No matter how they try to convince students that the knowledge they acquired during their school years will be needed in the future, unfortunately, this is not the case. However, some things taught in school will actually be useful in adult life. For example, the ability to write correctly. To master it, you need to know the basic grammatical laws of the Russian language. Among them are the rules governing the use of separating signs ъ and ь.
Hard sign: history and its role in the word
The twenty-eighth letter of the Russian alphabet, despite the fact that it does not represent sounds, performs an important function in words. Therefore, before consideringrules governing the use of ъ and ь signs are worthlearn a little about its history and role in the word.
The hard sign existed in Slavic languages almost from the very moment of their formation. It started out as a short vowel sound until it evolved into an unpronounceable letter used to divide words into syllables and also replace spaces.
At the end of the 19th century. it was noted that the frequent use of ъ in texts (4% of the total volume) is inappropriate, especially in telegraphy, cursive writing and typography. In this regard, attempts have been made more than once to limit the use of a hard sign.
After the revolution of 1917, this letter was completely abolished for almost ten years. In those years, an apostrophe was used as a separator in words.However, in 1928 it was excluded from the Russian language (but remained in Ukrainian and Belarusian), and its dividing function was taken over by a solid sign, which it performs to this day.
In what cases is ъ put in words?
As for the use of a solid sign, there are several rules for placing it before e, yu, ё, i:
- After prefixes that end with a consonant: connector, pre-anniversary.
- In terms that came from other languages, with the prefixes ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, ob- and sub-: adjuvant, disjunction.
- After counter-, pan-, super, trans- and field-: pan-Europeanism, superyacht.
- In compound words starting with two-, three-, four-: two-core, three-tier, quadrilingual.
There are several exceptions, when ъ does not stand at the junction of a prefix and a root, but inside the word itself. These nouns include: courier and flaw.
When they don't put it
In addition to the rules governing the use of ъ and ь signs, it is worth remembering cases when they do not need to be used:
- A hard sign is not used in words with a prefix ending in a consonant when it is followed by the vowels a, o, i, u, e, s: cloudless, curbed.
- This sign is not used in complex abbreviated terms: inyaz, glavyuvelirtorg.
- It is also not used in lexemes written with a hyphen: half a diocese, half an apple.
When considering the rules governing the use of ъ and ь signs that perform a separating function in a word, it is worth remembering that the lexemes “interior” and “clerk” are written using a soft sign. This spelling is no exception, since in the word “interior” inter is not a prefix, but part of the root. And in “deacon” the prefix is not sub-, but po-, but -deacon is the root.
What functions does a soft sign perform?
As for ь, in ancient times it meant a short vowel [and], but gradually, like ъ, it lost its sound.
At the same time, he retained the ability [and] to impart softness to the preceding consonant sound.
Unlike the hard word, it can perform 3 functions.
- Dividing.
- Informs about the softness of the preceding sound.
- Used to indicate certain grammatical forms.
Rules for using a soft sign
Studying the laws of the Russian languageregulating the use of ъ and ь signs, it is worth learning a few rules:
- A soft sign that performs a dividing function is never placed after a prefix (this is the destiny of a hard sign). Parts of words in which the dividing ь is written are the root, suffix and ending to e, ё, yu, i: monkey, interior. This rule applies to both Russian vocabulary and borrowed terms from other languages.
- The separator ь is placed in some words before the letter combination it: champignon, medallion, broth and million.
In the case when ь informs about the softness of the preceding sound, and does not perform a dividing function, its production is determined by the following rules:
- In the middle of a word, ь indicates the softness of the letter l if it precedes another consonant other than l: finger, prayer. Also, the soft sign does not “wedge” into letter combinations: nch, nsch, nn, rshch, chk, chn, rch, schn ( drummer, candle).
- In the middle of a word, this sign is placed between the soft and hard consonants: please, very much.
- In the middle of a word, ь can stand between two soft consonants. Provided that when the form of the word changes, the first remains soft, and the second becomes hard: request - in a request, letter - in a letter.
- In some cases, this symbol is located at the end of a word after consonants. At the same time, it helps to establish the meaning of the token: linen(plant) - laziness(quality of character), con(place for bets in the game) - horse(animal).
As a marker for individual grammatical forms, this sign is used in the following cases:
- In adjectives arising from the names of months (except January): February, September.
