choose one of pre-formulated opinions (in some cases, the expert must give a quantitative assessment to each of these opinions on a scale of order);

2) the question of what decision an expert would make in a certain situation (and here it is possible to select several solutions with a quantitative assessment of the preference of each of them);

3) a question that requires estimating the numerical values ​​of a quantity.

The survey can be conducted both in person and in absentia in one or more rounds.

The development of computer technology makes it possible to conduct surveys in dialogue mode with a computer. A feature of the dialogue method is the compilation of a mathematical program that provides for the logical construction of questions and the order of their reproduction on the display, depending on the types of answers to them. Standard situations are stored in the machine’s memory, allowing you to control the correctness of the answers being entered and the correspondence of the numerical values ​​to the range of real data. The computer monitors the possibility of errors and, if they occur, finds the cause and indicates it.

Recently, qualimetric methods (examination, questioning, etc.) are increasingly used to solve optimization problems (optimization of competitive activity, training process). The modern approach to optimization problems is associated with simulation modeling of competitive and training activities. Unlike other types of modeling, when synthesizing a simulation model, along with mathematically accurate data, qualitative information collected by methods of examination, questioning and observation is used. For example, when modeling the competitive activity of skiers, it is impossible to accurately predict the glide coefficient. Its likely value can be assessed by interviewing ski lubrication specialists who are familiar with the climatic conditions and features of the route on which the competition will be held.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CONTROL

1. What parameters are the main measured and controlled in modern theory and practice of sports?
2. Why is variability one of the characteristics of an athlete as an object of measurement?
3. Why should we strive to reduce the number of measured variables that control an athlete's condition?
4. What characterizes quality in sports research?
5. What opportunity does adaptability provide to an athlete?
6. What is the test called?
7. What are the metrological requirements for tests?
8. What tests are considered good?
9. What is the difference between a norm-referenced and a criterion-referenced test?
10. What types of motor tests are there?
11. What is the difference between homogeneous tests and heterogeneous ones?
12. What requirements must be met to standardize testing?

13. What is the reliability of a test?

14. What introduces error into testing results?

15. What is meant by test stability?

16. What determines the stability of the test?

1. What characterizes test consistency?

18. What tests are called equivalent?

1. What is meant by the information content of a test?
2. What methods exist for determining the informativeness of tests?
3. What is the essence of the logical method for determining the information content of tests?
4. What is usually used as a criterion when determining the information content of tests?
5. What do you do when determining the information content of tests when there is no single criterion?
6. What is pedagogical assessment?
7. What is the assessment scheme?
8. In what ways can test results be converted into scores?
9. What is the rating scale?
10. What are the features of the proportional scale?
11. What are the differences between a progressive scale and a regressive scale?
12. In what cases are sigmoid rating scales used?
13. What is the advantage of the percentile scale?
14. What can selected point scales be used for?
15. For what purposes is the GCOLIFKa scale used?
16. What options exist for assessing the results of testing athletes using a set of tests?
17. What is called a norm in sports metrology?
18. What are individual norms based on?
19. How are proper standards established in sports practice?
20. How are most age standards determined?
21. What are the characteristics of the norms?
22. What does qualimetry study?
23. What type of expert assessment is carried out?
24. What qualities should an expert have?
25. How is an objective assessment of an expert's suitability determined?

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The word “metrology” translated from Greek means “the science of measurements” (metro - measure, logos - teaching, science). Any science begins with measurements, therefore the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and the required accuracy is fundamental in any field of activity.

Sports metrology- the science of measurement in physical education and sports. The specificity of sports metrology is that the object of measurement is a living system - a person. In this regard, sports metrology has a number of fundamental differences from the field of knowledge that considers traditional classical measurements of physical quantities. The specifics of sports metrology are determined by the following features of the measurement object:

• Variability is the inconstancy of variables that characterize the physiological state of a person and the results of his sports activities. All indicators (physiological, morpho-anatomical, psychophysiological, etc.) are constantly changing, so multiple measurements are required with subsequent statistical processing of the information received.
• Multidimensionality is the need to simultaneously measure a large number of variables characterizing the physical state and result of sports activity.
• Qualitativeness is the qualitative nature of a number of measurements in the absence of an exact quantitative measure.
• Adaptability is the ability to adapt to new conditions, which often masks the true result of a measurement.
• Mobility is a constant movement in space, characteristic of most sports and significantly complicating the measurement process.
• Controllability is the ability to purposefully influence the athlete’s actions during training, depending on objective and subjective factors.

