Явью topic simple machines. Методическая разработка занятия по английскому языку на тему "Машины и работа" (3 курс)

(15 minutes)
  • Distribute small toy cars that have wheels joined by axles to groups of students. Kick-start a discussion with some questions about the toy car mechanics, such as: How do these toy cars move? How are the wheels on each side of the car joined to each other?
  • Have a student volunteer point to the rod that holds the two wheels together. Explain that the bar that joins two wheels is called an axle .
  • Tell students that they will be learning about wheels and axles.
  • Hold up the doorknob, explaining that it is an everyday example of a wheel and axle.
  • Challenge the students to help you identify the wheel and axle in the doorknob. Listen as different students call out their guesses.
  • After some speculation, tell students that the knob that turns is the wheel. The inner rod that is attached to the knob is the axle.
  • Demonstrate how the wheel and axle works by turning the knob (wheel). That turns the inner rod (axle) and moves the latch, to open the door.

Guided Practice

(15 minutes)
  • To consolidate student thinking, set up activity stations with play dough and a rolling pin.
  • Let students practice flattening the dough with the pin.
  • Guide them to express these understandings: The rolling pin is a wheel and axle. When you push on the handles (the axle) the wheel turns and flattens out the dough.
  • Challenge students to think of other common machines that have one wheel like the rolling pin. Great examples include a wheelbarrow, a top, and a playground merry-go-round.

Independent working time

(15 minutes)
  • Pass out a copy of the Wheel and Axle worksheet to each student to complete independently.
  • Walk around the classroom to offer support to students who get stuck.

Differentiation

  • Enrichment: Have students who need more of a challenge read a history of other simple machines, and fill out an accompanying word search.
  • Support: Put students who need more support into pairs to complete the Wheel and Axle worksheet.

Assessment

(10 minutes)
  • Collect the worksheets that the students have filled out, and correct them using the Wheel and Axle answer sheet.

Review and closing

(5 minutes)
  • In summary, remind students that the rolling pin is a wheel and axle. When you push on the handles (the axle) the wheel turns and flattens out the dough.
  • Challenge students to think of other common machines that have one wheel like the rolling pin, such as a wheelbarrow, top, and merry-go-round.
  • Remind your class that the wheel and axle is only one of six common simple machines that help things move. For homework or additional independent work, consider encouraging students to learn more about other kinds of simple machines.

). The steeper the slope, or incline, the more nearly the required force approaches the actual weight. Expressed mathematically, the force F required to move a block D up an inclined plane without friction is equal to its weight W times the sine of the angle the inclined plane makes with the horizontal (θ). The equation is F = W sin θ.

In this representation of an inclined plane, D represents a block to be moved up the plane, F represents the force required to move the block, and W represents the weight of the block. Expressed mathematically, and assuming the plane to be without friction, F = W sin θ.

The principle of the inclined plane is used widely-for example, in ramps and switchback roads, where a small force acting for a distance along a slope can do a large amount of work.

The

A lever is a bar or board that rests on a support called a fulcrum. A downward force exerted on one end of the lever can be transferred and increased in an upward direction at the other end, allowing a small force to lift a heavy weight.

Two examples of levers(Left) A crowbar, supported and turning freely on a fulcrum f , multiplies a downward force F applied at point a such that it can overcome the load P exerted by the mass of the rock at point b . If, for example, the length a f is five times b f , the force F will be multiplied five times. (Right) A nutcracker is essentially two levers connected by a pin joint at a fulcrum f . If a f is three times b f , the force F exerted by hand at point a will be multiplied three times at b , easily overcoming the compressive strength P of the nutshell. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

All early people used the lever in some form, for example, for moving heavy stones or as digging sticks for land cultivation. The principle of the lever was used in the swape, or , a long lever pivoted near one end with a platform or water container hanging from the short arm and counterweights attached to the long arm. A man could lift several times his own weight by pulling down on the long arm. This device is said to have been used in Egypt and India for raising water and lifting soldiers over battlements as early as 1500 bce .

Shadoof, central Anatolia, Turkey. Noumenon

The

A wedge is an object that tapers to a thin edge. Pushing the wedge in one direction creates a force in a sideways direction. It is usually made of metal or wood and is used for splitting, lifting, or tightening, as in securing a hammer head onto its handle.

The wedge was used in prehistoric times to split logs and rocks; an is also a wedge, as are the teeth on a saw. In terms of its mechanical function, the screw may be thought of as a wedge wrapped around a cylinder.

The

A wheel and axle is made up of a circular frame (the wheel) that revolves on a shaft or rod (the axle). In its earliest form it was probably used for raising weights or water buckets from wells.

