Morpheme
Morpheme
Derivative morphemes
Root
house) and without endings ( metro
take off / under-nya-t, agitation / agitation-acij-i.
Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix, postfix
Word-forming non-root morphemes (affixes) serve to form new words and are divided into prefixes (prefixes), suffixes and postfixes. These types of affixes differ in their place in relation to the root and other morphemes.
Prefix is a word-forming morpheme that comes before the root ( re-do, pre-cute, seaside, somewhere), including before another prefix ( before-take-down, illegible).
A word-forming suffix is a word-forming morpheme that comes after the root but before the inflection, if the word has an inflection ( table-ik,blush); a derived word in Russian often has several suffixes, for example: pis-a-tel-nits-a.
Postfix is a word-forming morpheme that comes after endings and formative suffixes.
Postfixes are represented in Russian - xia), -That, -or, -someday (wash your face, anyone).
Ending
The ending is a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case and serves to connect words in phrases and sentences, that is, it is a means of agreement (new th student), management (letter brother- at) or the connection of the subject with the predicate (I went- at, you go- eat). If the inflection expresses at least one of the indicated meanings (gender, person, number, case), it is an ending; in this case, the ending can also express other grammatical meanings.
So, for example, the ending of the verb form go-y In addition to the meanings of the 1st person and singular, it also expresses the meanings of the indicative mood and the present tense.
Only inflected words have endings. Function words have no endings ( If), adverb ( very), unchangeable nouns ( Taxi) and adjectives ( khaki). Modified words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that do not have the specified grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive, gerund, simple comparative degree.
Some compound nouns and compound numerals have multiple endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr-i- st-a, tr-yoh-sot-…, sofa-… - bed-…, sofa-A-bed-And.
The ending may be null. It stands out in the word being modified if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed. A zero ending is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word appears. So, the ending - A in the shape of table shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at V table-at indicates the dative case. The absence of a materially expressed ending in the form table suggests that this is the nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information, it is significant. It is in such cases that the zero ending is highlighted in the word.
Words with a zero ending should not be confused with words that do not and cannot have endings - unchangeable words. Only inflected words can have a zero ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.
Zero endings are widely represented in the language and are found in nouns, adjectives and verbs in the following positions:
1. Masculine nouns of the 2nd declension in I.p. (v.p.) singular: boy-#... - I.p., table-#… - I./V.p.
2. Feminine nouns of the 3rd declension in I.p. (v.p.) singular: night-#….
3. Nouns of all genders in R.p. plural: countries-#…, soldier-#…, swamps-#…. Non-zero endings can also be represented in this grammatical form: night-to her-stat- to her.
The correct parsing of such words is achieved by declension of the word. If the sound [th"] disappears during declination, then it belongs to the ending: night, nights. If [th"] can be traced in all cases, then it refers to the stem: articles-… - become[th"-a] - become[y"-a]mi. As we see, in these forms the sound [th"] is not expressed at the letter level, it is “hidden” in the iotized vowel letter. In this case, it is necessary to identify and designate this sound. In order not to clutter the writing with transcription brackets, in linguistics it is customary to denote the sound [th "], "hidden" in an iotated vowel with j, entered in the right place without brackets: becomej-yami.
A fairly common mistake is to determine the endings of words ending in - and I, -no, -th. The impression that these sound complexes are endings is incorrect.
Two-letter endings in the initial form are presented only in those nouns that are substantivized adjectives or participles. Let's compare:
genius-…, genius-I, genius-Yu - plots-th, plots-Wow, plots-wow
armyj-I, armyj-to her - tables-and I, tables-Ouch etc.
4. Adjectives in the short form of the singular masculine: handsome-…, smart-….
5. Possessive adjectives in I.p. (v.p.) singular; Despite the external similarity of declension, qualitative and possessive have different morphemic structure in the indicated cases:
units number of I.p. syn-th fox-…
R.p. syn-his foxj-his
D.p. syn-to him foxj-to him
V.p. = I.p./V.p.
etc. syn-them foxj-them
P.p. (O) syn-eat(O) foxj-eat
This morphemic structure of possessive adjectives is not difficult to understand if we consider that possessive adjectives denote a sign of belonging to a person or animal and are always derivative, formed with the help of derivational suffixes -in-, -ov-, -andj- from nouns: Mother / mom-in-…, fox / fox-…. In indirect cases this possessive suffix is th- is realized in [j], which is “hidden” in the iotated vowel.
6. Verb in the masculine singular form in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the conditional mood: things to do-... (would) - cf.: things to do, business.
7. A verb in the imperative mood, where the zero ending expresses the meaning of the singular: write-And-#…, write-And-those.
8. In short participles, the zero ending, like in short adjectives, expresses the meaning of the masculine singular: read-#….
Formative suffix
Another type of inflection is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form the forms of a word. Unlike endings, formative suffixes do not express grammatical meanings of gender, number, person and case, but serve to express the meanings of tense, mood, degrees of comparison, etc.; the formative suffix cannot serve as a means of coordination or control, that is, it does not participate in the formation of the syntactic connection of words. So, for example, in the word form read two inflections are the ending -й, which expresses the inconsistent characteristics of gender, number and case and serves to connect this participle with a noun ( boy reading- I.p., m.r., units. h.; girl reading- V. p., g. r., units h.) and the formative suffix - Vsh-, which denotes active voice and past tense and is not involved in agreement.
Basically, formative suffixes are presented in verbal forms: the suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative mood, participle and participial forms.
In addition to the verb, formative suffixes are presented in degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.
The verb contains the following formative suffixes.
1. The infinitive is formed by formative suffixes -т/-ти: read, carry. For infinitives in -ch there are two possible ways of identifying inflection: ne-whose or bake-#, where # is a zero formative suffix (historically in whose the end of the stem and the infinitive marker itself overlap).
