Educational psychology as a science. Subject of educational psychology.
Educational psychology is an independent branch of psychological science, most closely related to such branches as developmental psychology and occupational psychology. Both of these sciences are close due to the common object of study, which is man in the process of his development, but their subjects are different. The subject of educational psychology is not just the mental development of a person, as in developmental psychology, but the role in this process of training and education, that is, certain types of activities. This is what brings educational psychology closer to labor psychology, the subject of which is the development of the human psyche under the influence of work activity. One of the types of the latter is pedagogical activity, which directly affects the development of the psyche of both the student and the teacher himself.
The subject of educational psychology is also the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person’s mastery of sociocultural experience and the changes in the level of intellectual and personal development caused by this mastery. In particular, educational psychology studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, the peculiarities of the formation of active independent creative thinking in students, the influence of training and upbringing on mental development, the conditions for the formation of mental new formations, the psychological characteristics of the personality and activities of the teacher. The main problems of educational psychology have always been the following:
1. The connection between conscious, organized pedagogical influence on a child and his psychological development.
2. A combination of age patterns and individual developmental characteristics and optimal teaching and upbringing methods for age categories and specific children.
3. Finding and making the most effective use of sensitive periods of child mental development.
4. Psychological readiness of children for conscious education and training.
5. Pedagogical neglect.
6. Providing an individual approach to training.
The subject of each branch of scientific knowledge also determines its thematic structure, i.e., the sections included in this science. Traditionally, the structure of educational psychology is divided into three sections: 1) psychology of learning; 2) psychology of education; 3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher. However, such a classification excludes from consideration the personality and activity of the student himself. In fact, the word “training” refers to the influence on the student by the teacher with the aim of the student acquiring knowledge and developing skills, i.e. the teacher is considered as an active party, a subject of activity, and the student as an object of influence. The concept of “education” also means influencing the person being educated with the aim of developing in him certain psychological properties and qualities desirable for the educator, i.e. the child again finds himself in the role of an object that needs to be influenced in a certain way, and only as a separate issue in this topic self-education is considered.
Structure and tasks of educational psychology.
Tasks of educational psychology:
1. - disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educational influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;
2.- determination of the mechanisms and patterns of students’ mastery of sociocultural experience, its structuring, preservation in the individual consciousness of the student, its use in different situations;
3. – determination of the connection between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educational influence (collaboration, active forms of learning, etc.).
4. – study of the characteristics of the organization and management of students’ educational activities and the influence of these processes on their intellectual and personal development;
5. – study of the psychological foundations of a teacher’s activity, his individual psychological and professional qualities;
6. – determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for knowledge acquisition;
7. – determination of the psychological foundations for diagnosing the level and quality of learning in accordance with educational standards.
Structure of educational psychology, those. sections included in this branch of scientific knowledge. Traditionally considered as part of three sections:
1. – psychology of learning;
2. – psychology of education;
3. – psychology of the teacher.
Or more broadly:
1. psychology of educational activities;
2. psychology of educational activity and its subject;
3. psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject;
4. psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.
Psychological and pedagogical experiment: schemes for its implementation.
Experiment(from the Latin eexperimental - “test”, “experience”, “test”) - the most complex type of research, the most labor-intensive, but at the same time more accurate and useful in cognitive terms. Famous experimental psychologists P. Kress and J. Piaget wrote: “The experimental method is a form of the mind’s approach, which has its own logic and its own technical requirements. He does not tolerate haste, but instead of slowness and even some cumbersomeness he gives the joy of confidence, partial, perhaps, but final.”
It is impossible to do without experiment in science and practice, despite its complexity and labor intensity, since only in a carefully thought-out, properly organized and conducted experiment can the most conclusive results be obtained, especially regarding cause-and-effect relationships.
The purpose of the experiment is to identify regular connections, i.e. stable, significant connections between phenomena and processes. It is this goal that distinguishes experiment from other research methods that perform the function of collecting empirical data.
Experiment- this means studying the influence of independent variables on dependent ones with constant characteristics of controlled variables and taken into account spontaneous ones.
Scheme of psychological and pedagogical experiment.
D. Campbell introduced the concept of an ideal experiment, which is satisfied by the following conditions:
1. The experimenter changes only one independent variable, and the dependent variable is strictly controlled.
2. Other conditions of the experimenter remain unchanged.
3. Equivalence (equality) of subjects in the control and experimental groups.
4. Carrying out all experimental influences simultaneously.
There are practically no ideal experiments.
General concept of learning.
Learningdenotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization under Earth conditions).
In foreign psychology, the concept of “learning” is often used as an equivalent to “teaching”. In Russian psychology (at least during the Soviet period of its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) have used this term in relation to humans.
The term “learning” is used primarily in behavioral psychology. In contrast to the pedagogical concepts of training, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes in the formation of individual experience (habituation, imprinting, formation of the simplest conditioned reflexes, complex motor and speech skills, sensory discrimination reactions, etc.).
In psychological science, there are a number of different interpretations of learning.
All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual.
Characteristic for associative learning is the formation of connections between certain elements of reality, behavior, physiological processes or mental activity based on the contiguity of these elements (physical, mental or functional). Types of associative learning:
1. Associative-reflex learning divided into sensory, motor and sensorimotor.
· Sensory learning consists in the assimilation of new biologically significant properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.
· Motor learning consists in the development of new biologically useful reactions when the sensory component of the reactions is mainly kinesthetic or proprioceptive, i.e. when sensory information arises in the very process of performing a movement.
· Sensorimotor learning consists in developing new or adapting existing reactions to new conditions of perception.
2. Associative cognitive learning is divided into teaching knowledge, teaching skills and teaching actions.
· At learning Through knowledge, a person discovers new properties in objects that are important for his activity or life, and assimilates them.
· Learning skills consists in the formation of a program of actions that ensures the achievement of a certain goal, as well as a program for the regulation and control of these actions.
Learning Action involves learning knowledge and skills and corresponds to sensorimotor learning at the cognitive level.
At intellectual learning the subject of reflection and assimilation are the essential connections, structures and relationships of objective reality.
Types of intellectual learning:
More complex forms of learning relate to intellectual learning, which, like associative learning, can be divided into reflexive and cognitive.
1. Reflexive intellectual learning is divided into relational learning, transfer learning and sign learning.
· Essence relationship teaching consists in isolating and reflecting in the psyche the relations of elements in a situation, separating them from the absolute properties of these elements.