Its principle of operation is best explained by way of a device with a large and a small gear attached to the same shaft. The tendency of a force, F , applied at the radius R on the large gear to turn the shaft is sufficient to overcome the larger force W at the radius r on the small gear. The force amplification, or , is equal to the ratio of the two forces (W :F ) and also equal to the ratio of the radii of the two gears (R :r ).

Two wheel and axle arrangements(A) With a large gear and a small gear attached to the same shaft, or axle, a force F applied at the radius R on the large gear is sufficient to overcome the larger force W at the radius r on the small gear, turning the axle. (B) In a drum and rope arrangement capable of raising weights, a large drum of radius R can be used to turn a small drum. An increase in mechanical advantage can be obtained by using the large drum to turn a small drum with two radii as well as a pulley block. When a force F is applied to the rope wrapped around the large drum, the rope wrapped around the small two-radius drum winds off of d (radius r 1) and onto D (radius r 2). The force W on the radius of the pulley block P is easily overcome, and the attached weight is lifted. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

If the large and small gears are replaced with large- and small-diameter drums that are wrapped with ropes, the wheel and axle becomes capable of raising weights. The weight being lifted is attached to the rope on the small drum, and the operator pulls the rope on the large drum. In this arrangement the mechanical advantage is the radius of the large drum divided by the radius of the small drum. An increase in the mechanical advantage can be obtained by using a small drum with two radii, r 1 and r 2 , and a pulley block. When a force is applied to the large drum, the rope on the small drum winds onto D and off of d.

A measure of the force amplification available with the pulley-and-rope system is the velocity ratio, or the ratio of the at which the force is applied to the rope (V F ) to the velocity at which the weight is raised (V W ). This ratio is equal to twice the radius of the large drum divided by the difference in the radii of the smaller drums D and d. Expressed mathematically, the equation is V F /V W = 2R /(r 2 - r 1). The actual mechanical advantage W /F is less than this velocity ratio, depending on friction. A very large mechanical advantage may be obtained with this arrangement by making the two smaller drums D and d of nearly equal radius.

The

A pulley is a wheel that carries a flexible rope, cord, cable, chain, or belt on its rim. Pulleys are used singly or in combination to transmit and motion. Pulleys with grooved rims are called sheaves. In , pulleys are affixed to shafts at their axes, and power is transmitted between the shafts by means of endless belts running over the pulleys.

GK Bloemsma

One or more independently rotating pulleys can be used to gain mechanical advantage, especially for lifting weights. The shafts about which the pulleys turn may affix them to frames or blocks, and a combination of pulleys, blocks, and rope or other flexible material is referred to as a . The Greek mathematician (3rd century bce ) is reported to have used compound pulleys to pull a ship onto dry land.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The

A screw is a usually circular cylindrical member with a continuous helical rib, used either as a fastener or as a force and motion modifier.

Although the Pythagorean philosopher (5th century bce ) is the alleged inventor of the screw, the exact period of its first appearance as a useful mechanical device is obscure. The invention of the is usually ascribed to Archimedes, but evidence exists of a similar device used for irrigation in Egypt at an earlier date. The screw press, probably invented in Greece in the 1st or 2nd century bce , has been used since the days of the Roman Empire for pressing clothes. In the 1st century ce , wooden screws were used in wine and olive-oil presses, and cutters (taps) for cutting internal threads were in use.

Screws and screw heads (A) Cap screw, (B) machine screw with oval head, (C) setscrew with hollow head, (D) self-tapping screw, (E) flat-head wood screw, (F) machine screw with Phillips head, (G) lag screw Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Are made in a wide variety of diameters and lengths; when using the larger sizes, pilot holes are drilled to avoid splitting the wood. are large wood screws used to fasten heavy objects to wood. Heads are either square or hexagonal.

Screws that modify force and motion are known as . A screw jack converts (turning moment) to thrust. The thrust (usually to lift a heavy object) is created by turning the screw in a stationary nut. By using a long bar to turn the screw, a small force at the end of the bar can create a large thrust force. Workpiece tables on are moved linearly on guiding ways by screws that rotate in at the ends of the tables and mate with nuts fixed to the machine frame. A similar torque-to-thrust conversion can be obtained by either rotating an axially fixed screw to drive a rotationally fixed nut along the screw or by rotating an axially fixed nut to drive a rotationally fixed screw through the nut.

This article was most recently revised and updated by Robert Curley , Senior Editor.