In school grammar, the infinitive indicator is most often described as an ending. This is due to the fact that the concept of a formative suffix is not introduced there, and the stem is considered to be a part of the word without an ending, therefore, in order to exclude the indicator of the infinitive from the stem, it is given the status of an ending. This is incorrect, since the infinitive indicator does not have the grammatical meanings of gender, number, person or case required for the ending and indicates only the infinitive - the unchangeable verb form.
2. The past tense of the indicative mood is formed by the suffixes -l- ( affairs-l-…) And -#-: carried- #, cf.: carried-l-A.
3. The same suffixes are presented in the conditional mood: things to do-#… would, carried- # -… would.
4. The imperative mood is formed by suffixes - And- (write-And-…) And -#- ( do-#-…), (sit down-#-…).
To understand that forms like do and sit are formed by a zero formative suffix, and not by the suffix *-й, *-дь, it is necessary to remember that the imperative form is formed from the present tense stem: writing - write. In verbs like read this is not so obvious, since the stems of the infinitive and the present tense differ only in the presence of the present tense in the stem j at the end of the stem: readj-Yu - read. But the grammatical meaning is expressed by a morpheme that is not part of the stem. This morpheme is a zero formative suffix: read-#-… (the zero ending has a singular meaning - cf.: read-#-those).
5. The participle as a special form of the verb is formed by suffixes -ash-(-box-), -ush-(-yush-), -sh-, -vsh-, -im-, -om-/-eat-, -nn-, -onn-/-enn-, -T-: running, taken(graphic variants of suffixes after soft consonants are indicated in brackets, alternating suffixes are indicated through a slash).
6. The participle as a special form of the verb is formed by suffixes -a(-i), -v, -shi, -lice, -uchi(-yuchi): do-i-i, be-teach.
7. The simple comparative degree of an adjective and adverb is formed using suffixes -e (higher), -her/s (faster), -she (earlier), -same (deeper).
8. The simple superlative degree of comparison of an adjective is formed using formative suffixes -eysh-/-aysh- (fast-eysh-y, high-yish-y).
As we see, not only the ending can be zero, but also the formative suffix, which stands out when the meaning of mood or tense in some verbs is not materially expressed:
a) a suffix that forms the past tense form of the indicative mood and the conditional mood for a number of verbs in the masculine singular ( carried-#-…). In the same verbs, when forming feminine or neuter singular or plural forms, the suffix -l- ( carried-l-A);
b) the imperative suffix for a number of verbs, which were mentioned above ( do- # -…, take it out-#-…).
Noun
When forming nouns in the Russian language, all of the above methods of word formation are used: forming words by adding affixes, abbreviation, addition, substantivization, combining addition with affixation.
Affixal ways of forming nouns
1. By the prefix method, nouns can only be formed from nouns, since the addition of a prefix alone cannot change the part-verbal affiliation of the word.
The following prefixes are used to form nouns: not- (luck< неудача), при- (город < пригород), под- класс < подкласс), сверх- (прибыль < сверхприбыль), супер- (игра < суперигра), ультра- (звук < ультразвук), анти- (частица < античастица), контр- (удар < контрудар), противо- (действие < противодействие) and some others.
2. Suffixation is most active in the formation of nouns. Through suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, and adverbs.
Nouns are formed from nouns using suffixes - IR (key< ключик), -ек (замок < замочек), -к (книга < книжка), -чик/-щик (барабан < барабанчик, газета < газетчик), -ник (школа < школьник, чай < чайник), -ин (горох < горошина), -онок (тигр < тигренок), -иц (тигр < тигрица) and many others.
Nouns are formed from adjectives using suffixes -ost (strict< строгость), -изн (белый < белизна), -ин (глубокий < глубина), -от (добрый < доброта), -# (тихий < тишь), -ец (беглый < беглец), -ик (умный < умник), -ак (бедный < бедняк) and some others.
The following suffixes are typical for the suffixal word formation of nouns from verbs: -nij (sing< пение), -к (строить < стройка), -тельств (строить < строительство), -# (входить < вход), -тель (читать < читатель, включать < включатель), -чик / -щик (перевозить < перевозчик, выдумать < выдумщик), -ец (бороться < борец), -ун (врать < врун) and others.
When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix is used -n (one hundred< сотня).
Nouns are formed from adverbs using suffixes -nick (shared< сообщник) и -чк (почему < почемучка) .
3. Many nouns are formed in a prefix-suffix way.
When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under-...-nick (snow< подснежник), на-...-ник (колено < наколенник), при-...-j (море < приморье), за-...-j (река < заречье), меж-...-j (гора < межгорье), без-...-j (деньги < безденежье), без-...-иц (работа < безработица) .
When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for -...-j (polar< заполярье), про-...-# (седой < проседь).
Sometimes nouns are formed from verbs using the prefix-suffix method, for example: so-...-(v)ets (serve< сослуживец) .
Non-affix ways of forming nouns
1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including abbreviations: forest + steppe< лесостепь, сберегательный банк < сбербанк, Московский государственный университет < МГУ .
2. Nouns can be formed by abbreviation: specialist< спец, заместитель < зам .
3. When forming nouns, substantivization is active, in which the transition of adjectives and participles to nouns occurs: ice cream, manager, tips(we are talking about those words that are recognized by speakers as nouns in the language, and not just in a specific text - compare with the participle used in the function of a noun: Everyone looked at the newcomer).
Mixed methods
Nouns are formed by addition with suffixation. The most commonly used suffixes are: ec (earth + do< земледел-ец ), -Nick (heat + exchange< теплообменник), -тель (море + плавать < мореплаватель), -# (вино + делать < винодел) .