- At the end of numerals from 5 to 30, as well as in their middle, if they denote tens from 50 to 80 and hundreds from 500 to 900: six, seventy, eight hundred.
- In the imperative mood of verbs (except lie down - lie down): take it out, take it out, throw it in, throw it in.
- In the infinitive (initial form of the verb): maintain, raise.
- In all cases of the word “eight” and in the instrumental case it is plural. numbers of individual numerals and nouns: six, lashes.
The use of ь and ъ signs after hissing w, h, shch, sh
Following these soft sign letters is possible under the following conditions:
- At the end of most adverbs and particles, except: I can't bear to get married and in pretext between.
- In the infinitive: preserve, bake.
- In the imperative mood of verbs: anoint, comfort.
- In the second person endings of singular verbs of the future and present tenses: sell it, destroy it.
- At the end of the nominative case of nouns. gender, in III declension: daughter, power. For comparison in m. gender - cry, broadsword.
In some cases, ь is not used after these letters:
- In nouns of the 2nd declension: executioner, dummy.
- In short forms of adjectives: fresh, burning.
- In the genitive case of plural nouns: puddles, clouds
A hard sign after zh, sh, ch, sch at the end of a word or root is not placed, since its “place” is always after the prefix before e, e, yu, i.
Using ь and ъ signs: exercises
Having familiarized yourself with all the cases of setting soft and hard signs, you should move on to the exercises. To avoid confusion, we have collected together most of the above rules governing the use of ь and ъ signs. The table below will serve as a hint for completing the tasks.
In this exercise you need to choose which letter should be placed in the words.
This task concerns the use of a soft sign following sibilant letters. You should open the brackets in it and put a soft sign where necessary.
In the last exercise you need to write down the proposed words in 2 columns. In the first - those that are used with ь, in the second - those that are without it.
Since both hard and soft signs are “silent” letters, they play an important role in the Russian language. You can make many mistakes in your writing if you do not know the laws of grammar governing the use of ъ and ь signs. You will have to learn more than one rule so as not to confuse which sign should be used in a particular situation. However, it is worth it, especially in the case of a soft sign, since often only its presence helps determine the lexical meaning of the word.
DividingKommersantwritten after consonants before lettersI, Yu, Yo, E,conveying combinations [j] with vowels, in the following cases.
1. After prefixes ending in a consonant .
For example:
a) in words with Russian prefixes: non-nuclear, reveal, enraged, become enraged, worn out, interlingual, get fed up, go around, departure, lift, pre-anniversary, present, disperse, detachable, eat, shrink, sarcastic, supernatural, super-capacious, super-bright.
Letter ъ traditionally it is also written in the word flaw, Although from- is not a prefix in it.
b) in words with prefixes of foreign origin : counter-tier, post-nuclear, post-anniversary, subunit, sub-core, superyacht, trans-European .
Words of foreign origin with initial parts are also written ab-, ad-, dis-, in-, inter-, con-, ob-, sub- , which in the source language are prefixes, but in the Russian language they are usually not distinguished as prefixes. These include: abjuration, adjective, adjectivation, adjunct, adjustage, adjutant, disjunction, injection, injected, interjection, coadjutor, conjecture, conjugates, conjugation, conjunctiva, conjunctiva, conjunctivitis, conjuncture, conjunction, object, objective, subject, subjective .
2. In complex words:
a) after the initial parts two-, three-, four- , For example: double-anchor, double-capacity, triple-core, quadruple-tier ;
b) in words pan-European, courier .
After the initial parts of compound words, a separator ъ traditionally it is not written, for example: military lawyer, state language, children, party cell, food fair, special education, household unit, foreign language, Inyurkollegiya, Ministry of Justice.
3. The letter ъ is also written when transmitting foreign proper names and words derived from them (after letters containing paired hard consonants), for example: Kizilyurt(city in Dagestan), Toryal(village in the Republic of Mari El), Guo Hengyu(Chinese personal name), Hengyang(city in China), Tazabagyab culture(archaeological), Jyväsjärvi(lake in Finland), Manyoshu(anthology of ancient Japanese poetry).
In this case, the separating ъ also possible before the letter And , For example: Junichiro(Japanese name).
Note!
1) The letter ъ is not written before letters a, o, y, e, and, s.
For example: interatomic, counterstrike, transoceanic, three-story.
