What is grammar in Russian. Formal and functional grammar

Grammar and its sections

Grammar(Ancient Greek γραμματική from γράμμα - “letter”) as a science is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, the patterns of constructing correct meaningful speech segments in this language. Grammar formulates these patterns in the form of general grammatical rules.

Speaking about grammar as a science, we distinguish:

historical grammar- a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in development through comparison of various stages of the history of language;

synchronous grammar- a science that studies the structure of words, phrases and sentences in a synchronous manner (in the 19th century this discipline was called descriptive grammar).

The grammar consists of two sections:

– 1) the structure of the language, i.e. a system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and constructions, methods of word production. Thus, grammar presented grammatical categories, grammatical units and grammatical forms. In this sense, grammar is the structural basis of language, without which words (with all their forms), sentences and their combinations cannot be created;

2) a section of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, its multi-level organization, its categories and their relationships to each other.

The concept of the grammatical structure of language

Grammatical structure language is the internal structure of the language. The grammatical structure is heterogeneous. It distinguishes between the morphological and syntactic levels of language, each of which is a complex and ordered system. The grammatical structure exists independently of the speaker, i.e. objectively, and is a reflection of the real world, which itself also has a complex structure. The structure of the objective world is manifested in the fact that it breaks down into individual elements (objects, phenomena, signs, etc.), which are interconnected. The relationships between the facts of objective reality are heterogeneous. This is a relationship: a) between the subject and the action, b) the action and the object, c) the object and its attribute, d) temporal relations, e) spatial, f) causal, g) target, etc. These heterogeneous relationships are reflected in language.

Basic units of grammatical structure

Like all levels of language, grammatical structure has your units. These are: 1) morpheme; 2) word form; 3) phrase; 4) offer. The word, which is the subject of study primarily in lexicology, also belongs to the units of grammatical structure. In grammar, a word is studied differently: from the perspective. its grammatical forms, as well as the presence in it of those minimal semantic elements (morphemes) that are included in the composition of phrases and sentences not directly, but indirectly, through the word. In this regard, the word is also a unit of grammar.

The concept of civil protection

Grammatical meaning is a meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relationships (attitude to other words in a phrase and sentence; attitude to the person performing the action; attitude of the reported fact to reality and time; attitude of the speaker to the reported, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings.

2 The concept of morpheme.

Morpheme– minimal, shortest, i.e. further, a unit indivisible into components of the same rank that has meaning. The minimality of a morpheme is manifested in the fact that it cannot be further divided into smaller morphemes. As a result of this division, phonetic units appear: forest – l, e, s. A morpheme is a two-way unit of language that has both a plane of expression and a plane of content. The plane of expression is its sound composition. The content plan is its word-formation meaning. Yes, in a word waterA ending A is an exponent of three grammatical meanings: g. r., units h., im. pad. In a word underwater console under has a word-formative meaning - “direction towards something”

Types of morphemes

Roots (roots), obligatory

Root- the main significant part of the word. It is an obligatory part of any word - there are no words without a root (except for rare secondary formations with a lost root such as the Russian “you-nu-t (prefix-suffix-ending)", although in artificial Esperanto such words are far from uncommon, for example aĵ- o - thing (suffix-ending), aĉ-aĵ-o - muck (suffix-suffix-ending)). Root morphemes can form a word either accompanied by affixes or independently. The main morpheme is the root; without it, a word cannot exist. The lexical meaning of the word depends on the meaning of the root. It is the root that contains the meaning common to all words with the same root. For example, words with the root -bel- (white, white, whitish, whiteness, whitewash, whitewash, protein, white marble, snow-white) are united by the meaning “the color of snow or chalk, light”, and words with the root -chern-//-black- (black, blackness, daughter, blacken, blacken, black-browed, prune, black earth) are united by the opposite meaning - “the color of soot, coal, dark.”

Affixal(s), optional

Affix- an auxiliary part of a word, attached to the root and used for word formation and expression of grammatical meanings. Can't do it on his own

to form a word (in Russian) - only in combination with roots. Unlike some roots (such as post office,bugles), are not isolated, occurring only in one word.

3 Meanings expressed by morphemes (substantial, derivational, relational).

According to the American scientist Edward Sapir, morphemes express three types of meanings: real, derivational and, finally, relational.

Real value, or lexical - this is the subject meaning. This is a concept that is correlated with specific objects and phenomena of reality. It is expressed using a root, but can be expressed with a prefix and suffix: years, departure, pilot.