· Transfer learning is “the successful use, in relation to a new situation, of those skills and innate forms of behavior that the animal already possesses.” This type of learning is based on the ability to identify relationships and actions.
· Sign learning is associated with the development of such forms of behavior in which “the animal reacts to an object as a sign, that is, it responds not to the properties of the object itself, but to what this object signifies” (Ibid. p. 62).
In animals, intellectual learning is presented in its simplest forms; in humans, it is the main form of learning and occurs at the cognitive level.
2. Intelligent Cognitive Training is divided into teaching concepts, teaching thinking and teaching skills.
· Learning concepts is the assimilation of concepts that reflect the essential relations of reality and are enshrined in words and combinations of words. Through mastery of concepts, a person assimilates the socio-historical experience of previous generations.
· Learning thinking consists in “forming in students mental actions and their systems, reflecting the basic operations with the help of which the most important relations of reality are learned. Teaching thinking is a prerequisite for teaching concepts.
. Learning skills is to develop in students ways to regulate their actions and behavior in accordance with the goal and situation.
Learning theories.
T.n. strive to systematize existing facts about learning in the simplest and most logical way and direct the efforts of researchers in the search for new and important facts. In the case of T. n., these facts are associated with conditions that cause and maintain changes in behavior as a result of the organism acquiring individual experience. Despite the fact that some differences between T. n. are caused by variations in the degree of importance they attach to particular facts, most of the differences arising from disagreements about how best to interpret the total body of available facts. Theoret. an approach that calls itself experimental. analysis of behavior, tries to systematize facts at a purely behavioral level, without k.-l. appeal to hypothetical processes or physiologist. manifestations. However, many theorists do not agree with interpretations of learning that are limited only to the behavioral level. Three circumstances are often mentioned in this regard. Firstly, the time interval between behavior and its preconditions can be quite large. To fill this gap, some theorists have suggested the existence of hypothetical phenomena such as habits or memory processes that mediate the observed background and subsequent actions. Secondly, we often behave differently in conditions that superficially look like the same situation. In these cases, unobservable states of the organism, often called motivations, are invoked as a hypothetical explanation for observed differences in behavior. Finally, thirdly, complex evolutionary and individual developmental histories make it possible for highly organized reactions to occur in the absence of observable intermediate, transitional forms of behavior. In such circumstances, the previous external conditions necessary for the emergence of the skill, and the events that occur between the occurrence of the problem and the emergence of the answer to it, are inaccessible to observation. In conditions of limited knowledge about events that precede the observed behavior, and a lack of knowledge about intermediate physiologist. and neural processes, unobservable cognitive processes are invoked to explain behavior. Due to these three circumstances, the majority of T. n. assume the existence of unobservable processes - usually called intermediate variables - that interpose between observable events in the environment and behavioral manifestations. However, these theories differ with respect to the nature of these intervening variables. Although T.n. address a wide range of issues, the present discussion will focus on one topic: the nature of reinforcement. Experimental analysis of behavior In the experiment. Behavior analysis recognizes two procedures that can be used to induce changes in behavior: respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. With respondent conditioning - more often called in other theories. contexts, classical or Pavlovian conditioning - an indifferent stimulus is regularly followed by another stimulus that already causes a reaction. As a result of this sequence of events, the first, previously ineffective, stimulus begins to produce a reaction that may have a strong resemblance to the reaction caused by the second stimulus. Although response conditioning plays an important role in learning, especially emotional responses, most learning involves operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, a response is followed by a specific reinforcement. The response on which this reinforcement depends is called an operant because it acts on the environment to cause this reinforcement. Operant conditioning is believed to play a more important role in humans. behavior, since by gradually modifying the reaction, with which reinforcement is conditionally connected, it is possible to develop new and more complex operants. This process is called operant conditioning. In experimental In the analysis of behavior developed by B.F. Skinner, reinforcement is simply a stimulus that, when included in a system of connections determined by the use of respondent or operant procedures, increases the likelihood of subsequent behavior being formed. Skinner studied the importance of reinforcement in humans. behavior in a much more systematic way than any other theorist. In his analysis, he tried to avoid introducing k.-l. new processes that are not observable in laboratory experiments on animal learning. His explanation of complex behavior relied on the assumption that the often unobservable and subtle behavior of people follows the same principles as fully observable forms of behavior. Theories of intermediate variables Under the pressure of the three problems noted above - memory, motivation and cognition, most of the creators of the so-called. supplemented Skinner's experiment. analysis of environmental and behavioral variables by intervening variables. Intermediate variables are theories. constructs, the meaning of which is determined through their connections with various environmental variables, whose general effects they are intended to summarize. Tolman's expectancy theory. Thorndike, influenced by Darwin's premise of continuity of evolution, biologist. species, began the transition to a less mentalistic psychology. John B. Watson concluded it with a complete rejection of mentalistic concepts. Acting in line with the new thinking, Tolman replaced the old speculative mentalistic concepts with logically definable intermediate variables. As far as our subject is concerned, Tolman did not follow Thorndike's example. Thorndike viewed the consequences of a response as being of utmost importance in strengthening the associative connection between stimulus and response. He called this the law of effect, which was the forerunner of modern law. reinforcement theory. Tolman believed that reaction consequences do not affect learning as such, but only the external expression of the processes underlying learning. The need to distinguish between learning and execution arose in the course of attempts to interpret the results of experiments on latent learning. As the theory developed, the name of Tolman's intermediate learning variable was changed several times, but the most appropriate name was probably expectancy. Expectancy depended solely on the temporal sequence—or contiguity—of events in the environment rather than on the consequences of the response. Physiological theory of Pavlov. For Pavlov, as for Tolman, a necessary and sufficient condition for learning was the contiguity of events. These events are physiologist. are represented by processes occurring in those areas of the cerebral cortex, which are activated by indifferent and unconditioned stimuli. The evolutionary consequences of a learned response were recognized by Pavlov, but not tested experimentally. conditions, so their role in learning remains unclear. Molecular theory of Ghazri. Like Tolman and Pavlov, and unlike Thorndike, Edwin R. Ghazri believed that contiguity was a sufficient condition for learning. However, the events that coincided in time were not determined by such broad environmental events as Tolman argued. Each molar environmental event, according to Ghazri, consists of many molecular stimulus elements, which he called signals. Each molar behavior, which Ghazri called an “action,” in turn consists of many molecular reactions, or “movements.” If a signal is combined in