2) The letter ъ is not written in the middle of a word (not after a prefix!), for example: dress, clerk Exception – courier.
3) The letter ъ is not written at the junction of parts of a compound word.
For example: detyasli (nurseries), Inyaz (Institute of Foreign Languages).
4 ) The letter ъ is not written in a noun clerk(there is no prefix in this word under- !). A separator is written in the middle of the word b , since the prefix stands out here By- and the root dyak (-dyach-).
5) In the middle of a word (at the root) rearguard write separator ь , but not ъ , since prefixes ar- not in Russian.
6) In a word flaw (Turk.) written ъ by analogy with the verb take away.
Dividing b written after consonants before letters i, yu, e, e, and, conveying combinations [j] with vowels.
For example:
- ya : devil, yudyachiy, monkey, billiards, family, drunk, ears of corn, draw, shepherd's, Lukyan;
-yu : loach, interview, pour, family, drink, trot, fifty, sew, fut(interjection);
- yo : nightingale, gun, drinking, crow, serious, life, whose, sewing;
-ye : premiere, play, courier, entertainer, jam, calm, Vietnam, Fourier;
-y : passerine, nightingales, pancakes, bearish, vary, articles, whose, Vigny.
1) The separating b is written in the middle of the word (not after the prefix!) after a consonant before letters e, e, yu, i, if after a consonant before a vowel it sounds [j]; for example: vVyot [v’jot], loach [v’jun], clerk [d’jak]).
2) The separative b is written in some borrowed words (as a sound signal [j]) after a consonant before a letter O.
For example: bouillon[bul'jon], sir[sin'jor], minion[min'jon].
Yuzhannikov Vladislav
5 A class, MBOU "Secondary School No. 31"
Kanifatova Alena Alexandrovna
scientific supervisor, teacher of Russian language and literature,Novokuznetsk
There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet. Most of these letters have their own sound designation, and sometimes not one, but two. So, for example, in the word CONFERENCE, the letter E is present in both the second and third syllables, but in the second syllable in a weak position without stress, we pronounce the vowel sound I, and in the third syllable, with stress, the sound E. A special place among all letters is occupied by soft and hard signs, since they do not produce sounds. These letters have their own special roles in words. So we know that the letter b (soft sign) serves to indicate the softness of a consonant sound (salt, coat), and also performs a separate function (blizzard, ants). In contrast to this letter, the role of the solid sign is assigned a small one. It serves as a separation. The only letters that can be preceded by a hard sign are E, Ё, Yu and I (rasЪ e roam, sb e mka, raz I remove, lift Yu bnik). However, recently in Russia attempts have been made to use this letter for other purposes.
More and more often on the streets of our city we see signs with the names of some institutions, at the end of which there is a solid sign. For example, real estate agencies “Variant”, “Adres”, store “Lombard”, coffee “Petr”, magazine “Gatronom”, taxi “Yamshchik”, etc.
In this regard, the problem of this work is to find out: why in modern proper names the letter Ъ appears at the end of the names, what is the history of this letter.
The purpose of this study: trace the use of the letter Ъ in modern names from the point of view of its validity and significance.
In order to introduce children to letters, in modern alphabet books, for each letter, to make it easier for the child, not only a drawing, but also a short poem is offered. What can you write about a solid sign? Let's look through a few of these books.
1. We know that there is both an entrance and an exit,
There is a rise, and there is an entrance,
We can't live without them,
Very important... (firm sign)
2. Announces Kommersant:
The beast is my enemy and the bird is my enemy!
I'd rather hide in the entrance
And no one will eat me!
3. I can’t find it in any way
There is a solid sign at the zoo.
I don't know these animals.
Help me, friends!
In the poem by Danish K. about the solid sign, the stanza caught my attention:
Used to be an important person
He was held in high esteem under the king,
He's in almost every word
I visited and served.
The question arises: what service did the solid sign perform previously?
Having turned to various sources, I found three main functions of this letter in the Old Russian language.
Thus, in the first Russian alphabet, created by the enlighteners, the brothers Cyril and Methodius, the letter Ъ (hard sign) was called EP and was the 29th letter, denoting an ultra-short vowel sound that is not pronounced. However, in writing, the use of this unpronounceable letter was quite useful: it helped to correctly break the line into words (before moving on to using spaces): For example: to God's chosen king.