Derivative meaning close to the real, but not equal to it: it expresses feelings - diminutiveness, endearment, disdain. Otherwise, it is called expressive-emotional (Latin expressio “expression (of feelings)”, Latin emovere “to excite”). Derivative meaning is expressed by suffixes. For example, in the fable of I.A. Krylova “The Crow and the Fox”: close, little eyes, sock, little voice, sister, craftswoman. The derivational meaning specifies the real meaning.

Relational meaning is concomitant with both real and derivational meanings. It expresses an abstract, abstract meaning, which can be real, or can be of a relative, conditional nature. For example, the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter are sometimes due to the natural division of living beings by sex. In this case, the gender meaning is real. But the neuter meaning is no longer real, it is purely grammatical. Compare also: the grammatical meaning of number: the singular and plural meanings are actually applicable to countable objects (house-houses), but they become grammatical in other cases: sleigh, trousers, scissors - there is one object, and the meaning of the number is plural. The grammatical meaning can be broad or narrow, general and particular. For example, all nouns have the meaning of objectivity, i.e. answer the question “who, what?” This is the broadest and most general meaning of all the grammatical meanings of nouns; they also have gender and number meanings - these are somewhat smaller meanings, while the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter genders are even smaller.

4 Morphemic processes of simplification, re-decomposition, analogy.

Morphemes can change over time. The most interesting processes of changing morphemes are simplification and re-decomposition.

Simplification- this is a change in the morphological structure of a word, as a result of which a non-derivative stem, previously broken up into separate morphemes, turns into a non-derivative, morphologically indivisible. For example, in + cous = taste;air + spirit = air;for + shield = protection.

Reasons for simplification:

1. Loss of semantic connection with the words on the basis of which they are formed: castle from the word yard, squirrel from the word white.

2. Loss of the productive basis and related words correlative with the given: benefit - benefit(it is forbidden); petal - petal; necessary - need.

3. Phonetic changes in words: deceased - fallen asleep, oar - to carry. In words day, spouse, gift, feast as a result of the loss of productivity of the corresponding prefix and suffix (su-, -r).

Re-decomposition- this is a movement of the boundaries of morphemes within a word, as a result of which the base of the word, while remaining articulated and derivative, is now divided differently than it once was. For example: living creatures - alive (living), then the word living goes out of use, and the word is divided differently liveliness.(The same readiness from g otovny, rod from bit, and now from the word fish). As a result of re-decomposition, not only new suffixes appear, but also new prefixes: under-, de-( underdevelop, deforest).

An interesting morphemic process is law of analogy(gr. Analogia “resemblance, likeness”). In Russian, for example, there was a verb take out in the system of verbs accept, appease, occupy, that is, it had a prefix You-, root -n-, suffixes -I, -th. But it turned out that the word take out turned out to be influenced by verbs in -nut: du no, plus no and changed the morphemic composition by analogy with them - a word without a root was obtained: you- no…

The law of analogy prevents the assimilation of the correct use of forms of the disconjugated verb to want:

Unit h. plural

Hotch-y hot-them

Hotch-eat hot-ite

Hotch-et hot-yat

Forms want, wants; want, want, want arise under the influence of the mutual analogy of the singular and plural forms and all turn out to be erroneous.

6 A word is a part of speech. The doctrine of parts of speech.

Part of speech is a category of words in a language, which is determined by syntactic and morphological features. In the languages of the world, first of all, a name (further divided into a noun, adjective, etc.) and a verb are contrasted. It is also generally accepted to divide parts of speech into independent and auxiliary. In the article Morphological analysis you can see many additional characteristics of parts of speech.

Independent parts of speech (include words naming objects, their actions and various signs):

1Noun

3Adjective

4Numeral

5Pronoun

7Communion

8 Participle

Functional parts of speech (they do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them):

2 Particles

4 Interjections, onomatopoeic words.

The concept of parts of speech

Words as grammatical and lexical units are grouped into parts of speech, that is, into grammatical classes of words, united by three characteristics: generalized grammatical meaning (objectivity, attribute, action); the same composition of constant and variable grammatical features; commonality of basic syntactic functions.

In other words, when talking about parts of speech, we mean the grammatical grouping of lexical units of a language, i.e. highlighting in the vocabulary of a language certain groups or categories characterized by certain characteristics.

The generalized meaning that characterizes all the words of a particular part of speech is an abstract representation of what is common in the lexical and morphological meanings of specific words of a given class. The most generalized meanings for parts of speech are the meanings of an object (substance) and a characteristic - procedural (represented as an action or state) and non-processual (represented as a quality or property).