Adjective
Adjectives in the Russian language are formed by prefixal, suffixal, prefixal-suffixal methods, addition, including fusion.
Affixal ways of forming adjectives
1. Adjectives are formed from adjectives using the prefix method; this method is one of the most productive in the formation of words of this part of speech. The following prefixes are used: not- (cheerful< невеселый), пре- (огромный < преогромный), раз- (веселый < развеселый), анти- (научный < антинаучный), противо- (естественный < противоестественный), сверх- (быстрый < сверхбыстрый), архи- (сложный < архисложный), супер- (модный < супермодный) .
2. The suffixal method is used to form adjectives from adjectives, nouns, verbs, numerals and adverbs.
When forming adjectives from adjectives, suffixes are used - onk-/-enk- (blue< син-еньк-ий, плохой < плохонький), -ущ- (большой < большущий), -енн- (высокий < высоченный), -оват-/-еват- (белый < беловатый, синий < синеватый) .
When forming adjectives from nouns, suffixes are used - n- (autumn< осенний), -ан- (песок < песчаный), -ин- (тополь < тополиный, мама < мамин), -ий (лиса < лисий), -ов (отец < отцов), -ск- (море < морской), -ист- (лес < лесистый), -чат- (пузырь < пузырчатый), -лив- (дождь < дождливый) .
Adjectives are formed from verbs using suffixes - n- (cut< резной), -чив- (улыбаться < улыбчивый), -лив- (въедаться < въедливый), -ист- (поджарить < поджаристый), -к- (пылать < пылкий), -л- (гнить < гнилой) .
When forming adjectives from numerals and adverbs, suffixes are used -n- and -enn- (two< двойной, вчера < вчерашний, внутри < внутренний) .
3. Adjectives are formed from nouns and verbs using the prefix-suffix method.
When forming adjectives from nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: without-...-n- (ticket< безбилетный), внутри-...-н- (школа < внутришкольный), вне-...-н- (класс < внеклассный), на-...-н- (стол < настольный), после-...-н- (война < послевоенный), до-...-н- (война < довоенный), противо-...-н- (удар < противоударный), без-...-(- (усы < безусый) .
The same prefixes can be combined with suffixes -enn- (foliage< безлиственный), -ов- (сеть < внутрисетевой), -ск- (завод < внутризаводской) .
When forming from verbs, combinations are mainly used not-...-n- (break< неразрывный), без-...-н- (возвратить < безвозвратный), не-...-м- (исцелить < неисцелимый) .
Non-affix ways of word formation
1. Of the non-affix ways of forming an adjective, addition is especially productive, for example: lyrical + epic< лир(о)-эпический, засуха + устойчивый < засух(о)устойчивый . When forming adjectives by addition, an interfix is required.
2. Only when forming adjectives is a method of word formation used, such as fusion: fast + instant< быстрорастворимый, с ума сшедший < сумасшедший . The difference between fusion and addition is that the phrase, when combined into one word, does not undergo any changes, except that a single stress can be established in the derived adjective (for a possible interpretation of this method, see the note in the section “Means and methods of word formation” ).
Mixed methods
When forming adjectives, addition with suffixation is possible, and suffixes are used more often than others -n- and -(-: railway< железн(о)дорож-н-ый, кривой + бок < крив(о)бокий .
Numeral
Numerals are formed from numerals in the following ways:
1) suffixal: two< дв-адцать, пять < пят-надцать, три < тр-оj-е ,
2) addition: three + one hundred< триста, двести + пятьдесят< двести пятьдесят .
Pronoun
Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes neither-, not-, some- and postfixes -that, -either, -any: who< никто, некто, кое-кто, кто-то, кто-либо, кто-нибудь .
Verb
Verbs are formed predominantly by affixal methods (the most productive are prefixal and prefix-suffixal); addition for verbs is uncharacteristic.
Affixal ways of forming verbs
1. Verbs are formed from verbs using the prefix method. The number of verbal prefixes is very large, which is associated with the expression of the meaning of the result (specific meaning), direction, quantitative-temporal modifications and the nature of the action. Let's list the main verb prefixes: do< сделать), на- (писать < написать), про- (читать < прочитать), о- (слепить < ослепить), в- (нести < внести), вы- (бежать < выбежать), от- (прыгнуть < отпрыгнуть), у- (лететь < улететь), за- (петь < запеть), до- (есть < доесть), про- (жить < прожить), при- (бежать < прибежать), недо- (выполнить < недовыполнить) .
2. In the suffixal way, verbs are formed from verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, interjections, onomatopoeic words.
From perfective verbs, imperfective verbs are formed using suffixes -iva/-yva, -va and -a: re-read< перечитывать, подкормить < подкармливать, напеть < напевать, решить < решать .
When forming verbs from nouns, suffixes are used -and- (salt< солить), -а- (плотник < плотничать), -е- (пот < потеть), -нича- (лентяй < лентяйничать), -ова- (форма < формовать), -ствова- (адвокат < вокатствовать) .
Suffixes are used to form verbs from adjectives -and- (white< белить), -е- (белый < белеть), -ова- (пустой < пустовать), -ича- (подлый < подличать) .
Verbs are formed from numerals using a suffix -and- (two< двоить "разделять надвое") .
From pronouns, interjections and onomatopoeia, verbs are formed by the suffix - A-, and if the generating stem ends in a vowel, an interfix-consonant is used: You< вы(к)ать, ах < ахать, мяу < мяу(к)ать .
3. In a postfixed way, verbs with a reflexive meaning are formed from verbs: wash< мыться, встречать< встречаться .
4. The prefix-suffix method is used to form verbs from verbs, nouns, adjectives and numerals.
Verbs formed from verbs receive the meaning of the imperfect form along with the designation of the intensity of the action. To do this, the following combination of species suffix is used: -iva-/-iva- with attachments on- (crackle< потрескивать), при- (петь < припевать), на- (свистеть < насвистывать), под- (петь < подпевать), недо- (любить < недолюбливать).