But it should be noted that this hypothesis in no way justifies the appearance of this letter in modern names. Since, according to my observations, this sign is found in proper names consisting of only one word (“Admiral”, “Tavern”, “Gastronom”). In addition, as already mentioned, this letter played the role of an ultra-short vowel sound. In Russian, the vowel sound is the syllable-forming sound, so there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels: aria(3 syllables), lighthouse(2 syllables), flight(1 syllable). Syllables can be open (end with a vowel) or closed (end with a consonant). For example, in the word ko-ro-na all syllables are open, but in the word ar-buz both syllables are closed.
A characteristic feature of syllable division in the Old Russian language was that it obeyed the law of the open syllable, as a result of which all syllables were open, that is, they ended in a vowel sound. The law of the open syllable determined the fact that in the Old Russian language there could not be consonants at the end of the word, since in this case the syllable would be closed. Therefore, at the end of words ending in consonants they wrote b (er).
Let us trace this on the material under study. “Traktir”, coffee “Admiral”, store “Lombard”, coffee “Peter”, magazine “Gastronom”, taxi “Yamshchik”, real estate agencies “Variant” and “Adres”... Indeed, in all cases this letter is written at the end of the word , after a consonant sound, in this case the modern closed syllable turns into an open one.
The famous Russian linguist Lev Vasilyevich Uspensky (1900-1978) in his book “A Word about Words” calls the hard sign “the most expensive letter in the world.” Since, in his opinion, “he did not help anything, did not express anything, did absolutely nothing.” And in some texts this sign was used more often than other vowels. Let us trace this in an excerpt from the ancient Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years.”
In total, this text contains 144 words, which account for 31 er; practically, this sign is written in every fourth word, and in some words it appears twice. For example: asked, entered, sorcerer.
The Soviet government also noticed the meaningless use of this sign, which greatly increased the text and, accordingly, printing costs. Therefore, according to the Decree “On the Introduction of a New Spelling” (1918), the letter Ъ (er) was excluded from the Russian alphabet. There is no longer anything to mean for the “dividing er” in the middle of words. They came up with a replacement for it: in its place they began to put an apostrophe (superscript comma) or quotation marks after the preceding letter. In August 1928, the government recognized the use of an apostrophe in the middle of a word instead of the letter “hard sign” as unusual for Russian grammar. In modern Russian spelling, Ъ (hard sign) is used only as a separator between a consonant and a vowel. Most often used at the junction of a prefix and a root (announcement, entrance), as well as in some borrowed words (adjutant, injection) and in two adjacent full (not abbreviated!) stems in complex words (three-tier).
It should be noted that in the Old Russian language, in addition to two functions (space and syllable formation), the letter Ъ (er) had a third function - a masculine indicator. It was written after consonants at the end of nouns (Oleg, kudesnik, lob), in masculine past tense verbs (put, died), as well as in short masculine adjectives (lob gol, prince beautiful). When he disappeared from this position, the masculine gender began to be defined by a graphic zero in contrast to the feminine (book - table).
Does Ъ (hard sign) perform this function in modern names? “Traktir”, coffee “Admiral”, store “Lombard”, coffee “Peter”, magazine “Gastronom”, taxi “Yamshchik”, real estate agencies “Variant” and “Adres”... Indeed, all these are masculine nouns.
Consequently, based on the material studied, the appearance of the letter Ъ (a hard sign) in the modern names of various institutions can be justified from the point of view of the history of this letter. Firstly, as a super-short vowel sound that converts a closed syllable into an open one. Secondly, in all these words the hard sign is also an indicator of the masculine gender, according to the laws of the Old Russian language.
But did the entrepreneurs who added this letter to the names of their companies know these facts? I addressed this question to entrepreneurs and employees of these institutions. A total of 14 people were interviewed. Of these, only 3 people know that this was once a vowel letter, 12 people know that this letter was written at the end of masculine nouns. When asked what they were guided by when adding Ъ (hard sign) after hard consonants, they unanimously answered that these are commercial ploys that serve to create a certain image of a product or institution, which is intended to emphasize the good quality of the enterprise, using a stable idea: “pre-revolutionary (old) " = "good".
In our city there are a number of stores whose names may have a solid sign at the end of the word: “Cosmos”, “Sapphire”, “Stimul”, “Comfort”, “Zenith”, “Visit”, “Phoenix”, “Topaz” . I hope that in the future, if entrepreneurs want to add the letter Ъ (firm sign) to the names of their companies and institutions, this will not be just a tribute to fashion or a commercial move, but a historically based decision.