YouTube Encyclopedic

    1 / 5

    Views:
  • Simple Machines for Kids: Science and Engineering for Children - FreeSchool

    Science - Simple machine (Screw, wedge and lever) - Hindi

    Simple Machines (Song and lyrics)

    Simple Machines Types & Functions Kindergarten,Preschoolers,Kids

    Super Simple Machines: Levers

    Transcription

    You"re watching FreeSchool! Hi everyone! Today we"re going to talk about simple machines. A simple machine is a device that makes work easier by magnifying or changing the direction of a force. That means that simple machines allow someone to do the same work with less effort! Simple machines have been known since prehistoric times and were used to help build the amazing structures left behind by ancient cultures. The Greek philosopher Archimedes identified three simple machines more than 2,000 years ago: the lever, the pulley, and the screw. He discovered that a lever would create a mechanical advantage, which means that using a lever would allow a person to move something that would normally be too heavy for them to shift. Archimedes said that with a long enough lever and a place to rest it, a person could move the world. Over the next few centuries more simple machines were recognized but it was less than 450 years ago that the last of the simple machines, the inclined plane, was identified. There are six types of simple machines: the Lever, the Wheel and Axle, the Pulley, the Inclined plane, the Wedge, and the Screw. Pulleys and Wheel and Axles are both a type of Lever. Wedges and Screws are both types of Inclined Planes. Each type of Simple Machine has a specific purpose and way they help do work. When speaking of simple machines, "work" means using energy to move an object across a distance. The further you have to move the object, the more energy it takes to move it. Let"s see how each type of simple machine helps do work. A LEVER is a tool like a bar or rod that sits and turns on a fixed support called a fulcrum. When you use a lever, you apply a small force over a long distance, and the lever converts it to a larger force over a shorter distance. Some examples of levers are seesaws, crowbars, and tweezers. A Wheel and Axle is easy to recognize. It consists of a wheel with a rod in the middle. You probably already know that it"s easier to move something heavy if you can put it in something with wheels, but you might not know why. For one thing, using wheels reduces the friction - or resistance between surfaces - between the load and the ground. Secondly, much like the lever, a smaller force applied to the rim of the wheel is converted to a larger force traveling a smaller distance at the axle. Wheel and axles are used for machines such as cars, bicycles, and scooters, but they are also used in other ways, like doorknobs and pencil sharpeners. A Pulley is a machine that uses a wheel with a rope wrapped around it. The wheel often has a groove in it, which the rope fits into. One end of the rope goes around the load, and the other end is where you apply the force. Pulleys can be used to move loads or change the direction of the force you are using, and help make work easier by allowing you to spread a weaker force out along a longer path to accomplish a job. By linking multiple pulleys together, you can do the same job with even less force, because you are applying the force along a much longer distance. Pulleys may be used to raise and lower flags, blinds, or sails, and are used to help raise and lower elevators. An Inclined Plane is a flat surface with one end higher than the other. Inclined planes allow loads to slide up to a higher level instead of being lifted, which allows the work to be accomplished with a smaller force spread over a longer distance. You may recognize an inclined plane as the simple machine used in ramps and slides. A Wedge is simply two inclined planes placed back to back. It is used to push two objects apart. A smaller force applied to the back of the wedge is converted to a greater force in a small area at the tip of the wedge. Examples of wedges are axes, knives, and chisels. A Screw is basically an inclined plane wrapped around a pole. Screws can be used to hold things together or to lift things. Just like the inclined plane, the longer the path the force takes, the less force is required to do the work. Screws with more threads take less force to do a job since the force has to travel a longer distance. Examples of screws are screws, nuts, bolts, jar lids, and lightbulbs. These six simple machines can be combined to form compound or complex machines, and are considered by some to be the foundation of all machinery. For example, a wheelbarrow is made of levers combined with a wheel and axle. A pair of scissors is another complex machine: the two blades are wedges, but they are connected by a lever that allows them to come together and cut. We use simple machines to help us do work every day. Every time you open a door or a bottle, cut up your food, or even just climb stairs, you are using simple machines. Take a look and see if you can identify the simple machines around you and figure out how they make it easier to do work.

    Contents

History

The idea of a simple machine originated with the Greek philosopher Archimedes around the 3rd century BC, who studied the Archimedean simple machines: lever, pulley, and screw . He discovered the principle of mechanical advantage in the lever. Archimedes" famous remark with regard to the lever: "Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth." (Greek : δῶς μοι πᾶ στῶ καὶ τὰν γᾶν κινάσω ) expresses his realization that there was no limit to the amount of force amplification that could be achieved by using mechanical advantage. Later Greek philosophers defined the classic five simple machines (excluding the inclined plane) and were able to roughly calculate their mechanical advantage. For example, Heron of Alexandria (ca. 10–75 AD) in his work Mechanics lists five mechanisms that can "set a load in motion"; lever , windlass , pulley , wedge , and screw , and describes their fabrication and uses. However the Greeks" understanding was limited to the statics of simple machines; the balance of forces, and did not include dynamics ; the tradeoff between force and distance, or the concept of work .