Thus, sports metrology not only deals with traditional technical measurements of physical quantities, but also solves important problems of managing the training process:

• used as a tool for measuring biological, psychological, pedagogical, sociological and other indicators characterizing the activity of an athlete;
• presents the source material for the biomechanical analysis of the athlete’s motor actions.

Subject of sports metrology- comprehensive control in physical education and sports, including monitoring the athlete’s condition, training loads, exercise technique, sports results and the athlete’s behavior in competitions.

Purpose of sports metrology- implementation of comprehensive control to achieve maximum sports results and maintain the health of the athlete against the backdrop of high loads.

During sports pedagogical research and during the training process, many different parameters are measured. All of them are divided into four levels:

1. Single - reveal one value of a separate property of the biological system being studied (for example, the time of a simple motor reaction).
2. Differential - characterize one property of the system (for example, speed).
3. Complex - relate to one of the systems (for example, physical fitness).
4. Integral - reflect the total effect of the functioning of various systems (for example, sportsmanship).

The basis for determining all of these parameters are single parameters that are complexly related to parameters of a higher level. In sports practice, the most common parameters are those used to assess basic physical qualities.

2. Structure of sports metrology

Sections of sports metrology are presented in Fig. 1. Each of them constitutes an independent field of knowledge. On the other hand, they are closely related to each other. For example, in order to assess the level of speed-strength readiness of a track and field sprinter at a certain stage of training using an accepted scale, it is necessary to select and conduct appropriate tests (standing high jump, triple jump, etc.). During the tests, it is necessary to measure physical quantities (height and length of the jump in meters and centimeters) with the required accuracy. For this purpose, contact or non-contact measuring instruments can be used

Rice. 1. Sections of sports metrology

For some sports, the basis of complex control is the measurement of physical quantities (in athletics, weightlifting, swimming, etc.), for others - qualitative indicators (in rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating, etc.). In both cases, to process the measurement results, the appropriate mathematical apparatus is used, which makes it possible to draw correct conclusions based on the measurements and assessments.

Questions for self-control

1. What is sports metrology and what are its specifics?
2. What are the subject, purpose and objectives of sports metrology?
3. What parameters are measured in sports practice?
4. What sections does sports metrology include?

All training and organizational activities in sports are aimed at ensuring its competitiveness, mass participation and entertainment.

All training and organizational activities in sports are aimed at ensuring its competitiveness, mass participation and entertainment. The modern world sports movement includes about 300 different sports, each of which has an urgent need for various types of measurements (Fig. 1). Here we will look at measurement issues in Olympic sports only.

First of all, measurements are used to determine the actual sports result. The main Olympic motto is: Faster! Higher! Stronger! That is why a necessary condition for inclusion of a candidate in the family of Olympic sports has always been his competitiveness, i.e. the ability to identify the winner using obvious quantitative criteria. There are only three such criteria in sports (Fig. 2).

1st criterion is the result measured in SI units (second, meter, kilogram);
2nd number of points earned, received, won, knocked out;
3rd number of points awarded by the judges.

It is worth noting that these three criteria can be used to evaluate the results of athletes in both individual and team performances.

Most often, the result assessed according to the 1st criterion is the time to cover a certain distance. In different sports, depending on the speed of movement of the athletes, different accuracy of time measurement is used. As a rule, it is within 0.001 0.1 s. In this case, the athlete can walk, run, ride a bicycle, ski or skate, sled, swim, sail or row

In itself, ensuring the necessary accuracy of measuring a time interval from a technical point of view does not present any particular difficulty, however, the specifics of the sport impose its own characteristics on this process, which is primarily associated with the problems of determining the moment of start and finish. Improving the measurements of these elements of the competitive process follows the path of using technical innovations. These currently common devices include various photo sensors and microchips, false start registration systems, photo finish systems, etc.