Bibliography:
- Gorshkov A.I. All the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. A.S. Pushkin in the history of the Russian language: A book for extracurricular reading for students - M.: Education, 1993. - 176 pp.: ill. - ISBN5-09-003452-4.
- Gorbanevsky M.V. In the world of names and titles. - M.: Knowledge, 1983. - 192 p.
- Russian language. Theoretical description. Textbook for students of the specialty “Russian language and literature” Kuibyshev, 2012: pp. 35-38
- Uspensky L.. A word about words. Essays on language, Children's literature, 1971 http://royallib.ru
- [Electronic resource]. Access mode: URL: http://www.grafomanam.
- [Electronic resource]. Access mode: URL: http://ja-rastu.ru/poeme/azbuka/
- [Electronic resource]. Access mode: URL: http://ru.wikipedia
- [Electronic resource]. Access mode: URL:
On October 10, 1918, a large-scale reform of Russian spelling came into force: letters were removed from the alphabet, including the unpronounceable “ѣ”, which was once considered a sign of literacy. Almost a century later, the presence of “yat” in the company logo has become a mystical sign of authority for many. Life about why the outdated rules of the Russian language turned out to be so attractive to the marketing machine.
98 years ago, Russian spelling underwent significant changes: the letters “fita” (Ѳ), “and decimal” (I) and the now fashionable “yat” (ѣ) were deleted from the alphabet. Also, the proletarian reform changed the rules for using the hard sign or, as it was called under the emperor, “er”: the unpronounceable letter no longer needed to be placed at the end of words ending in a consonant: there was no point. However, as history has shown, entrepreneurs were and still are not in agreement with innovations.
According to SPARK-Interfax, more than 50 Russian companies used the word “yat” in their names, and another 219 organizations used a hard sign. In the overwhelming majority of cases, “ъ” and “ѣ” are used in trade (both retail and wholesale), and a little less often in the names of construction and law firms. As experts note, brands in the old style are an attempt to artificially instill history and traditions in a company.
The beer restaurant "Durdin", the restaurant "Cafe Pushkin", the bakery "Daily Bread", vodka "Ѣ", the newspaper "Kommersant", the mixed martial arts club "R.O.D.Ъ", St. - St. Petersburg restaurant "Restaurant". And dozens of such examples can be given.
The BQB company, which was developing the Yat vodka brand (the company logo looks like the now unused letter “ѣ”), notes on its official website that Nicholas I refused during his reign (the first half of the 19th century. - Note Life) to abolish the unpronounceable letter, arguing that it is - "a sign of distinction between literate gentlemen and illiterate ones." And therefore, as the agency states, the advertised alcohol is “a product for literate gentlemen who understand real Russian vodka.”
And the head of the mixed martial arts club "R.O.D.B." Ivan Ivanov said that with a strong sign in the name of the organization he wanted to emphasize that everyone who comes to study will go to the end and achieve their goals.
When we came up with the name, we decided to rely on the most important root in the Russian language - “rod”. It is with him that the most precious thing a person has is connected: parents, homeland, for example. This is something you can fight for, something to become better for. We also wanted to show the firmness of our intentions and those who would come to us, so we also added “ъ,” says Ivanov.
Professor of the Russian Language Department of the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University Elena Galinskaya, in turn, said that the letter “ѣ” was abolished because over time it became clear that it duplicates “e” in its sound.
At one time the sounds were different, but over time both letters sounded like “e”. The only difference was in the writing. Children in gymnasiums had to memorize a list of words (in rhymes) in which the letter “yat” was used. Therefore, we can say that only very literate people could use “ѣ”, says Galinskaya. - The hard sign in the 11th century was considered a vowel letter (that is, in the word “bread” after the sound “p” there was something similar to a short “s.” - Note Life), then it became clear that we needed to get rid of redundancy in spelling.
According to the professor, entrepreneurs who use “yat” or a hard sign at the end in company names are dudes.
It's also good if used correctly. For example, the bakery near “Park Kultury” used to (now removed) called itself “HL "Daily fuck" (bakery chain Le Pain Quotidien. - Note Life), but this is incorrect. If you use “yat”, then you must fully follow the old spelling rules. According to them, it was necessary to write “Daily Bread” correctly.