Each part of speech has its own set of grammatical categories, which represent the generalized meaning that is characteristic of all words of this part of speech. Thus, the meaning of objectivity inherent in a noun is grammatically represented by the morphological categories of gender, number and case; the meaning of the process inherent in the verb - in terms of aspect, voice, mood, tense and person.

7 Phrases and sentences are the basic units of syntax

Syntactic units, as already mentioned, include phrases and sentences. A phrase is understood as a nominative unit that, in a dissected form, conveys a single concept ( desk, four-story house). The main function of a phrase is that it serves as building material for a sentence. The specificity of a combination as a syntactic unit is its production directly in speech (compare with reproduced phraseological combinations). The production of combinations is carried out according to certain models, therefore the units of the syntactic level are combination models.

It should be noted that there is no unity in the definition of the phrase. In addition to the above definition, there is a broader understanding of the term. A phrase is any combination of words between which there is a formally expressed semantic connection. In this case, the number of phrases includes combinations of the subject and the predicate.

With a broad definition of phrases, they will be not only combinations with a subordinating connection, but also with a coordinating connection. A subordinate relationship is a formally expressed connection between two words, the relationship between which is unequal: one element of the combination turns out to be the main element, the other - subordinate, dependent.

A more complex unit of syntax is the sentence. A sentence performs a communicative function; with the help of sentences, people communicate. Each sentence is related to a specific situation. This correlation is manifested in temporality and modality. Temporality is an expression in a sentence of an attitude towards time, modality is an expression of an attitude towards reality. Temporality is usually expressed by the morphological category of time, modality - by verbal moods.

A sentence can be realized in one word or in several words. The difference between a sentence and a word is manifested primarily in the intonation of the sentence: Fire! Fire?! Intonation in these sentences is a means of conveying predication and relates the sentence to a specific real situation. Word fire only names a class of objects, without correlating them with the temporal plan and reality.

The concept of “grammar” (from Greek. "record") is defined as a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, as well as the patterns of constructing correct speech structures in this language.

The grammar of a language is a coherent system that has been formed over centuries and is still developing. The science of grammar originates in the Indian linguistic tradition, and is then improved on the basis of the ancient linguistic tradition. In the 19th-20th centuries. The grammar of the language has changed significantly, developing more and more new directions. The most prominent figures of this period in the field of Russian grammar were F. Fortunatov, V. Vinogradov, A. Shakhmatov, L. Shcherba and others.

Traditionally, the grammar of a language is represented by morphology - the study of parts of speech and syntax - the study of phrases, sentences and their structure. Morphology gives an idea of the part-speech composition of the language, as well as the grammatical categories of each part of speech. Syntax considers phrases and sentences from the point of view of their meaning, structure, function, compatibility of components, etc. The main concepts of morphology are: inflection, formation, word form, grammatical meaning, grammatical form, grammatical category, etc. The basic concepts of syntax are sentence, member of a sentence, syntactic connection, etc.

Grammar is closely related to other sciences of language. For example, with orthoepy, because studies sound means of expressing meanings and pronunciation of grammatical forms; with spelling, because covers spelling words; with style, because concerns the stylistic patterns of the use of grammatical forms, etc.

The grammar of a language is represented in several directions: thus, concepts that are universal for all languages of the world are developed by a universal grammar, and concepts relating to a particular language are developed by a particular one; A language at a specific stage of its development is studied by synchronic grammar, and the historical stages of language development are studied by historical grammar, etc.

Russian grammar has many similarities with the grammar of other languages, but at the same time it has a number of features. Thus, in the Russian language the category of verb type is highlighted, hence the lack of need to have many types of tenses (as, for example, in the English language). Until now, in Russian morphology, living processes of transition from one part of speech to another (from adjective to noun and participle, from gerund to adverb, etc.) are observed. In addition, against the background of identifying the traditional 10 parts of speech, disputes about the number of parts of speech in the Russian language, etc., are still ongoing.

Russian grammar is complex, first of all, due to the abundance of grammatical categories. Remember, to characterize a simple sentence we need at least 6 characteristics! However, without knowledge and ability to navigate the grammar of the Russian language, it is impossible to comprehend the language system itself as a whole.

Good luck in learning Russian!

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The grammar of a language is a coherent system that has been formed over centuries and is still developing. The science of grammar originates in the Indian linguistic tradition, and is then improved on the basis of the ancient linguistic tradition. In the 19th-20th centuries. The grammar of the language has changed significantly, developing more and more new directions. The most prominent figures of this period in the field of grammar were F. Fortunatov, V. Vinogradov, A. Shakhmatov, L. Shcherba and others.

Good luck in learning Russian!

blog.site, when copying material in full or in part, a link to the original source is required.