Today, technological progress has made it possible to combine measurement, demonstration and television systems into a single complex. All this led to the fact that the latest information technologies and show business techniques began to invade sports. Now spectators in stadiums, sports grounds and sitting in front of television screens are almost equal: everyone can see what is happening in real and slow time, see a close-up of sports wrestling, including a repetition of the most interesting and controversial moments, watch athletes pass milestones, control intermediate and final results, to witness everyone's favorite action. This applies to almost all sports, but such technologies are especially important for sports with time trials, such as alpine skiing, bobsleigh, speed skating, etc.

Also relevant for sports is the recording of speeds and trajectories at a certain point in time, in certain places and in controversial situations. Such recorded parameters include, for example, the speed of a skier when jumping from a springboard during take-off or at the moment of landing, the speed of a tennis or volleyball ball when serving, its trajectory when determining whether it touches the net or out, etc. Currently, hundreds of millions of viewers watch high-level competitions. It is important that all judges, spectators, and athletes are confident in the objectivity of determining the winners. For this purpose, special mathematical models and simulators are even being developed.

In addition to time control, in the process of registering a sports result according to the 1st criterion, it is also necessary to measure distances, for example in throwing or various types of jumps, and the weight of the barbell in weightlifting.

If during long jumps (distances 6–9 m) measurements with a simple tape measure are still acceptable, because possible errors (several millimeters) are very insignificant, then in throwing a javelin or hammer (distance 10 times greater) the error in measuring the result with a tape measure will be significant (several centimeters). The difference between the results of rivals can be only 1 cm. Since victory is of great importance in modern sports, the objectivity and accuracy of measuring such distances has long been ensured using special laser rangefinders.

The barbell is another matter. There are no big problems here, because... The bar and additional weights themselves are original measures of measurement. Therefore, control weighing of a raised barbell is, as a rule, carried out only when setting records, when distributing prizes and in controversial moments.

A special case is the 2nd criterion of identifying winners based on points won. Many experts define this procedure not as measurement, but as evaluation. Due to the fact that measurements in the generally accepted sense represent the identification of quantitative characteristics of the results of observations in different ways and methods, it seems advisable in sports to combine these two concepts or consider them equivalent. This decision is also supported by the fact that in a number of sports disciplines the winners are identified by points calculated based on the achieved metric result (pentathlon, triathlon, curling, etc.), and in biathlon, on the contrary, the points received (knocked out) during shooting can affect the final metric result athlete's result.

The winner on points can be either an individual athlete or an entire team. This criterion is used, as a rule, in team sports: football, hockey, basketball, volleyball, badminton, tennis, water polo, chess, etc. In some of them, the time of wrestling is limited, for example, football, hockey, basketball. In others, the game continues until a certain result is achieved: volleyball, tennis, badminton. The procedure for identifying the winner here occurs in several stages. First, based on the goals scored (won), the outcome of a particular match is recorded and its winner is determined. After the games in a circle, each of the participants receives corresponding points, which are entered into the tournament table. The points are summed up and the winners are revealed at the second stage. It may be final (national championships) or the next stage may occur if the tournament is a qualifying tournament (European, World Championships, Olympic Games).

Of course, each team sport has its own specifics, but the principle of scoring is the same.

There are several martial arts, for example boxing, wrestling, fencing, in which the outcome of the competition is also assessed by points (techniques performed, injections). But in the first two sports, fights can be ended before the time limit expires: by knockout or if the opponent is knocked down.

Based on the 3rd criterion, the awarded points determine the winner by a group of expert specialists. In sports that are judged in such a highly biased manner, complaints, protests and even lawsuits are the most common, just look back at the last Winter Olympics in Lake Placid. But this is how it happened historically: in figure skating, gymnastics and other similar competitions, just a few years ago it was impossible to evaluate the performance of athletes objectively using technical means, as, for example, in athletics. Today, technological progress already makes it possible to make quantitative assessments using special video and measuring systems. I would like to hope that the Olympic Committee in the very near future will use such methods of assessing the performance of athletes.

It is also very important to ensure equality of conditions, objectivity and comparability of competition results (Fig. 3).

Here, along with determining the quality of competition routes, fields, sectors, tracks, ski tracks, slopes, their physical dimensions are subject to precise measurement: length, width, relative and absolute heights. In this direction, modern sports often use the latest technical achievements. For example, for one of the European Athletics Championships, which was to be held in Stuttgart, the sponsor of the competition, the Mercedes automobile concern, created a special car to accurately measure the length of the marathon distance. The error in measuring the distance traveled by this unique machine was less than 1 m per 50 km.