time with movement, this movement becomes completely determined by this signal. Learning a behavioral action develops slowly only because most actions require learning of many component movements in the presence of many specific signals. Hull's drive reduction theory. The use of intervening variables in learning theory reached its greatest development in the work of Clark L. Hull. Hull attempted to develop a general interpretation of behavioral changes resulting from both classical and operant procedures. Both stimulus-response conjugation and drive reduction were included as necessary components in Hull's concept of reinforcement. Fulfillment of learning conditions affects the formation of an intermediate variable - habit. Habit was defined by Hull as a theory. a construct that summarizes the overall effect of a number of situational variables on a number of behavioral variables. The relationships between situational variables and the intervening variable, and then between habit and behavior, were expressed in the form of algebraic equations. Despite the use of some of his intermediate variables in the formulation of physiologist. terms, experiment. research and Hull's theory were concerned exclusively with the behavioral level of analysis. Kenneth W. Spence, a collaborator of Hull who made a significant contribution to the development of his theory, was particularly careful in defining intermediate variables in purely logical terms. Subsequent development Although none of these theories of intermediate variables retained their significance in the second half of the 20th century, the subsequent development of the so-called. two of their key features were influential. All subsequent theories, as a rule, were based on mat. apparatus and considered a strictly defined range of phenomena - that is, they were “miniature” theories. Hull's theory was the first step towards creating a quantitative theory of behavior, but its algebraic equations served only to briefly formulate the basics. concepts. The first ones are really swear words. T.n. were developed by Estes. Dr. quantitative theories, instead of using probability theory and mathematics. statistics relied primarily on the theory of information processing. or computer models. Within the framework of intervening variable theories, the most significant contribution to the development of the principle of reinforcement came from empirical research. Leon Karnina and related theories. works by Robert Rescola and Alan R. Wagner. In the classical conditioning procedure, an indifferent stimulus combined with a k.-l. other effective reinforcement, does not gain control over the reaction if the indifferent stimulus is accompanied by another stimulus, which already causes this reaction. At the behavioral level, a certain discrepancy between the response elicited by the reinforcer and the response that occurs during the presentation of that indifferent stimulus must be complemented by similarity if learning is to occur. In addition, the nature of this discrepancy must be precisely defined. In terms of experimentation. behavior analysis theory. the work has become more obscene. character, although ch. arr. deterministic rather than probabilistic systems. Theoret. research here they developed in the direction from the analysis of a single reinforced reaction to multiple ones. reinforced reactions and the interaction of reinforced reactions with other reactions. In the broadest sense, these theories describe various reinforcers as causes that cause a redistribution of the body's responses within the range of possible behavioral alternatives. The resulting redistribution minimizes the change in the current reaction until a new operant conjugation is established and is sensitive to the instantaneous value of the probability of reinforcement for each reaction. There is reason to believe that the work carried out by representatives of the theory of intermediate variables in the field of classical conditioning and experimental. analysts in the field of operant conditioning, leads to a common understanding of reinforcement, in which behavior is changed in order to minimize the network of discrepancies associated with the action of all excitatory stimuli present in a given environment.
Types of learning in humans
1. Learning by mechanism imritinga , i.e. rapid, automatic adaptation of the body to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior that are practically ready from birth. The presence of imriting unites humans with animals that have a developed central nervous system. For example, as soon as a newborn touches the mother's breast, he immediately exhibits an innate sucking reflex. As soon as a mother duck appears in the field of view of a newborn duckling and begins to move in a certain direction, the chick, standing on its own paws, automatically begins to follow her everywhere. This - instinctive(i.e. unconditional-reflex) forms of behavior, they are quite plastic for a certain, usually very limited, period (the “critical” period), and subsequently are difficult to change.
2. Conditioned reflex learning – a conditioned stimulus is associated by the body with the satisfaction of corresponding needs. Subsequently, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signaling or orienting role. For example, a word as a certain combination of sounds. Associated with highlighting an object in the field of vision or holding an object in one’s hand, it can acquire the ability to automatically evoke in a person’s mind an image of this object or a movement aimed at searching for it.
3. Operant conditioning – knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired using the so-called trial and error method. This type of learning was identified by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner in addition to conditioned reflex learning. Operant learning is based on active actions (“operations”) of the organism in the environment. If some spontaneous action turns out to be useful in achieving a goal, it is reinforced by the result achieved. A pigeon, for example, can be taught to play ping-pong if the game becomes a means of obtaining food. Operant learning is implemented in the programmed training system and in the token system of psychotherapy.
4. Vicarious learning – learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately accepts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is partially represented in higher animals, such as monkeys.
5. Verbal learning – a person’s acquisition of new experience through language. In this case, we mean learning carried out in symbolic form through diverse sign systems. For example, symbolism in physics, mathematics, computer science, music literacy.
The first, second and third types of learning are characteristic of both animals and humans, while the fourth and fifth are only for humans.
If the learning conditions are specifically organized, are created, then such an organization of learning is called training. Training is broadcast a person with certain knowledge, skills, and abilities. Knowledge, abilities and skills are the forms and results of reflective and regulatory processes in the human psyche. Consequently, they can arise in a person’s head only as a result of his own activities, i.e. as a result of the student’s mental activity.
Thus, education – the process of interaction between the teacher (teacher) and the student (student), as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities.
Knowledge, abilities and skills will be formed only if the teacher’s influences cause certain physical and mental activity.
Teaching (learning activities)- this is a special type of cognitive activity of the subject, performed with the aim of acquiring a certain composition of knowledge, skills, and intellectual skills.
Structure of educational activities.
Target- mastering the content and methods of teaching, enriching the child’s personality, i.e. mastering scientific knowledge and relevant skills.
Motives- this is what encourages you to learn and overcome difficulties in the process of acquiring knowledge; a stable internal psychological reason for behavior, actions, and activities.
Classification of teaching motives:
Social : the desire to acquire knowledge, to be useful to society, the desire to earn the praise of the teacher, the desire to earn the respect of comrades, avoidance of punishment.
Cognitive : orientation towards mastering new knowledge, orientation towards the learning process (the child finds pleasure in being active in this type of activity, even if it does not immediately bring certain results), orientation towards results (the child tries in class to get a “10”, although the subject itself he is not interested).
Emotional: interest on an emotional level.