From nouns, verbs are formed by suffixes and in combination with prefixes behind- (shadow< затенить), об- (лес < облесить), при- (земля < приземлить) . Console without- used in combination with suffixes - And- (fish< обезрыбить "лишить рыбы") And -e- (fish< обезрыбеть "лишиться рыбы" ).
From adjectives, verbs are formed using the suffix - And- and prefixes - y- (dense< уплотнить), о- (благородный < облагородить), вы- (прямой < выпрямить) and some others.
Verbs are formed from numerals using a suffix -And- and consoles y- (three< утроить), с- (двое < сдвоить ).
5. Verbs can be formed in the prefix-postfixal way from verbs. Postfix -sya/-sya at the same time combined with attachments in- (think< вдуматься), за- (думать < задуматься), на- (гулять < нагуляться), рас- (прыгать < распрыгаться), до- (звонить < дозвониться ) and some others.
6. In the suffix-postfix way, verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives using suffixes -i- (crowd< толпиться) и -е- (видный < виднеться ).
7. Verbs can be formed in a prefixal-suffixal-postfixal way: bankrupt< о-банкрот-и-ть-ся, звонить < пере-зван-ива-ть-ся .
Non-affix methods are used extremely rarely in the formation of verbs. For example, the following words are formed by addition: labor + arrange< труд(о)устроить, сам + воспламениться < сам(о)воспламениться .
Mixed methods for trimming a verb are also not very common and are represented by addition with affixation, for example: peace + create< у-мир(о)творить.
Adverb
An adverb is formed predominantly by affixal methods, among which the prefix-suffixal one is the most productive.
Affixal ways of forming adverbs
1. By the prefix method, adverbs are formed from adverbs. The most commonly used prefixes are not for long< недолго), во- (вне < вовне), за- (темно < затемно), до- (ныне < доныне), на- (всегда < навсегда), по- (ныне < поныне), от- (ныне < отныне), кое- (как < кое-как), ни- (где < нигде).
2. In the suffixal way, adverbs are formed from nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs.
Adverbs formed from nouns contain suffixes that are homonymous to the endings of the noun (see about this in the section “Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another”). These are suffixes -om (evening< вечером, -ой/-ою (весна < весной / весною), -ами (времена < временами ).
Adverbs with suffixes are regularly formed from adjectives -o/-e (cheerful< весело, неуклюжий < неуклюже), -и (дружеский < дружески), -ком (пеший < пешком).
To form adverbs from numerals, the suffix is used - wait and its modifications (two< дважды, три < трижды
).
When forming adverbs from verbs, suffixes are used - me (stand< стоймя), -ом (волочь < волоком), -ю (ощупать < ощупью ).
Adverbs can be formed by suffixation and from adverbs, and the following suffixes are used: - ovato (early< рановато), -енько/-онько (часто < частенько) and some others.
3. When forming indefinite pronominal adverbs, the postfixal method is used, in which postfixes are added to pronominal adverbs -something (where< где-то), -либо (куда < куда-либо), -нибудь (зачем < зачем-нибудь) .
4. The prefix-suffix method is most actively used in the formation of adverbs from nouns and adjectives.
When forming an adverb from a noun, the following combinations of prefixes and suffixes are presented: in-...-u (dry drink< всухомятку), в-...-((даль < вдаль), на-...-у (встеча < навстречу), на-...- (показ < напоказ), в-...-у (верх < вверху), в-...-е (начало < вначале), в-...-и (даль < вдали), на-...-у (верх < наверху), с-...-у (бок < сбоку) and others.
The largest number of combinations is presented when forming adverbs from adjectives. These are the following combinations of affixes: according to...-him (new< по-новому, прежний < по-прежнему), по-...-и (охотничий < по-охотничьи), из-...-а (давний < издавна), до-...-а (белый < добела), с-...-а (новый < снова), в-...-о (правый < вправо), на-...-о (белый < набело), по-...-у (пустой < попусту), в-...-ую (пустой < впустую), в-...-и (близкий < вблизи), с-...-у (молодой < молоду) .
Adverbs can be formed by the prefix-suffix method from numerals, using the following prefixes and suffixes: in-/in-...-s/-them (third< в-третьих, второй < во-вторых), в-...-ом/-ем (двое < вдвоем, пятеро < впятером), в-...-о/-е (десятеро < вдесятеро), на-...-о/-е (двое < надвое) .
Adverbs are formed from verbs by affixes in-...-((jump< вскачь), в-...-ку (догонять < вдогонку).От наречий наречия образуются при помощи по-...-у (долго < подолгу), по-...-ку (нарочно < понарошку) .
Non-affix ways of formation for adverbs are not represented.
Mixed methods are represented insignificantly. Thus, some adverbs are formed by addition with suffixation, for example: past + walk< мимоходом.
Forming words by moving from one part of speech to another
Words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.
We have already called the formation of nouns by transitioning adjectives and participles into them ( ice cream, manager) - substantivization. If a noun formed by substantivating an adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then a noun formed by substantivizing a participle, in terms of its morphemic composition, differs from the corresponding participle: in a noun there is a suffix -ush/-yush, -ash/-yush is not formative (a noun is not a form of a verb) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics, the formation of such words is considered as suffixation: manager (to manage, manager - “the one who is in charge”).
Many adverbs were formed by transition from other parts of speech. Thus, we can note adverbs formed by rethinking
Nouns ( at home, spring),
Adjectives ( in vain, in the open),
Participles ( sitting, lying down),
Numerals ( doubled).
The transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the modern state of the language, all these words are formed using a suffix or prefix and a suffix that is homonymous to the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the formative suffix of the participial form of the verb, for example: winter/winter, lying/lying, empty/empty. The transition process is active during the formation of function words. So, for example, we can name the following groups of prepositions formed by transitions from other parts of speech:
Named: in view of, in the form of, during, on account of, regarding,
Verbal: thanks, including, excluding, starting, after,
Adverbial: near, around, opposite, into the distance.
At the same time, the distinction between preposition and adverb is possible only in context and depends on the actual presence or absence of the following noun: I looked around(adverb) - I walked around the house(pretext). The distinction between a derived preposition and a gerund is based on the difference in their meaning - a derived verbal preposition expresses the meaning of a relationship, not an action, for example: Thanks to the hosts the evening was a great success(preposition) - We left, thanking the hosts for their hospitality.(adverbial participle).
As for denominative prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words varies. In a number of cases, prepositions have become completely isolated and have lost their semantic connection with the base noun, for example: in view of, during, by, regarding, as far as; in modern language these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: in quality, in the sphere, with the help, in favor. Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations because they retain some syntactic properties of the noun: selective combinability ( in the role someone - in function something), the ability to make a definition ( play the dubious role of peacemaker). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of “suggesting” nominal combinations.
From the point of view of the modern state of the language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:
1) suffixal - from verbs: exclude-i > exclude,
2) prefix-suffixal - from nouns: during-time > time e me,
3) addition - from prepositions: due to > due to + due to.
Morpheme
Morpheme is the minimum meaningful part of a word. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts. Words are built from morphemes, and the meanings of the morphemes are components of the overall meaning of the word.
Morphemes are divided into word-forming and inflectional (formative).
Derivative morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word.
Inflectional (formative) morphemes are needed to form the forms of inflected words and express the grammatical meaning of words.
Classification of morphemes in the Russian language.
All morphemes are divided into root and non-root. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix, word-forming suffix, postfix), called affixes, and form-forming (ending and form-forming suffix), called inflections.
Root
The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that the root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without roots, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes and suffixes ( house) and without endings ( metro). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, without being combined with other roots.
Roots that can be used in a word alone or in combination with inflections are called free. There are a majority of such roots in the language. Those roots that can only be used in combination with affixes are called bound, for example: take off / under-nya-t, agitation / agitation-acij-i.
An ending is a variable significant part of a word that forms the forms of a word and serves to connect words in a phrase and sentence. This formative morpheme expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case.
Not all words have an ending. Only mutable words have it. It happens that a word has an ending, but it is not visible or heard, i.e. it is not expressed in letters and sounds - it is a zero ending. In addition, the ending does not always come at the end of the word. A word can have two endings. Sometimes, to highlight the ending, you have to use phonetic transcription.
The ending is a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of a word (gender, person, number, case), and not lexical meanings as derivational morphemes.
The ending differs from formative suffixes in the nature of the grammatical meaning it expresses.
Only changing parts of speech can have an ending(declinable, conjugated or changing according to gender and number):
- inflected nouns,
- adjectives,
- numerals,
- pronouns,
- Verbs,
- participles.
To highlight the ending, you need to change the form of the word:
- change number:
meadow () - meadow (A),
herbs (A)- herbs (s),
brave () - dared (s); - change gender for adjectives and participles:
white (th)- white (oh)- white (and I), thinking (ii)- thinking (and I), sat () — sat (A);
- case for parts of speech that are inflected: house () - house (A)- house (y), syn (ii)— syn (his)— syn (to him) ;
- verb face: write (y)- write (yeah)- write (ut) .
The part of the word that changes when changing the form of a word, it is an ending.
Ending is not part of the word, since it has only grammatical meaning.
The ends of words of different parts of speech may be the same, but their endings are different, i.e. words have different morphemic structures. Examples:
- small And vision - adjective small and noun vision at the end of the word have -ies . Changing the gender of the adjective: small (s) - small (s) -small (s) , we define the changing part - the last two letters change, therefore, -ies - ending. Declining noun vision(s) - vision(s) - vision(s), determine the ending -e .
- yawning And angry - participle yawning has no ending, because it is an unchangeable word and an adjective hl(s) - evil(s) - evil(s)) has an ending -and I .
- in vain And Earth - adverb in vain has no ending, because it is an unchangeable word and a noun landl (ya) - earth (oh) - earth (y) has an ending -I .
- banner And biology - nouns banner(s) - banner(s)-banner(s) And biologist(s)-biologist(s)-biologist(s) have the same ending -i.
Attention! Second person plural verbs. The present and future numbers and forms of the imperative mood of these verbs may coincide, but have a different morphemic structure, i.e. have two options for morphemic parsing:
Execute
(imperative mood, you-full-and-(those), -and- —
imperative mood) second task after completing
(present tense, you-full-(ite)) first.
you-let-and-(those)
(imperative mood) - you-let
;
you-heal-and-(those)
(second conjugation, imperative mood) - you-treat-(ite)
etc.
Verbs of the first conjugation have an unstressed ending -(yeah) has the same sound as the imperative mood, but is written differently:
jump out-and-(those) (command tilt) — jump out ) (first conjugation (jump), second person, plural).
With the help of endings, forms of inflected words are formed.
The ending expresses the different grammatical meanings of parts of speech:
- number and case of nouns, numerals, personal pronouns (without a preposition or with
)
noun 2nd declension, Tv.p., singular by whom?, by what? elephant( ohm), father( ohm), con( eat - gender, number, case of adjectives, participles, pronouns
- person and number for verbs in the present and future tense:
- gender and number for past tense verbs and short adjectives
In addition to distinguishing word forms, endings sometimes serve meaningful function:
bread(s) - cereals and bread(s) - products baked from flour; men are husbands, teeth are teeth, leaves are leaves.