When organizing major competitions, much attention is paid to the condition and parameters of sports equipment and equipment.

For example, according to competition rules, all throwing equipment must strictly comply with certain dimensions and weight. In winter sports where gliding efficiency is of great importance, such as bobsleigh, there are restrictions on the temperature of the runners, which is carefully measured immediately before the start. The parameters of the goal, field and court markings, balls and nets, backboards, baskets, etc. are strictly controlled. In some cases, the equipment of athletes is carefully checked, for example in ski jumping, so that it does not represent a kind of sail.

Sometimes a necessary procedure is weighing athletes. This is required, for example, by the rules of competitions in weightlifting, where there are weight categories, or in equestrian sports, where the athlete should not be too light.

In a number of sports disciplines, weather conditions are important. Thus, in athletics, measurements of wind speed are made, which can affect the results of running and jumping, in sailing regattas, where competitions are generally impossible in calm conditions, and when ski jumping, where side winds can threaten the lives of athletes. The temperature of snow and ice in winter sports and the temperature of water in water sports are subject to control. If competitions are held outdoors, then in the event of precipitation of a certain intensity they may be interrupted (for example, tennis, badminton, pole vaulting).

In sports, doping control is of particular importance. For this purpose, expensive equipment is being developed to equip modern anti-doping laboratories. The problem of doping in sports today is so acute that not a single great sports power can do without its own system of laboratories equipped in accordance with the latest achievements in this area. This is despite the fact that anti-doping laboratories cost tens of millions of dollars. In addition to stationary laboratory equipment, in recent years portable biochemical express blood analyzers have begun to be used in the fight against so-called blood doping.

This is far from a complete range of issues related to metrological support for sports competitions. Athletes and coaches have no less need for measurements during the training process. Here, in addition to the measurement procedures listed above, there is an urgent need to monitor the physical condition of athletes and their preparedness at a given time.

For this purpose, the most modern medical equipment is used in sports. Among such equipment, the most significant are various types of gas analyzers, systems for biochemical monitoring and diagnostics of the state of the cardiovascular system. All diagnostic sports laboratories are equipped with such equipment. In addition, diagnostic laboratories require stationary treadmills, bicycle ergometers and other modern devices. All this laboratory equipment has high-precision measuring technology and is carefully calibrated. Highly qualified athletes two or three times a year undergo a phased comprehensive examination, the purpose of which is to diagnose the state of various functional systems of the body.

In addition to in-depth but occasional laboratory examinations, there is an urgent need for daily monitoring of athletes' tolerance to strenuous and regular training loads. To solve these problems, various types of mobile diagnostic systems are widely used. Today, such systems include computers for reliable and fast processing of received information.

An important element of the training process is the analysis of the technique of performing competitive exercises. In recent years, this area has undergone rapid development: video analyzers and devices with very high accuracy and discreteness of displaying parts of an athlete’s body or sports equipment have begun to be widely introduced in sports. The distinctive operating principle of these devices is three-dimensional laser scanning of moving objects.

It is impossible not to mention two industrial areas related to sports and measurements, sometimes very complex and in some cases unique. This includes the design and construction of sports facilities, as well as the development and production of sports equipment. But these serious issues require separate coverage.

Thus, the need for measuring instruments during major sports forums, such as the Olympic Games, World and European Championships, is enormous. Just to record sports achievements, thousands of different devices and systems are needed to ensure objectivity, fairness and comparability of results. All of them must undergo not only national certification, but also must be approved for use by the relevant international sports federations.

In the article, we outlined a far from complete range of problems associated with sports measurements, and were not able to depict all types of sports. Only the fundamental aspects of sports metrology and its classification were covered in close-up. We hope that experts in specific fields will continue to discuss the issues raised.