What are the main motives educational activities of six-year-olds? Research shows that dominant meaning children of this age have motives for learning that lie outside the educational activity itself. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs as a schoolchild. recognition, communication, self-affirmation. At the beginning of the school year, motives associated with knowledge and learning itself have little weight. But by the end of the school year, there are more children with this type of learning motivation (obviously, under the pedagogical influence of the teacher, educator). However, researchers warn that it is too early to become complacent. Cognitive motives Six-year-olds are still extremely unstable and situational. They need constant, but indirect, unobtrusive reinforcement.
It is important for the teacher to maintain and increase children's interest in school. It is important for him to know what motives are most significant for the child at this stage, in order to build his education with this in mind. Let us remember: an educational goal that is not connected with the motives that are relevant to the child, that does not affect his soul, is not retained in his consciousness, and is easily replaced by other goals that are more in tune with the child’s usual motives.
Since at the age of six the internal, cognitive motivation for learning is just being formed and the will (so necessary in learning) is not yet sufficiently developed, it is advisable to maintain the maximum variety of motives for learning (its multi-motivated) when teaching children at school. Children need to be motivated in a variety of ways.- game, competitive, prestigious, etc. - and emphasize it to a greater extent than is currently done when teaching six-year-olds.
Learning task- this is what the child must master.
Learning action- these are changes in educational material necessary for a child to master it; this is what the child must do to discover the properties of the subject he is studying.
Learning action is formed on the basis of mastery ways of teaching (operational side of the exercise) – These are practical and mental actions with the help of which the student masters the content of the teaching and at the same time applies the acquired knowledge in practice.
Practical actions - (actions with objects) – with images of objects, diagrams, tables and models, with handouts
Mental Actions : perceptual, mnemonic, mental (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, etc.), reproductive - according to given patterns, methods (reproducing), productive - creation of something new (carried out according to independently formed criteria, own programs, new ways, new combination of means), verbal - reflection of the material in the word (designation, description, statement, repetition of words and statements), i.e. performing actions in speech form, imagery (aimed at creating imaginary images).
To learn successfully, a child needs certain skills (automated ways of performing actions) and abilities (a combination of knowledge and skills that ensures the successful completion of an activity). Among them - specific skills and abilities required in certain lessons (addition, subtraction, phoneme identification, reading, writing, drawing, etc.). But along with them, special attention should be paid to generalized skills that are needed in any lesson or activity. These skills will fully develop later, but the rudiments of them appear already in preschool age.
Action of control (self-control) - this is an indication of whether the child correctly performs the action corresponding to the model. This action should not only be performed by the teacher. Moreover, he must specifically teach the child to control his actions not only in terms of their final result, but also in the process of achieving it.
Action of assessment (self-assessment)- determining whether the student has achieved the result or not. Result educational activity can be expressed by: the need to continue learning, interest, satisfaction from studying or reluctance to study, negative attitude towards the educational institution, avoidance of studies, failure to attend classes, leaving the educational institution.
Learning ability and its main components. Learning ability – This is a set of fairly stable and widely manifested features of a child’s cognitive activity that determine success, i.e. speed and ease of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of teaching methods.
Methods of influence in education
Method of formation of consciousness: story, explanation, clarification, lecture, ethical conversation; exhortation, suggestion, instruction, debate, report, example. Method of organizing activities and forming behavioral experience: exercise, training, pedagogical requirement, public opinion, educational situations. Stimulation method: competition, encouragement, punishment.
Pedagogical impact- a special type of activity of a teacher, the goal of which is to achieve positive changes in the psychological characteristics of the student (needs, attitudes, relationships, states, behavior patterns).
The goal of any psychological impact is to overcome the subjective defenses and barriers of the individual, restructuring his psychological characteristics or behavior patterns in the right direction. There are three paradigms of psychological influence and three corresponding influence strategies.
The first strategy is imperative influence strategy; its main functions: the function of controlling human behavior and attitudes, reinforcing them and directing them in the right direction, the function of coercion in relation to the object of influence. Second strategy - manipulative – is based on penetration into the mechanisms of mental reflection and uses knowledge for the purpose of influence. Third strategy - developing. The psychological condition for the implementation of such a strategy is dialogue. The principles on which it is based are the emotional and personal openness of communication partners,
Traditionally, psychological science distinguishes two main types of pedagogical influence: persuasion and suggestion.
Belief - psychological impact addressed to the consciousness and will of the child. This is a logically reasoned influence of one person or group of people, which is accepted critically and carried out consciously.
Suggestion - psychological impact, which is characterized by reduced argumentation, is accepted with a reduced degree of awareness and criticality.
38. Methods of self-education and self-education
Self-education is the acquisition of knowledge through independent studies outside educational institutions and without the help of a teaching person.
Pedagogical psychology
(from the Greek pais (paidos) - child and ago - I lead, educate) - a branch of psychology that studies the psychological problems of teaching and upbringing. P. p. explores psychological issues of the purposeful formation of cognitive activity and socially significant personality traits; conditions ensuring the optimal developmental effect of training; the possibility of taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of students; relationships between the teacher and students, as well as within the educational team; psychological foundations of pedagogical activity itself (teacher psychology). The essence of a person’s individual mental development is his assimilation of socio-historical experience, recorded in objects of material and spiritual culture; this assimilation is carried out through active human activity, the means and methods of which are updated in communication with other people. P.P. can be divided into the psychology of education (studying the patterns of assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities) and the psychology of education (studying the patterns of active, purposeful personality formation). According to the areas of application of pedagogical psychology, we can distinguish the psychology of preschool education, the psychology of education and upbringing at school age, divided into junior, middle and senior school ages, which have their own significant specifics (see), psychology of vocational education, and psychology of higher education.
Brief psychological dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don: “PHOENIX”. L.A. Karpenko, A.V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 1998 .
Pedagogical psychology Etymology.
Comes from the Greek. pais - child + ago - I educate and psyche - soul + logos - teaching.
Category.Section of psychology.
Specificity.Studies the patterns of the process of appropriation by an individual of social experience in the conditions of specially organized training.
Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000.
PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
(English) educational psychology) - a branch of psychology that studies the laws of the process assimilation individual social experience in the context of educational activities, relationships training and personal development.
P. p. arose in the 2nd half. XIX century The founder grew up. P. p. is K. D. Ushinsky. The works of P. F. Kapterev, A. P. Nechaev, A. F. Lazursky and others played a major role in its formation.