Grammar is a branch of linguistics that deals with the grammatical structure of a language and includes morphology and syntax. This means that grammar studies the forms of words, the structure and classification of phrases and sentences. In addition, grammar is also the name given to the set of rules that govern a language.

Unlike vocabulary, grammar ignores the meanings of words, studying only lexemes - forms. Thus, the lexical meaning of a word is always specific and serves to designate one object or phenomenon, while grammar considers only formal features. For example, the meanings of the words “cabinet” and “table” are completely different, but the grammatical characteristics are identical: the plural is formed in the same way (cabinets, tables), they are declined in the same way, and they belong to the same part of speech. The meaning of a word does not in any way affect its form and role in the construction of a sentence. You can replace one word with another, but the grammatical structure of the sentence will remain intact, only the meaning will change: “They couldn’t take the table (cabinet, TV, safe) out of the office.”

Grammar deals with the study of grammatical categories - communities of language elements united by grammatical meanings in the presence of a grammatical way of expressing them. The latter is one of the most complex concepts in grammatical science, which has not yet been clearly defined. It is believed that the grammatical method is the material expression of grammatical meanings, that is, a certain technical combination of morphemes and phonemes, intonation changes in a sentence, the placement of pauses, changes in lexical structures, as well as the use of function words. There are a limited number of grammatical methods in any language: affixation, internal inflection, repetitions, addition, function words, stress, word order, intonation, suppletivism. In the Russian language, which is highly inflected, all methods are used, in a number of other languages - only some.

The basic grammatical category of any language is parts of speech. There are twelve of them in the Russian language: noun, adjective, verb, pronoun, numeral, adverb, participle, gerund, conjunction, particle, interjection, preposition. Sometimes a predicate is elevated to an independent part of speech - words denoting a static state and acting as a predicate of an impersonal sentence.

Grammar is the study of grammatical form—the unity of grammatical meaning and grammatical method. When changing the grammatical meaning and maintaining the method, as well as vice versa, we get new forms of words. For example, “beautiful” (affixation) is lexically identical to “beautiful-beautiful” (repetition) and grammatically reflects the superlative degree, but the grammatical forms are completely different. On the other hand, the method of repetition also creates a special specific connotation of the verb “do-do,” but it has nothing in common with the form “beautiful-beautiful.” Forms cannot be common to different languages, they are individual and characteristic of one, however, the similarity of forms in related languages (for example, Ukrainian and Russian) is quite possible.

Grammar deals with the study of grammatical models - groups of lexemes united according to a certain characteristic. For example, a group of derived nouns formed by the suffixes -ets, -chik, nik (tenant, archer, carter, loader, stoker, shopkeeper). One model also works for the words “chess player”, “parachutist”, “artist”, “motorist”; According to the template of the word “library”, “record library”, “film library” are formed, and according to the template “hippodrome” - “roller rink”, “autodrome”. This kind of model is called word-formation. There are inflectional models - those in which words change according to cases or conjugations.

Grammar is part of the science of language. The part is quite important because grammar studies the basis of sentence construction, the patterns of formation of various word combinations and phrases, bringing these patterns into a single system of rules.

How did the science of language emerge?

Some of the first terms that can be attributed to the initial manifestations of linguistic science appeared in the times of the Greeks with Aristotle, the founder of the Alexandrian school of linguistics. The Romans had Varro as their founder, who lived between 116 and 27 BC. It was these people who were the first to characterize some linguistic terms, such as the names of parts of speech, for example.

Many modern norms of the science of language were conceived in the Indian school of linguistics as early as the first millennium BC, as evidenced by the works of Panini. The study of languages acquired a freer form already in the first millennium of the Christian era. How and what grammar studies at this time becomes clear from the works of the classics on which it is based.

Grammar acquires not only a descriptive, but also a normative character. The basis of the foundations was considered to be elevated to the rank of an eternal form, most closely related and reflecting the structure of thought. Those who studied grammatical structure in the 12th century considered it natural that this should best be done using Latin textbooks. There were no others. At that time, the works of Donatus and Priscian were considered the standard and mandatory program. Later, in addition to them, the treatises of Alexander of Villedieu Doctrinales and Grecismus of Eberhard of Bethune appeared.

Grammar of the Renaissance and Enlightenment

It will hardly surprise anyone that the norms of the Latin language have penetrated into many European languages. This confusion can be observed especially in the speeches of priests and in church treatises written at the end of the 16th century. Many Latin grammatical categories are especially evident in them. Later, in the 17th-18th centuries, the approach to the study of grammar changed somewhat. Now it acquired a logical-philosophical character, which led to greater universalization and standardization in relation to other language groups.