V.N. Kulakov, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Master of Sports of RGSU, Moscow
A.I. Kirillov, RIA Standards and Quality, Moscow

Source: " Sports metrology» , 2016

SECTION 2. ANALYSIS OF COMPETITIVE AND TRAINING ACTIVITIES

CHAPTER 2. Analysis of competitive activity -

2.1 International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) statistics

2.2 Corsi statistics

2.3 Fenwick statistics

2.4 PDO statistic

2.5 FenCIose statistics

2.6 Assessing the quality of a player’s competitive activity (QoC)

2.7 Assessment of the quality of competitive activity of partners on the link (QoT)

2.8 Analysis of the predominant use of a hockey player

CHAPTER 3. Analysis of technical and tactical readiness -

3.1 Analysis of the effectiveness of technical and tactical actions

3.2 Analysis of the volume of technical actions performed

3.3 Analysis of the versatility of technical actions

3.4 Assessing tactical thinking

CHAPTER 4. Accounting for competitive and training loads

4.1 Taking into account the external side of the load

4.2 Consideration of the internal side of the load

SECTION 3. CONTROL OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTIONAL STATE

6.1 Methods for determining body composition

6.2.3.2 Formulas for estimating body fat mass

6.3.1 Physical basis of the method

6.3.2 Integral research methodology

6.3.2.1 Interpretation of study results.

6.3.3 Regional and multisegmental techniques for assessing body composition

6.3.4 Method safety

6.3.5 Method reliability

6.3.6 Indicators of highly qualified hockey players

6.4 Comparison of results obtained from bioimpedance analysis and caliperometry

6.5.1 Measurement procedure

6.6 Composition of muscle fibers???

7.1 Classical methods for assessing an athlete’s condition

7.2 Systematic comprehensive monitoring of the athlete’s condition and readiness using Omegawave technology

7.2.1 Practical implementation of the concept of readiness in Omegawave technology

7.2.LI Central nervous system readiness

7.2.1.2 Cardiac and autonomic nervous system readiness

7.2.1.3 Availability of energy supply systems

7.2.1.4 Neuromuscular system readiness

7.2.1.5 Readiness of the sensorimotor system

7.2.1.6 Readiness of the whole organism

7.2.2. Results..

SECTION 4. Psychodiagnostics and psychological testing in sports

CHAPTER 8. Basics of psychological testing

8.1 Classification of methods

8.2 Study of the structural components of a hockey player’s personality

8.2.1 Study of sports orientation, anxiety and level of aspirations

8.2.2 Assessment of typological properties and characteristics of temperament

8.2.3 Characteristics of individual aspects of the athlete’s personality

8.3 Comprehensive personality assessment

8.3.1 Projective techniques

8.3.2 Analysis of the characterological characteristics of the athlete and coach

8.4 Study of the athlete’s personality in the system of public relations

8.4.1 Sociometry and team assessment

8.4.2 Measuring the coach-athlete relationship

8.4.3 Group personality assessment

Assessing the overall psychological stability and reliability of an athlete 151

8.4.5 Methods for assessing volitional qualities.....154

8.5 Study of mental processes......155

8.5.1 Sensation and perception155

8.5.2 Attention.157

8.5.3 Memory..157

8.5.4 Features of thinking158

8.6 Diagnosis of mental conditions159

8.6.1 Assessment of emotional states.....159

8.6.2 Assessment of the state of neuropsychic stress..160

8.6.3 Luther161 color test

8.7 Main causes of errors in psychodiagnostic studies.....162

Conclusion.....163

Literature.....163

SECTION 5. PHYSICAL FITNESS CONTROL

CHAPTER 9. The problem of feedback in training management

in modern professional hockey171