Frictionless analysis

Although each machine works differently mechanically, the way they function is similar mathematically. In each machine, a force F in {\displaystyle F_{\text{in}}\,} is applied to the device at one point, and it does work moving a load, F out {\displaystyle F_{\text{out}}\,} at another point. Although some machines only change the direction of the force, such as a stationary pulley, most machines multiply the magnitude of the force by a factor, the mechanical advantage

M A = F out / F in {\displaystyle \mathrm {MA} =F_{\text{out}}/F_{\text{in}}\,}

that can be calculated from the machine"s geometry and friction.

The mechanical advantage can be greater or less than one:

  • The most common example is a screw. In most screws, applying torque to the shaft can cause it to turn, moving the shaft linearly to do work against a load, but no amount of axial load force against the shaft will cause it to turn backwards.
  • In an inclined plane, a load can be pulled up the plane by a sideways input force, but if the plane is not too steep and there is enough friction between load and plane, when the input force is removed the load will remain motionless and will not slide down the plane, regardless of its weight.
  • A wedge can be driven into a block of wood by force on the end, such as from hitting it with a sledge hammer, forcing the sides apart, but no amount of compression force from the wood walls will cause it to pop back out of the block.

A machine will be self-locking if and only if its efficiency η is below 50%:

η ≡ F o u t / F i n d i n / d o u t < 0.50 {\displaystyle \eta \equiv {\frac {F_{out}/F_{in}}{d_{in}/d_{out}}}<0.50\,}

Whether a machine is self-locking depends on both the friction forces (coefficient of static friction) between its parts, and the distance ratio d in /d out (ideal mechanical advantage). If both the friction and ideal mechanical advantage are high enough, it will self-lock.

Proof

When a machine moves in the forward direction from point 1 to point 2, with the input force doing work on a load force, from conservation of energy the input work W 1,2 {\displaystyle W_{\text{1,2}}\,} is equal to the sum of the work done on the load force W load {\displaystyle W_{\text{load}}\,} and the work lost to friction

W 1,2 = W load + W fric (1) {\displaystyle W_{\text{1,2}}=W_{\text{load}}+W_{\text{fric}}\qquad \qquad (1)\,}

If the efficiency is below 50% η = W load / W 1,2 < 1 / 2 {\displaystyle \eta =W_{\text{load}}/W_{\text{1,2}}<1/2\,}

2 W load < W 1,2 {\displaystyle 2W_{\text{load}} 2 W load < W load + W fric {\displaystyle 2W_{\text{load}} W load < W fric {\displaystyle W_{\text{load}}

When the machine moves backward from point 2 to point 1 with the load force doing work on the input force, the work lost to friction W fric {\displaystyle W_{\text{fric}}\,} is the same

W load = W 2,1 + W fric {\displaystyle W_{\text{load}}=W_{\text{2,1}}+W_{\text{fric}}\,}

So the output work is

W 2,1 = W load − W fric < 0 {\displaystyle W_{\text{2,1}}=W_{\text{load}}-W_{\text{fric}}<0\,}

Thus the machine self-locks, because the work dissipated in friction is greater than the work done by the load force moving it backwards even with no input force

Modern machine theory

Kinematic chains

Classification of machines

The identification of simple machines arises from a desire for a systematic method to invent new machines. Therefore, an important concern is how simple machines are combined to make more complex machines. One approach is to attach simple machines in series to obtain compound machines.

However, a more successful strategy was identified by Franz Reuleaux , who collected and studied over 800 elementary machines. He realized that a lever, pulley, and wheel and axle are in essence the same device: a body rotating about a hinge. Similarly, an inclined plane, wedge, and screw are a block sliding on a flat surface.

This realization shows that it is the joints, or the connections that provide movement, that are the primary elements of a machine. Starting with four types of joints, the revolute joint , sliding joint , cam joint and gear joint , and related connections such as cables and belts, it is possible to understand a machine as an assembly of solid parts that connect these joints.