Until recently, P. p. studied g.o. psychological patterns of teaching and raising children. Currently, she goes beyond childhood and adolescence and begins to study the psychological problems of education and upbringing at later age stages.
The focus of P. p. is the processes of assimilation knowledge, formation of various aspects of the student’s personality. To reveal the patterns of assimilation of different types of social experience (intellectual, moral, aesthetic, industrial, etc.) means to understand how it becomes the property of an individual’s experience. Development of human personality in ontogenesis acts primarily as a process assimilation(appropriation) of the experience accumulated by humanity. This process is always carried out with one or another measure of help from other people, that is, as training and education. Because of this, the study of the psychological patterns of the formation of various aspects of the human personality in the conditions of educational activities significantly contributes to the knowledge of the general patterns of personality formation, which is the task general psychology. P. p. also has a close connection with developmental and social psychology, together with them it forms the psychological basis of pedagogy and private methods.
Thus, psychological psychology is developing as a branch of both fundamental and applied psychology. Both fundamental and applied scientific research are divided, in turn, into two parts: psychology of learning(or teachings) and educational psychology. One of the division criteria is the type of social experience to be learned.
Psychology of learning, first of all, explores the process of assimilation of knowledge and adequate skills And skills. Its task is to identify the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for successful occurrence. A special task of teaching is the development of methods that make it possible to diagnose the level and quality of assimilation. Studies of the learning process, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of domestic schools of psychology, have shown that the process of assimilation is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities. Knowledge is always acquired as elements of these actions, and skills and abilities take place when the acquired actions are brought to certain indicators for some of their characteristics. Cm. , , ,Developmental education, . For the deductive method of learning, see .
Learning is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the learning process. The actions that make up the activity of the teaching are assimilated according to the same laws as any other.
Most studies on the psychology of learning are aimed at identifying patterns of formation and functioning educational activities in the context of the existing education system. In particular, rich experimental material has been accumulated, revealing typical shortcomings in the acquisition of various scientific concepts by secondary school students. The role of life experience in learning has also been studied, speeches, the nature of the educational material presented, etc. in the acquisition of knowledge.
In the 1970s In teaching, another path has increasingly begun to be used: the study of the patterns of knowledge formation and educational activity in general in the conditions of specially organized training (see. ). First of all, these studies have shown that managing the learning process significantly changes the course of assimilation of knowledge and skills; The results obtained are important for finding optimal ways of learning and identifying the conditions for effective mental development of students.
Large psychological dictionary. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .
Pedagogical psychology
A wide area of research related to the use of psychological methods in the educational process. Researchers in the field of educational psychology apply the principles of learning in classrooms, school administration, psychometric tests, teacher training, and other aspects closely related to the educational process. In Great Britain, educational psychologists take an active part in the work of educational institutions. They usually have an honors degree in psychology, a teaching qualification and relevant experience. Upon completion of graduate school, a specialist can receive a master's degree in educational psychology.
Psychology. AND I. Dictionary reference / Transl. from English K. S. Tkachenko. - M.: FAIR PRESS. Mike Cordwell. 2000.
See what “educational psychology” is in other dictionaries:
PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY- PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. A branch of psychology that studies the psychological problems of teaching and upbringing students, the formation of thinking, as well as the management of knowledge acquisition, the acquisition of skills and abilities. P.P. identifies psychological factors... ... New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)
PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY- a branch of psychology that studies the development of the human psyche in the process of education and training and develops the psychological foundations of this process... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Pedagogical psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of the process of appropriation by an individual of social experience in the conditions of specially organized training... Psychological Dictionary
Pedagogical psychology- This page requires significant revision. It may need to be Wikified, expanded, or rewritten. Explanation of reasons and discussion on the Wikipedia page: For improvement / March 20, 2012. Date of setting for improvement March 20, 2012 ... Wikipedia
Pedagogical psychology- a branch of psychology that studies mental phenomena that arise in the conditions of a purposeful pedagogical process; develops the psychological foundations of training (See Training) and education (See Education). P. p. is closely related to both... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
pedagogical psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the development of the human psyche in the process of education and training and develops the psychological foundations of this process. * * * PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY, a branch of psychology that studies the development... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Pedagogical psychology- a branch of psychological science that studies the features of socialization and development of the human psyche under the conditions and under the influence of his participation in the educational activities of a school, college, club, etc. Educational psychology studies mental... ... Fundamentals of spiritual culture (teacher's encyclopedic dictionary)
Since ancient times, people have been trying to master the experience of previous generations, trying to increase it, enrich it with their own understanding and perception, in order to subsequently pass on their knowledge to subsequent generations.
This desire is characterized by one word - “pedagogy”, which implies a science that studies the patterns of transmission by elders and perception by the younger generation of social experience necessary for everyday life and work.
Psychology and pedagogy are among those sciences that are applied to practice, introduced into the problems of human life and society as a whole, they seek answers to the most common problems.
Psychology is the science of the natural development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life, the field of knowledge about the inner world of man, while pedagogy is the discipline of training and education of the individual. These two independent sciences have a huge number of related theories and areas of practical use, which makes it possible to study them together.
Often, psychology and pedagogy are understood by people as something purely theoretical, consisting of difficult-to-understand connectives. This is to blame for the large number of scientific publications and manuals, which sometimes contradict each other and further mislead people regarding these two reliable disciplines.
Psychology and pedagogy allow us to most comprehensively understand the patterns of development of the human psyche. This makes it possible to find the most effective ways of education and training.
Let's consider the basics of psychology and pedagogy.
The main goal of pedagogy is to study the patterns and prospects for the development of the process of improving teaching practice. In this discipline, the following areas should be highlighted: research into the social and personal formation and development of a person in conditions of specially organized education, determination of the goals and content of the concept of education, search, as well as scientific confirmation of methods and forms of organizing educational work.
There is nothing more complex than the problems of an individual; there is nothing more difficult than raising a person, living with him in the same society, working with him. Incompetent and illiterate actions in this area are unacceptable and dangerous. Where there is no exact knowledge, there is always a guess, and out of ten guesses, nine are usually wrong. We need to approach solving human problems especially responsibly.
Special pedagogy and psychology are especially important because it is aimed at studying the processes of regularity, management tendencies and the development of the individuality of a child who has limited capabilities due to health conditions. Such children need a specialized approach to upbringing, learning and perception of the world around them.