And only at the beginning of the 19th century did the first attempts to classify grammatical rules in other languages differentiated from the Latin base appear. H. Steinthal played a major role in this, and his works were continued by the so-called neogrammarians - young scientists who sought to isolate linguistic norms from Latin concepts.

An even greater differentiation of individual languages occurred at the very beginning of the twentieth century. It was at this time that the idea of the so-called emancipation of various European languages and separation from the traditions of the Greek-Latin school gained popularity. In Russian grammar, the pioneer was F.F. Fortunatov. However, let's move on to modern times and see what the grammar of the Russian language is studying today.

Classification of Russian grammar by parts of speech

In the Russian language, words are divided into parts of speech. This norm of division according to morphological and syntactic characteristics is also accepted in most other languages that have separated from the Latin base. However, the number of parts of speech may not be the same.

A name (noun or other) and a verb are considered common to almost all languages of the world. The latter can also be divided into independent and auxiliary forms, which is almost universal for all languages. The grammar dictionary classifies the following parts of speech in the Russian language: noun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. Each of these categories has its own definition and purpose. We will not give here a description and grammatical categories of the noun and other parts of speech; this is described in detail in many textbooks on Russian grammar.

Ways to use verbs

All verbs in Russian can be used in three variants: as an infinitive, a participle or a gerund. All three forms are common in other languages and often have similar usage. For example, the occurrence of an infinitive (indefinite form of a verb) in a verbal predicate such as “likes to draw” and others can be found in English, Italian, and most other European languages. Similar uses of participles and gerunds are also common, although there are significant differences.

Classification by sentence members

This classification provides for five separate categories, which can appear together or separately in one sentence. Often one of the members of a sentence can be a whole phrase. So, if you need to make a sentence with the phrase “wide as a field,” then it will act as a single application. The same is true for other parts of speech.

What members of a sentence are classified by the Russian grammatical dictionary?

The subject, which refers to the main members of the sentence, denotes an object or person and is determined by the predicate.
The predicate also refers to the main members of the sentence, denotes an action or state and is directly related to the subject.
The complement is a minor member and denotes the object of the action of the subject.
The circumstance denotes a sign of action, depends on the predicate and is also of secondary importance.
Appendix denotes the quality of the subject (subject or object) and is also secondary.

Let's go back to the noun

In the Russian language there are grammatical categories of nouns that cannot be ignored. Thus, the declension of a noun by case is important. Despite the fact that cases themselves exist in many languages, rarely in which case declension is carried out using endings, as in Russian. Our grammar distinguishes 6 cases of a noun: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental and prepositional.

The study of parts of speech is at the center of science

Parts of speech are what modern grammar studies, or at least gives central importance to this section. Also, a lot of attention is paid to their grammatical categories and combinations, general rules and structure of individual speech elements. The latter studies a section of grammar called syntax.

Separate from grammar, there are such sciences as lexicology, semantics and phonetics, although they are closely related and in some interpretations are presented as structural units of grammatical science. Grammar includes such disciplines as the science of intonation, semantics, morphonology, and derivatology, which are at the edge of the border between grammar proper and the previously mentioned disciplines. In addition, grammar as a science is closely related to a number of other disciplines that are less known to a wide range of people.

Related Sciences

Grammar, due to its characteristics, has many facets of contact with such disciplines as:

lexicology due to the detailed study of the grammatical properties of individual parts of speech;
spelling and phonetics, since these sections pay a lot of attention to the pronunciation of words;
spelling, which studies issues of spelling;
stylistics, which describes the rules for using various grammatical forms.

Division of grammar according to other criteria

We wrote earlier that grammar is historical and synchronic, but there are other forms of division. Thus, a distinction is made between formal and functional grammar. The first, superficial one, works on the grammatical means of linguistic expressions. The second or deep one is located at the intersection of grammar proper and grammatical semantics. There are also structures that study parts of speech that are present in many other languages or only in Russian. On this basis, grammar is divided into universal and particular.

There are also historical and synchronic grammars. The first is the study of language, comparing various historical milestones in its development, focusing on changes over time in grammatical structures and forms. Synchronic grammar, also called descriptive grammar, pays more attention to language learning at the current stage of development. Both branches of science study the grammatical structure of language in a historical or synchronic paradigm. The origins of this division and the science of grammar in general go back to the most ancient times of the prehistoric era.

The science of grammar is a complex of interrelated disciplines that are focused on creating universal rules of language. This helps to avoid discrepancies in the formation of various speech structures, for example, when you need to compose a sentence with a phrase consisting of several parts of speech, and in many other cases.