See also

References

  1. Chambers, Ephraim (1728), "Table of Mechanicks", Cyclopædia, A Useful Dictionary of Arts and Sciences , London, England, Volume 2, p. 528, Plate 11 .
  2. Paul, Akshoy; Roy, Pijush; Mukherjee, Sanchayan (2005), Mechanical sciences: engineering mechanics and strength of materials , Prentice Hall of India, p. 215, ISBN .
  3. ^ Asimov, Isaac (1988), Understanding Physics , New York, New York, USA: Barnes & Noble, p. 88, ISBN .
  4. Anderson, William Ballantyne (1914). Physics for Technical Students: Mechanics and Heat . New York, USA: McGraw Hill. pp. 112–122. Retrieved 2008-05-11 .
  5. ^ Compound machines , University of Virginia Physics Department, retrieved 2010-06-11 .
  6. ^ Usher, Abbott Payson (1988). A History of Mechanical Inventions . USA: Courier Dover Publications. p. 98. ISBN .
  7. Wallenstein, Andrew (June 2002). . Proceedings of the 9th Annual Workshop on the Design, Specification, and Verification of Interactive Systems . Springer. p. 136. Retrieved 2008-05-21 .
  8. ^ Prater, Edward L. (1994), Basic machines (PDF) , U.S. Navy Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center, NAVEDTRA 14037.
  9. U.S. Navy Bureau of Naval Personnel (1971), Basic machines and how they work (PDF) , Dover Publications.
  10. Reuleaux, F. (1963) , The kinematics of machinery (translated and annotated by A.B.W. Kennedy) , New York, New York, USA: reprinted by Dover.
  11. Cornell University , Reuleaux Collection of Mechanisms and Machines at Cornell University , Cornell University.
  12. ^ Chiu, Y. C. (2010), An introduction to the History of Project Management , Delft: Eburon Academic Publishers, p. 42,

Написанного на Perl . Спустя некоторое время YaBB был переписан на PHP и стал называться YaBB SE .

По мере того как YaBB SE развивался, он становился все больше, и к тому времени появились некоторые аспекты, требующие переделки и усовершенствования проекта. Было принято решение, что лучше всего отделиться от YaBB SE , потому как это было нечто иное, чем YaBB. Самым правильным решением было отказаться от всего что наработано и начать все заново. С этого и началось развитие SMF .

29 сентября 2003 года была выпущена первая версия SMF 1.0 beta1 , которая распространялась только для группы Charter Member . Это было большим минусом, так как форум мог использовать только ограниченный круг людей, входивших в состав данной группы. 10 марта 2004 года вышел первый общедоступный релиз SMF . Веб-форумы на базе SMF 1.1 : ami.lv и не менее популярный iratbildes.lv .

SMF создавался как замена интернет-форуму YaBB SE , который приобрел плохую репутацию из-за проблем его аналога, разработанного на Perl с подобным названием - YaBB .

Первые версии YaBB были известны проблемой производительности и были требовательны к ресурсам. YaBB SE был написан как примерный PHP -порт YaBB , но при этом он был менее требователен к ресурсам и даже лишён проблем с безопасностью.

SMF стартовал как небольшой проект одного из разработчиков YaBB SE , и с целью расширить возможности шаблонов YaBB SE . С тех пор проект постепенно расширялся: добавлялась общая функциональность «заказанная» пользователями, решались проблемы производительности и вопросы безопасности.

Версия 2.0 форума объявлена 8 апреля 2007. Публичный бета-релиз был выпущен 17 марта 2008. К основным нововведениям относятся :

  • Абстракция базы данных: планируется поддержка PostgreSQL и SQLite .
  • Центр модерации, объединяющий все функции модерации для всех модераторов, а также позволяющий осуществлять премодерацию тем, сообщений и вложений, если это будет необходимо.
  • Система предупреждений пользователей
  • Дополнительное управление группами пользователей такими как модераторы, а также свободные группы и группы по запросу.
  • Поддержка OpenID . Возможность использовать OpenID -аккаунт для регистрации и входа на форум.
  • Дополнительные поля в профилях пользователей.
  • WYSIWYG -редактор для обеспечения интуитивно понятного интерфейса пользователя.
  • Диспетчер задач и система очереди сообщений

Исходный код проекта доступен в публичном репозитории на GitHub github.com/SimpleMachines/SMF2.1

Лицензия

SMF 1.0 и 1.1 публикуются под проприетарной лицензией. В то время как с открытым исходным кодом, перераспределение и / или распространение модифицированных компонентов ограничено уполномоченным органам.

Simple Machines Forum версии 2.0 и 2.1 под лицензией BSD 3-п . Это также открытый исходный код с перераспределением модифицированного кода в зависимости от требований к BSD.