9.1 Characteristics of the surveyed population...173

9.1.1 Place of work..173

9.1.2 Age..174

9.1.3 Coaching experience175

9.1.4 Current position..176

9.2 Analysis of the results of a questionnaire survey of coaches of professional clubs and National teams..177

9.3 Analysis of methods for assessing the functional readiness of athletes.... 182

9.4 Analysis of test results183

9.5 Conclusions.....186

CHAPTER 10. Functional motor abilities.187

10.1 Mobility.190

10.2 Stability.190

10.3 Testing functional motor abilities191

10.3.1 Evaluation criteria191

10.3.2 Interpretation of results.191

10.3.3 Tests for qualitative assessment of functional motor abilities.192

10.3.4 Protocol of results of testing of functional motor abilities.202

CHAPTER 11. Power abilities.205

11.1 Metrology of force abilities207

11.2 Tests to assess strength abilities....208

11.2.1 Tests to assess absolute (maximum) muscle strength.209

11.2.1.1 Tests to assess absolute (maximum) muscle strength using dynamometers.209

11.2.1.2 Maximum tests to assess absolute muscle strength using a barbell and maximum weights.214

11.2.1.3 Protocol for assessing absolute muscle strength using barbell and non-maximum weights218

11.2.2 Tests to assess speed-strength abilities and power.....219

11.2.2.1 Tests to assess speed-strength abilities and power using a barbell.219

11.2.2.2 Tests to evaluate speed-strength abilities and power using medicine balls.222

11.2.2.3 Tests to assess speed-strength abilities and power using bicycle ergometers229

11.2.2.4 Tests to assess speed-strength abilities and power using other equipment234

11.2.2.5 Jump tests to assess speed-strength abilities and power.....236

11.3 Tests to assess the special power abilities of field players.... 250

CHAPTER 12. Speed ​​abilities......253

12.1 Metrology of speed abilities.....255

12.2 Tests to assess speed abilities..256

12.2.1 Tests to evaluate reaction speed...257

12.2.1.1 Evaluation of a simple reaction......257

12.2.1.2 Evaluation of the choice response from several signals258

12.2.1.3 Assessing the speed of response to a specific tactical situation......260

12.2.1.4 Assessing response to a moving object261

12.2.2 Tests for assessing the speed of single movements261

12.2.3 Tests for assessing maximum frequency of movements.261

12.2.4 Tests for assessing the speed manifested in holistic motor actions264

12.2.4.1 Tests to evaluate starting speed265

12.2.4.2 Tests to evaluate distance speed..266

12.2.5 Tests to evaluate braking speed.26“

12.3 Tests to evaluate the special speed abilities of field players. . 26*

12.3.1 Test protocol for skating 27.5/30/36 meters face and back forward to assess the power of the anaerobic-alactate energy supply mechanism.. 2“3

Tests for assessing the capacity of the anaerobic-alactate energy supply mechanism..273

ON Tests to evaluate the special speed abilities of goalkeepers277

12.4.1 Tests to evaluate goalkeeper reaction speed.277

12.4.2 Tests to assess the speed exhibited in the holistic motor actions of goalkeepers..279

CHAPTER 13. Endurance.281

13.1 Endurance metrology.283

13.2 Tests to assess endurance285

13.2.1 Direct method for assessing endurance...289

13.2.1.1 Maximum tests for assessing speed endurance and the capacity of the anaerobic-alactate energy supply mechanism. . 290

13.2.1.2 Maximum tests for assessing regional speed-strength endurance.292

13.2.1.3 Maximum tests for assessing speed and speed-strength endurance and the power of the anaerobic-glycolytic energy supply mechanism...295

13.2.1.4 Maximum tests for assessing speed and speed-strength endurance and the capacity of the anaerobic-glycolytic energy supply mechanism...300