Sometimes it's easy in the end define not only the form, but also Part of speech. For example:
In a phrase, unchangeable words are subordinate to the main word in meaning, using word order and intonation: run fast, run upstairs.
Immutable words have no endings:
| Unchangeable parts of speech | Examples |
|---|---|
| participles | seeing, hearing, collecting, washing |
| adverbs | naked, fun, better, in German, first of all, unbearable, married |
| indeclinable nouns (usually borrowed): | cocoa, necklace, flowerpot |
| indeclinable adjectives: | khaki, burgundy, beige |
| comparative adjectives: | stronger, higher |
| possessive pronouns denoting belonging to a third party: | his, her, theirs |
| interjections and onomatopoeias: | hurray, ah! |
| Functional parts of speech: | |
| unions | though |
| near | |
| let | |
Attention! The absence of an ending in a word is not graphically indicated. During morphemic and word-formation analysis, you cannot put a zero ending sign! The whole word is included in the base.
Participles and adverbs are unchangeable parts of speech, so they have no endings. Don't be confused gerunds and adverbs with adjective endings. The endings of adjectives can be changed:
- doom/ A/t - dum/ A/I- gerund suffix;
- mil( and I) is the ending of an adjective that can be changed: dear, dear.
Null endings
Declined or conjugated (changeable!) parts of speech in some forms may have a zero ending.
The zero ending is not expressed by sound and is not indicated by a letter in writing. You can detect it by changing the forms of the word. If, when changing the form of a word, an ending appears, expressed in letters and sounds, then
The null ending conveys a specific grammatical meaning:
table(), horse() - Im. n., masculine, second declension; clouds(), puddles(), mam() - the meaning of the plural genitive case.
When the form of such words changes, after the stem a pronounced ending appears (with sounds, letters).
| Zero endings have: | Examples |
|---|---|
| masculine singular nouns of the 2nd declension in the nominative and accusative cases: |
forest() - forest(a), forest(y); |
| feminine nouns of the 3rd declension in the nominative singular case: |
mouse() - mouse(s); |
| nouns in the genitive plural. different genera: |
cloud() - cloud(s) - cloud(s), |
| short adjectives and masculine singular participles: |
handsome() - handsome, clumsy - clumsy, |
| possessive adjectives in I.p. m.r. unit |
fox-y() - fox(i) -fox[y"(a)], shark(), wolf() (see below why this is so) |
| past tense verbs masculine singular in the indicative and subjunctive mood: |
sang(), sang() would - sang(a), |
| verbs of the imperative mood have singular parts: |
teach(), watch(), write(); |
| numerals in the nominative and accusative cases: |
ten() - ten(s), ten(s) |
Attention! It is necessary to distinguish between words with a zero ending and unchangeable words, because in a word with a zero ending it is indicated during morphemic parsing of the word, but in unchangeable words it is not (there is no ending)!
- noun already() (already (y), already (ohm)) has a zero ending, and the adverb really - an unchangeable word and therefore has no ending.
- net()
- noun ( set(s), set(s)),
ses(th) ) - a verb where the ending is indefinite — (th),
launch(s) - verb,
five() - numeral ( heel(s)),
path() - noun ( put(s), put(s)),
though - a conjunction and an unchangeable word, so there is no ending,
let — , unchangeable word - no ending,
thinking - gerund, unchangeable word - no ending.
The ending can be inside the word:
- If a word has , then the ending is located before it, inside the stem of the word: uch (y) sya, uch (ish) Xia, having studied (ii) Xia(after the ending there is a verb -sya/-sya - the most common case); let's go (eat)-te ; in the middle of compound pronouns: How (Ouch)-either as (Wow)-either as (Wow) something, to (oh) someday.
- In some difficult words: to Komsomolsk (f)-on-Amur (f) .
Two endings in a word.
In complex words, two endings can be distinguished:
- for nouns: armchair (O)-bed () - armchair (A)-bed (And) ;
- for numerals: five () ten () - toe (And) ten (And) .
But, in complex nouns and adjectives that are written together, after the first there is a connecting vowel, and not an ending: myself- O-years () , red- O-leather (ii) .
The ending is distinguished by its sound composition
using transcription, since the spelling does not reflect the morphemic composition of the word:
- Masculine possessive adjectives in -iy:
fox(), wolf(), bear(), Where - th is a suffix and has a null ending. When declining, fluent - And - drops out of the suffix, leaving a suffix that sounds like [th’] , and in writing it is conveyed with a soft separating sign: fox (him) [fox'-y-'(willow)], wolf (him) [wolf'-y'-(willow)], bear (him) [m'edv'ezh-y'-(willow)] - the suffix sounds in the transcription [th’] and ending.
- In the following words, the suffix -й- also appears in the sound composition of the word: guns
[roug-y’-(a)],gun [roug-y’-(o)]; sparrow ya[sparrow’-th’-(a)], sparrow yu[sparrow’-th’-(y)]
; edge, edge
[kra-y’-(u)].
Suffix -th-
is also preserved when forming related words: rifle, passerine [
sparrow'-y'-in-(y)]
. In these words and others like them (dancer, grumbler; gorge, knowledge, aspiration; May, tram etc.) not in all forms the ending is indicated by letters.
List of used literature
- Kazbek-Kazieva M.M. Preparation for Russian language Olympiads. 5-11 grades. – 4th ed. – M.J. Iris-press, 2010
- Panova E.A., Pozdnyakova A.A. Reference materials on the Russian language for preparing for exams. - M.: - Astrel Publishing House LLC, 2004.-462 p.
- Svetlysheva V.N. Handbook for high school students and applicants to universities / V.N. Svetlysheva. - M.: AST -PRESS SCHOOL, 2011 - ISBN 978-5-94776-742-1.