Локализация

Команда SMF

Над SMF работают более 50 человек , в том числе:

  • 3 менеджера
  • 6 разработчиков
  • 3 документатора

Девиз команды: «Малочисленные, гордые, увлечённые!» (The few, the proud, the geeky! (англ.) )

См. также

Напишите отзыв о статье "Simple Machines Forum"

Примечания

Литература

  • Phil Hughes (англ.) // Linux Journal . - 2008. - 4 марта.

Ссылки

  • - официальный сайт Simple Machines Forum (англ.)
  • (рус.)
  • (рус.)

Отрывок, характеризующий Simple Machines Forum

По опекунским делам рязанского именья, князю Андрею надо было видеться с уездным предводителем. Предводителем был граф Илья Андреич Ростов, и князь Андрей в середине мая поехал к нему.
Был уже жаркий период весны. Лес уже весь оделся, была пыль и было так жарко, что проезжая мимо воды, хотелось купаться.
Князь Андрей, невеселый и озабоченный соображениями о том, что и что ему нужно о делах спросить у предводителя, подъезжал по аллее сада к отрадненскому дому Ростовых. Вправо из за деревьев он услыхал женский, веселый крик, и увидал бегущую на перерез его коляски толпу девушек. Впереди других ближе, подбегала к коляске черноволосая, очень тоненькая, странно тоненькая, черноглазая девушка в желтом ситцевом платье, повязанная белым носовым платком, из под которого выбивались пряди расчесавшихся волос. Девушка что то кричала, но узнав чужого, не взглянув на него, со смехом побежала назад.
Князю Андрею вдруг стало от чего то больно. День был так хорош, солнце так ярко, кругом всё так весело; а эта тоненькая и хорошенькая девушка не знала и не хотела знать про его существование и была довольна, и счастлива какой то своей отдельной, – верно глупой – но веселой и счастливой жизнию. «Чему она так рада? о чем она думает! Не об уставе военном, не об устройстве рязанских оброчных. О чем она думает? И чем она счастлива?» невольно с любопытством спрашивал себя князь Андрей.
Граф Илья Андреич в 1809 м году жил в Отрадном всё так же как и прежде, то есть принимая почти всю губернию, с охотами, театрами, обедами и музыкантами. Он, как всякому новому гостю, был рад князю Андрею, и почти насильно оставил его ночевать.
В продолжение скучного дня, во время которого князя Андрея занимали старшие хозяева и почетнейшие из гостей, которыми по случаю приближающихся именин был полон дом старого графа, Болконский несколько раз взглядывая на Наташу чему то смеявшуюся и веселившуюся между другой молодой половиной общества, всё спрашивал себя: «о чем она думает? Чему она так рада!».
Вечером оставшись один на новом месте, он долго не мог заснуть. Он читал, потом потушил свечу и опять зажег ее. В комнате с закрытыми изнутри ставнями было жарко. Он досадовал на этого глупого старика (так он называл Ростова), который задержал его, уверяя, что нужные бумаги в городе, не доставлены еще, досадовал на себя за то, что остался.
Князь Андрей встал и подошел к окну, чтобы отворить его. Как только он открыл ставни, лунный свет, как будто он настороже у окна давно ждал этого, ворвался в комнату. Он отворил окно. Ночь была свежая и неподвижно светлая. Перед самым окном был ряд подстриженных дерев, черных с одной и серебристо освещенных с другой стороны. Под деревами была какая то сочная, мокрая, кудрявая растительность с серебристыми кое где листьями и стеблями. Далее за черными деревами была какая то блестящая росой крыша, правее большое кудрявое дерево, с ярко белым стволом и сучьями, и выше его почти полная луна на светлом, почти беззвездном, весеннем небе. Князь Андрей облокотился на окно и глаза его остановились на этом небе.
Комната князя Андрея была в среднем этаже; в комнатах над ним тоже жили и не спали. Он услыхал сверху женский говор.
– Только еще один раз, – сказал сверху женский голос, который сейчас узнал князь Андрей.
– Да когда же ты спать будешь? – отвечал другой голос.
– Я не буду, я не могу спать, что ж мне делать! Ну, последний раз…
Два женские голоса запели какую то музыкальную фразу, составлявшую конец чего то.
– Ах какая прелесть! Ну теперь спать, и конец.
– Ты спи, а я не могу, – отвечал первый голос, приблизившийся к окну. Она видимо совсем высунулась в окно, потому что слышно было шуршанье ее платья и даже дыханье. Всё затихло и окаменело, как и луна и ее свет и тени. Князь Андрей тоже боялся пошевелиться, чтобы не выдать своего невольного присутствия.
– Соня! Соня! – послышался опять первый голос. – Ну как можно спать! Да ты посмотри, что за прелесть! Ах, какая прелесть! Да проснись же, Соня, – сказала она почти со слезами в голосе. – Ведь этакой прелестной ночи никогда, никогда не бывало.
Соня неохотно что то отвечала.
– Нет, ты посмотри, что за луна!… Ах, какая прелесть! Ты поди сюда. Душенька, голубушка, поди сюда. Ну, видишь? Так бы вот села на корточки, вот так, подхватила бы себя под коленки, – туже, как можно туже – натужиться надо. Вот так!
– Полно, ты упадешь.
Послышалась борьба и недовольный голос Сони: «Ведь второй час».
– Ах, ты только всё портишь мне. Ну, иди, иди.
Опять всё замолкло, но князь Андрей знал, что она всё еще сидит тут, он слышал иногда тихое шевеленье, иногда вздохи.
– Ах… Боже мой! Боже мой! что ж это такое! – вдруг вскрикнула она. – Спать так спать! – и захлопнула окно.
«И дела нет до моего существования!» подумал князь Андрей в то время, как он прислушивался к ее говору, почему то ожидая и боясь, что она скажет что нибудь про него. – «И опять она! И как нарочно!» думал он. В душе его вдруг поднялась такая неожиданная путаница молодых мыслей и надежд, противоречащих всей его жизни, что он, чувствуя себя не в силах уяснить себе свое состояние, тотчас же заснул.