13.2.1.5 Maximum tests for assessing global strength endurance.301

13.2.1.6 Maximum tests to assess VO2max and general (aerobic) endurance.316

13.2.1.7 Maximum tests to assess PANO and general (aerobic) endurance.320

13.2.1.8 Maximum tests for assessing heart rate and general (aerobic) endurance.323

13.2.1.9 Maximum tests to assess general (aerobic) endurance. . 329

13.2.2 Indirect method for assessing endurance (tests with submaximal power loads)330

13.3 Tests to evaluate the special endurance of field players336

13.4 Tests to assess the special endurance of goalkeepers341

CHAPTER 14. Flexibility.343

14.1 Metrology of flexibility345

14.1.1 Factors affecting flexibility.....345

14.2 Tests for assessing flexibility.346

CHAPTER 15. Coordination abilities..353

15.1 Metrology of coordination abilities.355

15.1.1 Classification of types of coordination abilities357

15.1.2 Criteria for assessing coordination abilities..358

5.2 Tests to assess coordination abilities.359

15.2.1 Control of coordination of movements.....362

15.2.2 Monitoring the ability to maintain body balance (balance)......364

15.2.3 Monitoring the accuracy of estimation and measurement of movement parameters. . . 367

15.2.4 Control of coordination abilities in their complex manifestation. . 369

15.3 Tests to assess the special coordination abilities and technical readiness of field players.382

15.3.1 Tests to evaluate skating technique and puck handling. . 382

15.3.1.1 Control of cross-step skating technique382

15.3.1.2 Control of the ability to change direction on skates. . 384

15.3.1.3 Control of technique for performing turns on skates387

15.3.1.4 Control of the technique of transitions from skating face forward to running backwards and vice versa.388

15.3.1.5 Control of stick and puck handling technique392

15.3.1.6 Control of special coordination abilities in their complex manifestation

15.3.2 Tests to evaluate braking technique and the ability to quickly change directions of movement

15.3.3 Gestures for assessing the accuracy of throws and passes of the puck

15.3.3.1 Control of throw accuracy

15.3.3.2 Monitoring the accuracy of puck passes

15.4 Tests to evaluate the special coordination abilities and technical readiness of goalkeepers

15.4.1 Control of movement technique with an additional step

15.4.2 Checking the T-slide technique

15.4.3 Control of cross-sliding movement technique on shields

15.4.4 Evaluation of puck bounce control technique

15.4.5 Control of special coordination abilities of goalkeepers in their complex manifestation

CHAPTER 16. Interrelationships in the manifestation of various types of physical abilities on and off the ice

16.1 The relationship between speed, power and speed-power abilities of hockey players on and off the ice

16.1.1 Organization of the study

16.1.2 Analysis of the relationship between speed, power and speed-power abilities of hockey players on and off the ice

16.2 Relationship between various indicators of coordination abilities

16.2.1 Study organization

16.2.2 Analysis of the relationship between various indicators of coordination abilities

17.1 Optimal comprehensive battery for testing GPT and SPT

17.2 Data analysis

17.2.1 Planning training based on calendar features

17.2.2 Drawing up a test report

17.2.3 Personalization

17.2.4 Monitoring progress and assessing the effectiveness of the training program

Introduction to the subject of sports metrology

Sports metrology is the science of measurements in physical education and sports, its task is to ensure the unity and accuracy of measurements. The subject of sports metrology is comprehensive control in sports and physical education, as well as the further use of the obtained data in the training of athletes.

Fundamentals of integrated control metrology

The preparation of an athlete is a controlled process. Its most important attribute is feedback. The basis of its content is comprehensive control, which gives trainers the opportunity to receive objective information about the work done and the functional changes that it caused. This allows you to make the necessary adjustments to the training process.

Comprehensive control includes pedagogical, medical-biological and psychological sections. An effective preparation process is possible only with the integrated use of all sections of control.

Managing the process of training athletes

Managing the process of training athletes includes five stages:

1. collecting information about the athlete;
2. analysis of the obtained data;
3. development of strategy and preparation of training plans and training programs;
4. their implementation;
5. monitoring the effectiveness of programs and plans, making timely adjustments.

Hockey specialists receive a large amount of subjective information about players’ readiness during training and competitive activities. Undoubtedly, the coaching staff also needs objective information about individual aspects of preparedness, which can only be obtained in specially created standard conditions.

This problem can be solved by using a testing program consisting of the minimum possible number of tests to obtain the maximum useful and comprehensive information.

Types of control

The main types of pedagogical control are:

• Stage control- assesses the stable conditions of hockey players and is carried out, as a rule, at the end of a certain stage of preparation;

• Current control- monitors the speed and nature of the recovery processes, as well as the condition of athletes as a whole based on the results of a training session or a series of them;

• Operational control- gives an express assessment of the player’s condition at a given specific moment: between tasks or at the end of a training session, between entering the ice during a match, as well as during a break between periods.

The main methods of control in hockey are pedagogical observations and testing.

Basics of measurement theory

“Measurement of a physical quantity is an operation that results in determining how many times this quantity is greater (or less) than another quantity taken as a standard.”