The main goal of this science is the timely identification of all possible deficiencies in personality development and the correction of functional disorders of mental activity and behavior. And all this can be revealed by psychology and pedagogy. Every specialist in these areas must be aware that he bears a huge responsibility towards a person with limited physical or psychological capabilities.
When trying to help a problem child or an adult, you need to choose purely individual methods of communication with each individual separately, and special conditions must be created for receiving education. These can be certain educational programs, specific teaching methods, all kinds of technical means, medical, psychological and social services designed to help people with disabilities master general educational and professional skills and programs. In a word, psychology is called upon not only to observe the process but also to help a person form his thinking and adequate perception of the world.
Psychologists have long recognized the fact that a person, as an active being, is capable of making conscious changes in his own personality, and therefore can engage in self-education. However, self-education cannot be realized outside the environment, because occurs due to the active interaction of a person with the outside world. In the same way, natural data are the most important factor in human mental development. For example, anatomical and physical features represent natural conditions for the development of abilities in general. The formation of abilities is influenced by the conditions of life and activity, the conditions of education and training. However, this does not mean at all that the presence of the same conditions entails the same development of intellectual abilities. For example, one cannot ignore the fact that mental development is interconnected with biological age, especially when it comes to brain development. And this fact must be taken into account in educational activities.
Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky first put forward the idea that education and upbringing play a controlling role in mental development. According to this idea, education is ahead of development and guides it. If a person does not study, he cannot be fully developed. But education does not exclude from attention the internal laws of the development process. It is always necessary to remember that although learning has enormous opportunities, these opportunities are far from endless.
With the development of the psyche, stability, unity and integrity of the personality develop, as a result of which it begins to possess certain qualities. If a teacher takes into account the personal characteristics of a student in his teaching and educational activities, this gives him the opportunity to use pedagogical means and methods in his work that correspond to the age criteria and capabilities of the student. And here it is simply necessary to take into account individual characteristics, the degree of mental development of students, as well as the characteristics of psychological work.
The degree of mental development is indicated by what is happening in a person’s consciousness. Psychologists have characterized mental development and indicated its criteria:
- The speed at which the student learns the material
- The pace at which the student perceives the material
- The number of thoughts as an indicator of the conciseness of thinking
- Degree of analytical and synthetic activity
- Techniques by which mental activity is transferred
- Ability to independently systematize and generalize acquired knowledge
The learning process must be structured in such a way that there is maximum benefit for the student’s mental development. Research in the psychological field allows us to conclude that, along with a system of knowledge, it is necessary to give a set of techniques for mental activity. The teacher, while organizing the presentation of educational material, must also form mental operations in students, such as synthesis, generalization, abstraction, comparison, analysis, etc. Of greatest importance is the formation in students of the skill of systematizing and summarizing knowledge, independent work with sources of information, and comparison of facts on each specific topic.
If we talk about children of the primary school age group, their development has its own characteristics. For example, it is during this period that priority should be placed on the development of scientific and creative abilities, because learning should be not only a source of knowledge, but also a guarantor of mental growth. And if we talk about students, the main focus of their scientific and creative abilities requires that the teacher have sufficient teaching experience and scientific and creative potential. This is due to the fact that in order to increase the mental activity of students, it is necessary to organize classes with the aim of training highly qualified specialists who have high intellectual potential, and who are also the support of society and its successors.
One of the factors that can improve the quality of the pedagogical process is the correspondence of educational methods and specific pedagogical conditions - this is the only way to achieve proper assimilation of new knowledge and cooperation in the educational process between teacher and student.
When developing the creative potential of students, it is important to pay special attention to the organization of classes. And here the teacher’s talent and skill lies in the use of innovative educational technologies and a creative approach to the material being studied during lessons. This will help increase mental activity and expand the boundaries of thinking.
Educational institutions face the most important task - to implement the education of the younger generation, which will meet the requirements of modernity and scientific and technological progress, as well as to equip students with independent basic knowledge and the foundations of current disciplines, awaken skills, knowledge and prepare them for an informed choice of profession and active social and labor activities. In order for this goal to be achieved, it is necessary to achieve a conscious assimilation of the motives of education and to form in students a positive attitude and interest in the subject being studied.
From a psychological point of view, motives here are the reasons why students perform certain actions. Motives are shaped by demands, instincts, interests, ideas, decisions, emotions and predispositions. Motives for learning can be different, for example: to meet the requirements of parents and justify their hopes, the desire to develop with peers, receive a certificate or gold medal, go to university, etc. However, the highest motives are the desire to acquire knowledge in order to be useful to society, and the desire to know a lot.
The task of the teacher is to develop precisely high, one might say, spiritual motives in students - to cultivate faith in the need to acquire knowledge in order to bring social benefit, and to cultivate an attitude towards knowledge as a value. If it is possible to form such a motive in students and instill in them an interest in acquiring knowledge, then all learning will be much more effective. Such outstanding teachers as J. Komensky, B. Disterweg, K. Ushinsky, G. Shchukina, A. Kovalev, V. Ivanov, S. Rubinshtein, L. Bazhovich, V. Ananyev and others spoke and wrote on the topic of interest in knowledge. . Interest in knowledge contributes to intellectual activity, increased perception, vividness of thought, etc. In addition, it cultivates the strong-willed and spiritual component of the personality.
If the teacher manages to awaken interest in his discipline, then the student receives additional motivation, desires to gain knowledge and overcome obstacles in the process of obtaining it. He will be happy to work independently, devoting his free time to the subject. If there is no interest in the subject, then the material does not leave any trace in the student’s mind, does not evoke positive emotions and is quickly forgotten. In this case, the student himself remains indifferent and indifferent to the process.
As it is easy to see, the main focus in pedagogical and educational activities is precisely to create in the student, which includes interest, a thirst for knowledge, and a desire to develop and learn new things, master new skills, etc. Motivation should be encouraged and supported in every possible way by the teacher, and in many ways this is what determines the success and effectiveness of both pedagogical work (teaching) and the work of students (study).
And with the development of motivation, the conditions of the educational process matter, which should include not only a suitable form of presenting information, but also various forms of activity: putting forward hypotheses, mental modeling, observations, etc. Among other things, the personality of the teacher is also of great importance: a teacher who respects and loves the discipline he teaches always commands respect and attracts the attention of students, and his personal qualities and behavior during classes will directly influence how students will relate to classes .