На другой день простившись только с одним графом, не дождавшись выхода дам, князь Андрей поехал домой.
Уже было начало июня, когда князь Андрей, возвращаясь домой, въехал опять в ту березовую рощу, в которой этот старый, корявый дуб так странно и памятно поразил его. Бубенчики еще глуше звенели в лесу, чем полтора месяца тому назад; всё было полно, тенисто и густо; и молодые ели, рассыпанные по лесу, не нарушали общей красоты и, подделываясь под общий характер, нежно зеленели пушистыми молодыми побегами.
Целый день был жаркий, где то собиралась гроза, но только небольшая тучка брызнула на пыль дороги и на сочные листья. Левая сторона леса была темна, в тени; правая мокрая, глянцовитая блестела на солнце, чуть колыхаясь от ветра. Всё было в цвету; соловьи трещали и перекатывались то близко, то далеко.
«Да, здесь, в этом лесу был этот дуб, с которым мы были согласны», подумал князь Андрей. «Да где он», подумал опять князь Андрей, глядя на левую сторону дороги и сам того не зная, не узнавая его, любовался тем дубом, которого он искал. Старый дуб, весь преображенный, раскинувшись шатром сочной, темной зелени, млел, чуть колыхаясь в лучах вечернего солнца. Ни корявых пальцев, ни болячек, ни старого недоверия и горя, – ничего не было видно. Сквозь жесткую, столетнюю кору пробились без сучков сочные, молодые листья, так что верить нельзя было, что этот старик произвел их. «Да, это тот самый дуб», подумал князь Андрей, и на него вдруг нашло беспричинное, весеннее чувство радости и обновления. Все лучшие минуты его жизни вдруг в одно и то же время вспомнились ему. И Аустерлиц с высоким небом, и мертвое, укоризненное лицо жены, и Пьер на пароме, и девочка, взволнованная красотою ночи, и эта ночь, и луна, – и всё это вдруг вспомнилось ему.