Le Pain Quotidien bakery could not be reached for immediate comment.
As a market source explained, the outdated letter in the name is used to attract the attention of an adult audience (over 40 years old).
These people often perceive “yat” or even a hard sign at the end of a word as a symbol, so to speak, of “soft dissidence.” In Soviet times, “yat” was often used by those who did not want to put up with the power of the proletarians. After all, a whole era has passed with the old spelling rules, says the interlocutor. - We also tried to bring ourselves closer to the entrepreneurs of the 19th century: Grigory Eliseev, Savva Morozov. What if our brand is just as old? We appealed to consumers' supermemory. Still, not everyone in Tsarist Russia knew how to use “yat” correctly; this is really a letter for intelligent people.
Life, in turn, asked readers about what associations the letter “yat” and the hard sign after a consonant evoke. It turned out that some Russians immediately imagine texts in Church Slavonic, while others react completely negatively to “ѣ”, calling such naming bad taste.
It is worth noting that the fashion for the old spelling has reached social networks. For example, on VKontakte there are groups “Pre-revolutionary Soviet” (more than 50 thousand people subscribed to it) and “Ub hedgehog in your native language. My home and my fortress" (more than 3 thousand subscribers). And a number of members of the first public (it is open to everyone) not only read the posts of admins, written in the old style, but in the same manner they comment on the posts: "Really, gentlemen, this young lady is a wonderful siren. Other gentlemen would lay down half the world at her feet."This is both laughter and sin." And judging by the high style (without any sarcasm) Russians are trying to communicate on the public page, some find such groups funny (here is a “new language”, and therefore one can recall the “drowning effect”), others, perhaps, really feel like part of a special intelligent stratum.
Member of the Guild of Marketers Nicholas Corot emphasized that the letter itself cannot bring anything to the business; it must be an organic addition to the brand legend.
A deliberate manifestation of the archaic (that is, antiquity. - Note Life) in the form of letters lost from the alphabet is not associated with monarchical tendencies in business or some kind of nostalgia. This is a visual sign of the connection between times. A pseudo-legend is being created that says that the brand survived the Soviet era, that it follows traditions,” explains Koro. - Also, the use of “yat” or a solid sign can be a full-fledged address to the imperial trend. And he is.
At the same time, the marketer noted that there is nothing special in the choice of “ъ” and “ѣ”. Sooner or later, the disappearing letters will be used by entrepreneurs.
A good example is the letter "e". It is no longer printed anywhere with dots. Outwardly today it is exactly the same as “e”, and therefore it will probably disappear soon. That’s why today there are brands that deliberately display “e” with dots. After all, on the one hand, this letter has a certain slang component (rapper), on the other - lexical, including obscene, connotations.
The head of the PR agency Nota Bene, Natalya Bulanova, emphasized that “out of the blue” no one introduces “yat” or a hard sign at the end into the name of their company.
The brand must match. This is a direct reference to old Russian traditions. And it doesn’t matter how old the company is (even three years, for example). She wants to show the consumer that she can be trusted,” says Bulanova. - And the Russian buyer is not tired of this. This is not to say that this phenomenon occurs all the time. This “trick” with the birth of a legend works because few people will bother and search on the Internet to find out how old the company is and whether it has a history. Purely visually, this makes you believe in quality when it comes to small purchases (sausage, for example). If a person buys a car or an apartment, then, of course, he will not believe in any fairy tales.
The letter Ъ, ъ (referred to as a hard sign) is the 28th letter of the Russian alphabet (it was the 27th letter before the reform of 1917-1918 and bore the name “er”) and the 27th letter of the Bulgarian alphabet (called er golyam, i.e. “big er”); is absent in other Cyrillic Slavic alphabets: if necessary, its functions are performed by an apostrophe (Russian congress - Bel. z'ezd - Ukrainian. z'izd).
In the Church and Old Church Slavonic alphabets it is called “er” and “ѥръ” respectively; its meaning (as well as the meaning of the names of a number of other Cyrillic letters) is not clear. Usually in the Cyrillic alphabet it is 29th in order and has the form ; The 30th in the Glagolitic alphabet looks like . Has no numerical value.
The origin of the letter in the Glagolitic alphabet is usually interpreted as a modified letter O (); Cyrillic is also associated with O, to which something is drawn on top (such forms are found in the most ancient inscriptions in Cyrillic).