In addition to this, you can use not only traditional teaching methods that are familiar to all of us, but also more modern ones, which have not yet had time to “set the teeth on edge” and have either been introduced into educational activities not very long ago, or are just beginning to be introduced. But we will talk about teaching methods later in our course, but for now we will conclude that any teacher who sets himself the goal of improving the quality of his work and making it more effective must certainly be guided by basic psychological knowledge.
In fact, we can talk about this topic for a very, very long time, but we only tried to make sure that you have a clear idea of how pedagogy is related to psychology, and why you should know about it. You can find a huge amount of information on the topic of educational psychology on your own on the Internet, and on the topic of psychology in general, we suggest you take our specialized training (it is located). Now it would be more logical to continue the conversation on the topic of achieving learning effectiveness, namely: we will talk about what principles should be followed so that the learning and development of a person - your child, pupil or student - gives maximum results. The information will also be useful to those involved.
10 principles of effective training and development
Any teaching principles depend on the goals that the teacher sets for himself. He can, for example, develop his student, expand his stock of general knowledge, promote knowledge of the phenomena of the surrounding world, create the most suitable conditions for his development, etc. But it is very important to remember that there is no universal “recipe” according to which any person can become developed and intelligent, but there are several principles that will help a teacher become a really good teacher and maximize the effectiveness of his activities.
Principle One - Make sure that training and development is necessary
First of all, you need to conduct an accurate analysis of the skills and abilities of students and determine that there really is a need for training (applies mainly to university graduates, people who want to improve their skills, undergo retraining, etc.). You also need to make sure that the need or problem is a training issue. For example, if a student does not fulfill the requirements of the educational process, it is necessary to find out whether he is provided with the conditions for this, whether he himself understands what is required of him. In addition to this, an analysis of abilities, skills, knowledge, and other personality characteristics should be carried out. This will help to better understand in what direction the educational process should be directed. In a school setting, this can help determine a student’s aptitudes and predispositions for certain subjects.
The second principle is to create conditions conducive to learning and development
It is necessary to provide students with information that it is necessary to acquire new knowledge, acquire new skills and develop, and why this is necessary. Afterwards, you need to make sure that students understand the connection between receiving education and its subsequent practical application in life. The effectiveness of learning increases many times over if students understand the relationship between their learning and the opportunity to be useful to society as a whole and to themselves personally. Successful completion of academic tasks can be encouraged through recognition of progress, good grades and positive feedback. This way, students will be even more motivated.
The third principle is to provide exactly the kind of training and development that will be useful in practice
It is necessary to introduce into the pedagogical process such subjects and disciplines (knowledge, abilities and skills) that will not be of ephemeral utility in the minds of students, but will have specific practical significance. What students learn, they will have to apply in their lives. Without the relationship between theory and practice, learning loses not only its effectiveness, but also ceases to motivate, which means that the functions necessary for students to perform will be performed only formally, and the results will be mediocre, which completely contradicts the goals of education.
Principle four - include measurable objectives and specific results in training and development
The results of learning and development must be reflected in the activities of students, which is why the pedagogical process is necessary. It is important to ensure that the content of the training will lead students to comprehend the knowledge and acquire the skills that correspond to the learning objectives. Students should be notified about this, which means they will know what to expect from their training. Additionally, they will know how what they learn is applied. The educational process must be divided into stages, each stage must pursue its own independent goal. Testing the acquisition of knowledge and skills should be carried out at each stage - these can be tests, tests, exams, etc.
Principle five - explain to students what the learning process will consist of
Students should know before starting their studies what will be included in the educational process, as well as what is expected of them, both during and after their studies. This way, they will be able to concentrate on studying, studying the material and completing assignments without experiencing any discomfort or discomfort.
Principle six - convey to students that they are responsible for their learning
Any teacher must be able to convey to students the information that, first of all, they are responsible for their education. If they understand and accept this, then their attitude to learning will be serious and responsible. Preliminary conversations and preparation of assignments, active participation of students in discussions and practical exercises, the use of new and non-standard solutions in the pedagogical process are encouraged, and students here also have the right to vote - they themselves can propose and choose the most convenient way of teaching, lesson plan, etc. .d.
Principle seven - use all pedagogical tools
Every teacher must be able to operate basic pedagogical tools. Among them are those that are associated with the actions of the teacher, and those that are associated with the interaction between the teacher and students. We are talking about the teacher’s use of diversity - as a way to constantly maintain attention and interest, clarity - as a way to competently present confusing and incomprehensible information, involvement - as a way to attract students to active activities, support - as a way to give students confidence in their strengths and the ability to learn new things , and respectful attitude - as a way to shape students.
Principle eight - use more visual material
It is known for certain that 80% of information enters the brain from visual objects, and the teacher must take this into account in his work. For this reason, it is necessary to use as much as possible of what students can see with their own eyes, and not just read. Sources of visual information can be posters, diagrams, maps, tables, photographs, video materials. For the same reason, in all classes and auditoriums there are always boards for writing with chalk or marker - even the simplest data is always written down. And the most effective method of visual learning is experiments and practical laboratory work.
Principle nine - convey the essence first, and then the details
We have already mentioned this principle several times when we talked about the didactic work of Jan Komensky, but mentioning it again will only be beneficial. Teaching involves studying huge amounts of data, so you can’t convey everything to students at once. Large topics should be divided into subtopics, and subtopics, if necessary, into smaller subtopics. First, you should explain the essence of any subject or problem, and only then move on to discussing details and features. In addition, the human brain initially grasps the meaning of what it perceives, and only then begins to discern details. The pedagogical process must correspond to this natural feature.
Principle ten - do not overload with information and give time to rest
This principle is partly related to the previous one, but to a greater extent it is based on the fact that the human body should always have time to “recharge”. Even the most hardworking people understand the value of rest and good sleep. Learning is a complex process and is associated with high nervous and mental stress, increased attention and concentration, and maximum use of the brain's potential. Overwork is unacceptable in training, otherwise stress may overwhelm the student, he will become irritable, and his attention will be scattered - there will be no sense in such an apprenticeship. According to this principle, students should receive as much information as their age allows, and always have time to relax. As for sleep, it’s 8 hours at a time, so it’s better not to allow night vigils over textbooks.
With this, we will summarize the third lesson, and we will only say that students must learn to learn, and teachers must learn to teach, and understanding the psychological characteristics of the educational process can significantly increase the chances of success for both teachers themselves and their students.