Everything in the world consists of something: the human body is made of cells, clouds are made of water drops, a forest is made of trees. Human speech is made up of words. And you will probably be interested in looking into the holy of holies - that “workshop” where their education takes place. Words are formed from a special material, which is the subject of this article. We will look at what morphemes are and what their meaning is.
Meaning of the concept, example
The term is of Greek origin and literally translates as “form.” Its authorship belongs to the American Leonard Bloomfield (1933).
What are the semantic parts that make up words? We invite you to get acquainted with their main features presented in the picture.
Let us highlight two fundamental thoughts from this information:
- This is the smallest particle of a word that is not divided into any other semantic units.
- It is of particular importance for word formation.
Root, prefix, ending, suffix, postfix (reflexive particle -sya or -sya) - these are the morphemes that make up a word. They all have a different designation on the letter, presented below.
Let's look at an example: the word "recess". It contains the following semantic parts:
- re-;
- -men-;
Let's look at the meaning of each:
- re- is a prefix meaning repeated action;
- -men- is a root, the lexical meaning of which is associated with the designation of a change in action (compare: change, substitution, money changer, changer);
- -k is a suffix indicating the diminutive meaning of the word.
- -a is an ending indicating that this is a singular, feminine noun.
Root of the word
If the meaning of a word is made up of the meanings of its parts, then the main morpheme can safely be considered the root. It is he who carries the main lexical load, and on its basis word formation occurs. Let's try to illustrate this. Let's construct new words from the noun "water" while preserving the root -vod-.
The meaning of morphemes varies, so it is customary to distinguish between root and affix. About the first - in more detail below.
We write correctly
An important point is the spelling of morphemes. In the above example, you can see that in the root there may be alternations of letters that need to be tracked. The more complex of them are -lag-/-lozh- (offer, proposal). The following spellings should also be considered:
- Unstressed verified and unverified vowels (flood - water; dialogue).
- Transition of the letter “i” to “y” after prefixes ending in a consonant (lost, played along).
- Spelling "e" instead of "e" in borrowed words (project, overcoat).
- “O” and “e” after hissing words. “E” is written under stress, if you can find a word with the same root alternating “e - e”: stale - stale, millet - millet.
- Paired voiceless and voiced consonants require a test word (step - steps, sound - sounds).
- Unpronounceable consonants also require the selection of cognate words (locality - place).
- Double consonants. There are several rules for this spelling, so you need to check the dictionary (reins, yeast, quarrel).
Endings
You can better understand what morphemes are by looking at the following sentence:
- "The morning came... and the children... hurried... to school...".
The ending has a very important role - it establishes a connection between words in a sentence. Without in any way influencing the lexical meaning of a particular noun or adjective, for example, it is not included in the so-called stem. At the same time, the ending plays a huge role, indicating gender, number and case. Let's insert the missing endings and read:
- Morning came and the children hurried to school.
Suffixes
This morpheme is part of the basis and is responsible for word and form formation. An example of the formation of new words:
- mushroom - mushroom nickname;
- silver - silver-ist;
- hare - hare-onok.
An example of the formation of new forms:
- incline - incline;
- warm - warm-eysh-y;
- fun - fun-ee.
The suffix -ish can enlarge the subject: city - settlement. And -ik, on the contrary, reduce: table - table.
By the way, in the Russian language there are words in which there are two or even three suffixes. Examples of the latter:
- relatives;
- teacher;
- watery
Consoles
The prefixes in front of the root are word-forming particles. It is from their example that it becomes clear what morphemes are. So, they are able to make an unfinished action complete: read - read. Each console has its own purpose:
- Without-/bess- means the absence of something (voiceless, disorder).
- You- - demonstrates the direction of movement outward (get out, jump out).
- To- - shows bringing the action to the end (run, completion).
- Not- means denial of what the word itself expresses (untrue, ugly).
- Under- - in relation to verbs, shows insufficiency of actions (undersalted, underrun), etc.
Having figured out what a morpheme is in the Russian language, you should remember: using the semantic parts of a word requires knowledge of spelling.
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language that contains lexical or grammatical meaning. Words are made up of morphemes.
Morphemes are divided into root And official.
Root– this is a common part of related words.
Let's compare the words: Water - to drive; drive - driving. In the first pair of words the root VOD. However, the words Not are the same root, since the lexical meaning of the root is different. This homonymous roots.
The second pair presents different variants of the same root, associated with the historical alternation of consonants. These are the same root words: driving is the ability to drive.
The root is an obligatory morpheme present in every word.
Service morphemes are called affixes, which in Latin means attached.
There are 2 classifications of affixes:
1) location in relation to the root;
2) by function.
Affixes are divided into:
consoles(prefixes) – come before the root (suburb),
suffixes– stand after the root before the ending or at the end of words (school, quickly);
postfixes– stand after an ending or a formative suffix (washed, some);
connecting vowels(interfixes) – stand between roots in compound words (dried fruits, southwest);
ending– stands at the end of words or before a postfix (washed, washed – ending A).
The meaning of affixes can be word-forming And inflectional - formative.
Word-forming affixes are intended to form new words and have lexical meaning.
These include:
a) prefixes - city - suburb (a place near the city);
b) suffixes school - schoolboy (school student);
c) postfixes - wash – wash (wash yourself), which – some (unknown which);
d) connecting vowels that perform a connecting function: dry fruits - dried fruits.
Formative morphemes serve to form different forms of the same word and have a grammatical meaning.
The main formative morpheme in the Russian language is ending.
Ending is an inflectable morpheme that serves to connect words in a sentence. The ending may contain several grammatical meanings. So it exists in form. "table" zero ending indicates husband. kind, units number, im. pad, and in the form of “tables” ending. AH indicates plural. number of sentences case
Immutable words have no endings. Let's compare: window - windows; coat.