Church and Old Church Slavonic language
Approximately until the very middle of the 12th century. the letter Ъ denoted a reduced (super-short) vowel sound of medium rise. After the fall of the reduced ones occurred, any sound ceased to be designated in all Slavic languages except Bulgarian (in Bulgaria, in specific positions, a similar sound ɤ is still preserved, along with its designation using the letter Ъ: Bulgarian modern alphabet ).
But the use of this unpronounceable letter in writing turned out to be useful: it contributed to the correct division of words into syllables, and lines into words (until they switched to using spaces): to God's chosen king.
In later Church Slavonic writing it is used according to tradition:
Most often after consonants at the ends of words (i.e. a word can only end with a vowel, b, b or j);
As a sign of separation between a consonant and a vowel, located at the boundary of a prefix and a root;
In some words: monkey, after, and also in all kinds of forms of phrases for each other, each other...
In a number of cases (mainly at the ends of prefixes and prepositions) er is replaced by a superscript called “erok”.
Kommersant in Russian
In 1917-1918, even before the reform of Russian spelling, the letter Ъ was used in accordance with the same Church Slavonic rules, but there were no exception words. The dividing Ъ (unlike modern spelling) was placed not only before iotized vowels, but also in a number of other cases, such as rasikatsya, sjekonomichet, dvuharshiny, etc. (including it made it possible to distinguish the words podarochny and gift in writing).
But the dividing Kommersant was very rare (however, as now), and the very useless Kommersant at the ends of words accounted for almost 4% of the total volume of the text and, as L.V. Uspensky calculated, before the spelling reform it required up to 8.5 annually. million additional pages.
The redundancy of the terminal b has been known for a long time; it may not have been used in cursive writing, during the transmission of telegraph messages, and even in a number of books (printing without Kommersant spread in the 1870s, but was soon banned).
During the reform, b, which plays the role of a dividing sign, was preserved; but in order to cope with the publishers of magazines and newspapers who did not want to comply with the decisions of the new government, the decree of the Supreme Council of National Economy of November 4, 1918 ordered the removal of matrices and letters of the letter B from printing desks, which was done.
The result was the spread of the surrogate designation apostrophe (ad’jutant, rise) in the form of a dividing sign; such writing began to be perceived as an element of reform, while in reality, from the positions set out in the decree, it was erroneous. There was a time (late 1920s - early 1930s) when it moved into book publishing, and, for example, in typewriting it has practically survived to this day (in order to save the number of keys, inexpensive typewriters were made without b).
In August 1928, the People's Commissariat for Education recognized the use of an apostrophe in Russian grammar instead of a hard sign in the middle of a word as incorrect.
Ъ in modern Russian spelling is used only as a sign of separation between a consonant and a vowel. It is most often used at the junctions of prefixes and roots (entrance, advert, trans-Yamal, pan-European), including historical prefixes “fused” in modern Russian with the root in a number of borrowings (adjutant, courier, injection); or in the case of 2 combined non-contracted (full!) stems before iotated e, yu, ё, i in such complex words as (“three-tiered”) and means “separate” (iotated) their sound without softening the previous consonant.
Before other vowels, Ъ can only appear in transcriptions of foreign names and names: Junichiro, Chang'an, etc.
The use of Ъ before consonants has also been noted (in the names of Khoisan languages: Kgan-Kune, Khong, etc.), although the correctness of such spellings in Russian orthography is questionable.
It cannot be used in complex words such as party cell, ministry of justice, foreign language.
Spelling variations
In the outline of the letter Ъ, diversity is observed mainly in its size while maintaining its shape: it is in the line completely in the charter, in the half-chart it is both in the line and protrudes with its upper part upward, while covering the previous letter with it, but in width it takes up space less. This “high” form existed until the mid-century. XVIII century main and appeared in the first versions of the civil font.
The tall lowercase letter ъ in a number of variants of the civil font lost its hook, i.e. its form was identified with the Latin lowercase b (at the same time, the lowercase ь had a modern appearance).
In a number of semi-statutory manuscripts and early printed books (for example, in the “Ostrozh Bible” by I. Fedorov) one also comes across the letter Ъ with a serif going down to the bottom on the left (i.e., in the form of connected rъ), although more often a sign of a similar form denoted a letter yat.