Surely you want to quickly find out what educational methods exist, because there is already plenty of theory, but incomparably less practice. But don’t despair, the next lesson is devoted to traditional teaching methods - precisely those practical methods that have already been tested by many teachers and seasoned over the years, those methods that you can put into practice.
Test your knowledge
If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time and the options are mixed.
In an ever-changing world, learning and development abilities require more and more attention. Not so long ago, at the intersection of pedagogy and psychology, educational psychology arose, studying the processes of cognition, trying to answer the question “Why do some students know more than others, what can be done to improve their learning and motivate them?”
Educational psychology as a science arose as a result of the emergence of learning theories; it is closely related to psychology, medicine, biology, and neurobiology. Its achievements are used in the development of curricula, principles of educational organization, and methods of motivating students. The main task is to find ways of optimal development in a learning situation.
History and scope of application of forces
The history of the formation of educational psychology goes back far into the past, even if it was formed as a separate direction only recently. The stages of development of educational psychology can be represented by three periods: laying general didactic foundations, systematization, and development of independent theories.
Even Plato and Aristotle wrestled with the issues of character formation, possibilities and limits of education, especially highlighting music, poetry, geometry, and the relationship between mentor and student. Later, Locke came onto the scene, introducing the concept of a “blank slate” - the child’s lack of any knowledge before learning. So, from Locke’s position, the basis of knowledge is the transfer of experience.
In the middle of the 20th century, the first well-developed psychological theories of learning emerged; they required a new branch for themselves, which cannot be attributed entirely to either psychology or pedagogy. Theories about programmed and problem-based learning are becoming widely known.
Although the final formation of educational psychology took place during this period, Davydov expressed the idea that educational psychology could become part of developmental psychology, since developmental psychology examines the patterns of child development, and the characteristics of mastering a particular area of knowledge depend on its development.
On the other hand, Skinner defined educational psychology as dealing with human behavior in educational situations. Education, in turn, tries to shape the behavior of the student, the desired changes in him for the comprehensive development of his personality. So this is a science not just about the peculiarities of learning, but also about the organization of the educational process and the study of its influence in general.
Pedagogical psychology studies the patterns that make it possible to manage the development of people. She seeks to understand the possible paths of development of students, the range of their capabilities, and the processes that result in the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Now it is used as a basis for the development of methodological programs.
general information
Over the years of its existence, the main problems of educational psychology have been formulated. All of them are connected in one way or another with the study of the educational process or the student in it:
- The influence of training on development and education.
- The influence of genetic and social factors on development.
- Sensitive periods.
- Child's readiness for school.
- Individual training.
- Diagnosis of children in the psychological and pedagogical aspect.
- Optimal level of teacher training.
All of them are considered together, each problem is based on the fact that we do not yet fully understand how learning occurs, what impact this or that action has on the development of the student. In connection with these problems, the following tasks of educational psychology are distinguished:
- Reveal the influence of training on development.
- Determine mechanisms for optimal assimilation of social norms, cultural values, etc.
- To highlight the patterns of the learning process for children at different levels of development (intellectual and personal).
- Analyze the nuances of the influence of the organization of the learning process on the development of students.
- Study teaching activities from a psychological point of view.
- Identify key points of developmental learning (mechanisms, facts, patterns).
- Develop ways to assess the quality of knowledge acquisition.
The structure of educational psychology consists of three main areas of its study - education, training, and teacher psychology. The tasks are accordingly divided into these areas.
The basic methods of educational psychology coincide with the methods that psychology uses in its activities. Research methods in educational psychology: tests, psychometrics, paired comparisons, experiments. And if earlier the methodology used more theoretical concepts, now the basis of the theories put forward are achievements in cognitive psychology.
Experiments and conclusions
The tasks and problems assigned to educational psychology intersect with other areas, so it often uses the work of cognitive psychologists, neuroscientists and sociologists. Data are used in educational psychology both for the design of possible practical research and for purely theoretical revision or modification of existing methods and views. Let's look into the brain and see how it learns.
In particular, quoting Aleksandrov almost verbatim, we can say that learning leads to the formation of specialized neurons, so learning is the creation “in the head” of specialists of various profiles. Many already known patterns have been found in the psychology of learning:
1. Eternity of skill. The formation of specialization is associated with gene activity, which, in turn, serves as a trigger for the processes of neuronal restructuring. How long does specialization last? Perhaps forever. In Thompson and Best's experiment, the response of a rat neuron to a specific segment of the maze did not change over six months.
In this case, the memory is not erased, excluding special methods. New experience associated with a certain specialization is layered on the old one, neurons are modified. In this regard, the question arises whether it is worth teaching people first simple schemes and then complicating them, whether past understanding will prevent them from learning new ones.
3. Sum of actions or goal? An experiment by researchers Koyama, Kato and Tanaka showed that different goals are controlled by different groups of neurons, even if the behavior in both cases is the same! It follows that for one result some neurons will be involved, and for another - different ones, although the behavior itself may be the same.
There are no neurons specializing specifically for a particular skill. There are groups of neurons for some results, there are groups responsible for other results, but not skills. Therefore, it is impossible to form a skill that will not be aimed at some result, and learning for future use is useless, according to Aleksandrov.
If you can't learn something not to achieve a specific result, then what do children learn? Get good grades and approval.
5. Rewards or punishments? What is the best way to motivate? Intimidate or reward? As a result of research, it was found that these two pathways have fundamental differences in their effects on memory, attention and learning. Apparently, both methods can bear fruit under different conditions. For example, as a result of working with children, it was found that before puberty, their behavior is more influenced by encouragement, and after - by punishment.
6. Time. Experiments on animal learning of a skill have shown that brain activity in animals performing the same task varies depending on the time that has passed since learning.
In conclusion, here are the words of Bill Gates, who spoke at the TED conference about the problems of education and the need to increase the general level of education to open equal opportunities for different people. Although his words relate to the US experience, it is unlikely that the situation in other countries is much different. “The difference between the best and worst teachers is incredible. The best teachers give a 10% increase in test scores in one year. What are their characteristics? This is not experience, not a master's degree. They are full of energy, they track those who are distracted and engage them in the learning process.” Of course, the research that Gates relies on is not enough to say who the best teachers are and what matters most, but without attention, knowledge will not arise. Author: Ekaterina Volkova