Easier - A simple machine is a device that helps make work easier; a device that makes it easier to move something. Some simple machines are a wheel, a pulley, a lever, a screw, and an inclined plane. Harder - Most machines consist of a number of elements, such as gears and ball bearings, that work together in a complex way. No matter how complex a machine, it is still based on the compounding of six types of simple machines. The six types of machines are the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw. Background Information for Simple Machines from National Museum of Science and Technology , Canada http://www.science-tech.nmstc.ca/english/schoolzone/Info_Simple_Machines.cfm Here you can find the answers to some commonly asked questions about simple machines. The Elements of Machines: Simple Machines from Leonardo"s Workshop http://www.mos.org/sln/Leonardo/InventorsToolbox.html Learn about devices that make work easier to do by providing some tradeoff between the force applied and the distance over which the force is applied. Also provides a brief introduction to uses of a gear, cam, crank and rod, chain and belt, and the ratchet. Levers from Beakman & Jax http://www.beakman.com/lever/lever.html Play with levers and find out how work from the fulcrum to the load to the effort. (Wait for second page to come) Marvelous Machines http://www.galaxy.net:80/~k12/machines/index.shtml This website provides a series of experiments about simple machines: levers, wheels and inclined planes. They were developed for third grade students. (Comes up slowly )
After exploring some or all of the websites below, complete one or more of these activities: Investigate Wheels with Your Bicycle. Go to PBS Teachersource"s website and use your bicycle to learn about the wheel. Find Out How Stuff Works. Check out How Stuff Works . Look for a device that uses a simple machine as part of how it works. Create a poster showing how it works. Gear Up with a Tricycle & Bicycle. Visit PBS Teachersource"s site and follow the procedures there to learn a lot more about gears. Complete a Simple Machines WebQuest. Follow or adapt the procedures found at one of these webQuest sites: 1) Exploring Simple Machines by Paula Markowitz (Grade 4) http://www.lakelandschools.org/EDTECH/Machines/Machines.htm 2) Simple Machines http://www.eng.iastate.edu/twt/Course/packet/labs/wheels&leverLab.htm 3) Simple Machines WebQuest (Grade 4-6) http://www.plainfield.k12.in.us/hschool/webq/webq8/jjquest.htm 4) Simple Machines http://www.beth.k12.pa.us/schools/wwwclass/mcosgrove/simple.htm 5) Simple Machines Webquest http://www.jsd.k12.ak.us/ab/el/simplemachines.html Complete an Online Simple Machines Activity. Learn more about simple machines by following the directions at A Time for Simple Machines . You may also want to test your knowledge at Gadget Anatomy . Complete Some Simple Machine Experiments. Find lots of experiments at sites like Marvelous Machines and Motion, Energy and Simple Machines .
Websites For Kids Simple Machine Page for Kids http://www.san-marino.k12.ca.us/~summer1/machines/simplemachines.html This is a page on simple machines for kids with pictures. Simple Machines (Part of a ThinkQuest project: E"Ville Mansion! ) http://library.thinkquest.org/3447/simpmach.htm Learn about four simple machines (Inclined planes, pulley systems, levers, and the wheel and axle). All are mechanisms that convert energy to a more useful form. More Simple Machine Websites Mechanisms and Simple Machines from Introduction to Mechanisms at Carnegie Mellon University http://www.cs.cmu.edu/People/rapidproto/mechanisms/chpt2.html Here is advanced level material that covers inclined planes, gears, pulleys, and more. Motion, Energy and Simple Machines by J.S. Mason http://www.necc.mass.edu/MRVIS/MR3_13/start.htm This site investigates Newton"s Laws of Motion and the concepts of potential and kinetic energy. The concepts of force, friction, energy transfer, and mechanical advantage are explored as you build simple machines and investigate there operation. Oh No Lego® Wedgies! from Weird Richard http://weirdrichard.com:80/wedge.htm Explore the wedge, the active twin of the inclined plane. It does useful work by moving. In contrast, the inclined plane always remains stationary. Related Websites from Weird Richard: 2) Ladies and Gentlemen...The Inclined Plane! http://weirdrichard.com/inclined.htm 3) Oh Goody, Even More on Gears! http://weirdrichard.com/gears.htm 3) Those Crazy Lego® Screws! http://weirdrichard.com/screw.htm This site houses a collection of over seventy photographs of common, everyday simple machines. Simple Machines Demo (Pulley and Levers) http://www.cwru.edu/artsci/phys/courses/demos/simp.htm This demonstration explores the mechanical advantage of pulleys and levers and evaluates the concept of torque. Spotlight on Simple Machines from "inQuiry Almanack " at Franklin Institute http://sln.fi.edu/qa97/spotlight3/spotlight3.html Here you learn about simple machines that make work easier: inclined plane, lever, wedge, screw, pulley, and the wheel and axle. Websites for Teachers A First-Class Job http://www.aimsedu.org/Activities/oldSamples/FirstClass/job1.html What happens when the position of the fulcrum on a first-class lever is changed? Bicycles by J.P. Crotty from Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute http://pclt.cis.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1987/6/87.06.01.x.html#h This is the site of a narrative unit plan that begins with the circle and proceeds to investigation of simple machines using the bicycle. Sketching Gadget Anatomy at The Museum of Science http://www.mos.org/sln/Leonardo/SketchGadgetAnatomy.html The idea for this lesson is that close observation and sketching lead to a better understanding of how machines work. Simple Machines (Grades 3-4) by C. Huddle http://www.lerc.nasa.gov/WWW/K- 12/Summer_Training/KaeAvenueES/SIMPLE_MACHINES.html These activities are designed to give students experiences in using simple machines. Similar Websites: 2) Simple Machines (Grade 3) by L. Wilkins http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/ylp/Units/Curriculum_Units/95-96/Simple_Machines_LWilkins/identify_simple_machines.html 3) Simple Machines (Grades 4-8) by B. Campbell