Measurement scales

There are four main measurement scales:

Table 1. Characteristics and examples of measurement scales

	Characteristics	Mathematical methods
Items	Objects are grouped and groups are designated by numbers. The fact that the number of one group is greater or less than another does not say anything about their properties, except that they are different	Number of cases Tetrachoric and polychoric correlation coefficients	Athlete Role number, etc.
	The numbers assigned to objects reflect the amount of property they own. It is possible to establish a ratio of “more” or “less”	Rank correlation Rank tests Hypothesis testing of nonparametric statistics	Results of ranking athletes in the test
Intervals	There is a unit of measurement with which objects can not only be ordered, but also numbers can be assigned to them so that different differences reflect different differences in the amount of the property being measured. The zero point is arbitrary and does not indicate the absence of a property	All statistical methods except for determining ratios	Body temperature, joint angles, etc.
Relationships	The numbers assigned to objects have all the properties of an interval scale. There is an absolute zero on the scale, which indicates the complete absence of this property in an object. The ratio of numbers assigned to objects after measurements reflect the quantitative relationships of the property being measured.	All statistical methods	Length and weight of the body Force of movement Acceleration, etc.

Accuracy of measurements

In sports, two types of measurements are most often used: direct (the desired value is found from experimental data) and indirect (the desired value is derived based on the dependence of one value on the others being measured). For example, in the Cooper test, the distance is measured (direct method), and the MIC is obtained by calculation (indirect method).

According to the laws of metrology, any measurements have an error. The task is to reduce it to a minimum. The objectivity of the assessment depends on the accuracy of the measurement; Based on this, knowledge of measurement accuracy is a prerequisite.

Systematic and random measurement errors

According to the theory of errors, they are divided into systematic and random.

The magnitude of the former is always the same if measurements are carried out by the same method using the same instruments. The following groups of systematic errors are distinguished:

• the cause of their occurrence is known and quite accurately determined. This may include changing the length of the tape measure due to changes in air temperature during the long jump;
• the cause is known, but the magnitude is not. These errors depend on the accuracy class of the measuring devices;
• the cause and magnitude are unknown. This case can be observed in complex measurements, when it is simply impossible to take into account all possible sources of error;
• errors related to the properties of the measurement object. This may include the level of stability of the athlete, the degree of fatigue or excitement, etc.

To eliminate systematic errors, measuring devices are first checked and compared with standards or calibrated (the error and the amount of corrections are determined).

Random errors are those that are simply impossible to predict in advance. They are identified and taken into account using probability theory and mathematical apparatus.

Absolute and relative measurement errors

The difference, equal to the difference between the indicators of the measuring device and the true value, is the absolute measurement error (expressed in the same units as the measured value):

x = x source - x measurement, (1.1)

where x is the absolute error.

When testing, there is often a need to determine not the absolute, but the relative error:

X rel =x/x rel * 100% (1.2)

Basic test requirements

A test is a test or measurement conducted to determine an athlete's condition or ability. Tests satisfying the following requirements may be used as tests:

• having a goal;

• the testing procedure and methodology have been standardized;

• the degree of their reliability and information content was determined;

• there is a system for evaluating results;

• the type of control is indicated (operational, current or stage-by-stage).

All tests are divided into groups depending on the purpose:

1) indicators measured at rest (body length and weight, heart rate, etc.);

2) standard tests using non-maximal load (for example, running on a treadmill 6 m/s for 10 minutes). A distinctive feature of these tests is the lack of motivation to achieve the highest possible result. The result depends on the method of setting the load: for example, if it is set by the magnitude of shifts in medical and biological indicators (for example, running at a heart rate of 160 beats/min), then the physical values ​​of the load are measured (distance, time, etc.) and vice versa.

3) maximum tests with a high psychological attitude to achieve the maximum possible result. In this case, the values ​​of various functional systems (MIC, heart rate, etc.) are measured. The motivation factor is the main disadvantage of these tests. It is extremely difficult to motivate a player who has a signed contract to achieve maximum results in a control exercise.

Standardization of measurement procedures

Testing can be effective and useful to a coach only if it is used systematically. This makes it possible to analyze the degree of progress of hockey players, evaluate the effectiveness of the training program, and also normalize the load depending on the dynamics of the athletes’ performance

f) general endurance (aerobic energy supply mechanism);

6) rest intervals between attempts and tests must be until the subject fully recovers:

a) between repetitions of exercises that do not require maximum effort - at least 2-3 minutes;

b) between repetitions of exercises with maximum effort - at least 3-5 minutes;

7) motivation to achieve maximum results. Achieving this condition can be quite difficult, especially when it comes to professional athletes. Here everything largely depends on charisma and leadership qualities