Some forms of adjectives and verbs are formed using formative suffixes.
Form-building suf. attached – these are suf.degrees of comparison: comparative degree – EE, E, SHE(strong - strong her; sweet - sweet e; thin - thinner e); superlative - eish, aish, sh(strongest th, the finest th, higher th).
Some forms of verbs are formed using suffixes: infinitive TH, TI(read, carry); past tense – L, zero suffix (carried, carried); imperative - AND, zero suffix (run, throw).
The plural form in the imperative mood is formed using formative postfix THOSE(run, throw).
In each word, you can identify a stem - a part of the word with a lexical meaning. Therefore, the basis does not include formative suffixes and postfixes. For example, the basis of the word “washed” is “washed”; the ending A and the past tense suffix L are not included in the stem.
The basics can be divided into non-derivatives And derivatives.
Non-derivatives are not derived from the stems of other words and are equal to the root: school.
Derivatives are derived from other stems and include word-forming morphemes: school - located at school.
Morphemics- a branch of linguistics in which the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms are studied.
In morphemics two main questions are resolved:
1) how morphemes of the Russian language are classified,
2) how a word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.
The basic unit of morphemics is the morpheme.
Morpheme– this is the minimum significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).
Classification of morphemes in the Russian language
All morphemes are divided into root and non-root. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-building (ending and form-forming suffix).
Root
The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that root- the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without roots, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes and suffixes ( table ) and without endings ( kangaroo ). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, without being combined with other roots.
There are many words consisting only of roots. These are function words ( but, above, if ), interjections ( yeah, hello ), many adverbs ( very, very ), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache ) and immutable adjectives ( beige, raglan ). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-i, go-ti.
Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix
Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and form-forming (form-forming).
Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.
Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.
Console- a word-forming morpheme standing before a root or other prefix (re-do, pre-pretty, primorye, in some places, re-o-det).
Suffix- word-forming morpheme that comes after the root (table- IR , red- e- t).
In linguistics, along with the suffix, there are also postfix- a word-building morpheme that comes after the ending or formative suffix (um-t- Xia , whom- or ).
Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix
Formative morphemes serve to form the forms of a word and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.
Endings and formative suffixes differ in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express
Ending
Ending- a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) and serves to connect words in phrases and sentences, that is, it is a means of agreement (new th student), management (letter brother- y) or the connection of the subject with the predicate (I go- at , you go- eat ).
Only inflected words have endings. Function words, adverbs, unchangeable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Modified words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that lack the specified grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerunds.
Some compound nouns and compound numerals have multiple endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr- And -st- A , tr- eh -comb- , sofa -bed- , sofa- A -bed- And .
The ending may be null. It stands out in the word being modified if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed.
Zero ending- this is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word appears. So, the ending - A table-shaped A shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at on the table- at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form table indicates that this is the nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information, it is significant. It is in such cases that the zero ending is highlighted in the word.
Words with a zero ending should not be confused with words that do not and cannot have endings - unchangeable words. Only inflected words can have a zero ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.
Formative suffix. Verb stem modifications
Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form the forms of a word.
Basically, all formative suffixes are presented in the verb: this suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and gerund forms. Non-verb formative suffixes are presented in degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.
Most verbs have two different kinds of stems: one is the present/simple future stem, and the other is the infinitive and also past tense stem: readj - And chita - , I'm drawing - And rice - , run - And beige - , talk - And speak - .
There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: ( eid -ut, eid -ti), and they are contrasted with the basis of the past tense ( w -l-a).
There are verbs in which all three stems are different: tere- yeah, ter- l-a, tr- ut; I'm getting wet- yeah, mok- l-a, mokn- ut.
There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carried you, carried l-a, carried ut; carried- you, carried- l-a, carried- ut.
Different verb forms are formed from different stems.
From the stem of the infinitive, in addition to the indefinite form, personal and participial forms of the past tense (if the verb does not have another past tense stem) and the conditional mood are formed.
From the stem of the present / simple future tense, in addition to the personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.
This is clearly visible in those verbs in which alternation of consonants is presented:
pisa-
t - pisa-
l- (would - pisa-
lice
write-
y - write-
ush-y - write-
And- .
The basis
All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word.
The basis- this is an obligatory element of the morphemic structure of a word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, while expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.
For unchangeable words, the entire word forms the basis, For example: if, coat, yesterday. Modified words do not include endings and/or formative suffixes in their stems, For example: window- O, lying down yeah, dare- her, read- l-a, done- nn-th.
The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the basics of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya/-sya ( teach- l-a-s), the bases of indefinite pronouns containing the suffixes -to, -or, -ni ( To- someone), the stems of some compound nouns ( sofa- A- bed- i) and complex numerals ( heel And- ten- And). Such bases are called intermittent.
Morphemic analysis (analysis of a word by composition)
Morphemic analysis is carried out according to the following plan:
1. Determine what part of speech the word is; indicate its beginning and ending.
2. Establish the lexical meaning of the word and determine how it is formed (from which word and with the help of which morphemes); indicate prefixes, suffixes and the root of the word.
Sample morpheme parsing
carpentry
Sample reasoning:
carpenter - form of the verb to carpenter; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix -l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by the zero ending (compare: carpenter-i).
The basis- carpenter-.
The verb carpenter is formed from the noun carpenter and is motivated through it: carpenter - ‘to be a carpenter’; The difference between the base carpenter and carpenter is the suffix -a-; the bases represent the alternation k/h.
The noun carpenter in modern language is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Therefore, carpenter/carpenter is the root.
Thus, the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, a form-building suffix -l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, a word-forming suffix -a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating basis, the root carpenter. The basis of the word carpenter is.