for 4th year students of FFiZh
Syntax as a communicative level of grammar. Subject of syntax as section
grammars. The connection between syntax and vocabulary and morphology.
System of syntactic units. The question is about the syntaxeme as the minimum syntactic unit.
A phrase as a syntactic unit. Phrase and word. Collocation and
Classifications of phrases. Grammatical meaning of phrases.
Types of grammatical connections in phrases.
The sentence as the basic syntactic unit. Signs of an offer.
Structural-semantic types of simple sentences.
Basic grammatical categories of a sentence.
Sentence and utterance as units of language and speech. Types of sentences by purpose
statements.
Semantic structure of a sentence: dictum and mode.
Formal grammatical structure of a sentence. Predicative basis. Concept of
structural diagram of the sentence.
The concept of sentence members as structures of semantic components. Varieties
secondary members by the number of connections with other members of the proposal. Semantics
determinants.
Structural-semantic (traditional) classification of minor members. Syncretism.
Subject, its semantics, methods of expression.
The predicate, its role in the structure of the sentence. Types of predicate.
Types of one-part verbal (personal) sentences. Their functions in the text.
Impersonal and infinitive sentences. Their structure, semantics and role in the text.
Nominative sentences. Varieties of nominative sentences.
Complete and incomplete sentences. Question about elliptic sentences.
Input and plug-in structures. Appeal, its functions in the text.
The concept of isolation. Conditions of separation. Isolated members of a sentence with
non-semi-predicative meaning.
The concept of semi-predicativity. Varieties of isolated semi-predicative members
The concept of homogeneity, indicators of homogeneity. Classes of coordinating conjunctions. Homogeneous and
heterogeneous definitions.
Complex sentence as a syntactic unit. Classification of complex sentences.
Complex sentences. General characteristics of the BSC, structure, classification.
Subordinating connection in a complex sentence (features, varieties, means of communication).
Complex sentences of undivided structure.
Complex sentences with dissected structure.
Non-union complex sentence. The question of BSP in syntactic science. N.S. Pospelov about
specifics of the BSP. Communication facilities in the BSP.
Structural and semantic types of BSP.
proposals. Means of communication in a complex sentence.
Organization of a polynomial complex sentence. Complex syntactic structures:
Complex syntactic whole. Structure. Types of SSC. SSC and paragraph.
Types and means of communication of proposals in the SSC.
Methods of transmitting someone else's speech.
Basic principles of Russian punctuation. Punctuation marks and their functions.
Actual division of the proposal. Means of actual division. Consistent and
parallel structure of the text.
Word order functions. Word order in phrases and sentences. Inversion. Parcellation.
V.V. Vinogradov
Questions for studying collocations.
Basic Sentence Syntax Issues
Unlike their predecessors, who tried to find “one hero as a subject of study” 1, 221 of the syntax of A.M. Peshkovsky - phrase, A.A. Shakhmatov - proposal., V.V. Vinogradov considers both the sentence and the phrase to be the main categories of this department of grammar, since there is a qualitative difference between them in several parameters (see Table).
In his opinion, “when a sentence becomes the only subject of syntactic research, ... many issues of studying the laws and rules of word combinations fall out of the field of grammar” 1, 221.
Vinogradov sets the task of clarifying the internal grammatical nature of both phrases and sentences; for which he considers it necessary to clearly distinguish between morphology and syntax, as well as to identify transitional and mixed zones of their interaction.
The subject of morphology is the study of the rules for the formation of word forms, the study of words as systems of forms and these forms themselves in their internal unity and in their differences, “depending on the belonging ... words ... to different morphological and partly word-formation categories” 1, 222.
The subject of syntax “is the study of the rules and methods of combining words into phrases and sentences, as well as the study of the types of phrases and sentences, their linguistic structure, functions and conditions of use, the laws of their development” 1, 221.
A phrase is understood by Vinogradov as a grammatical unity, which, arising from a combination of words according to the laws or rules of a given language, expresses within a sentence a single, albeit dismembered, meaning. A phrase consists of at least two full-valued words and is the building material for a sentence. It is included in the system of communicative means of language only as part of a sentence. Outside the sentence, the phrase belongs to the area of nominative means of language 2, 231.
A phrase is organized around one significant word (the dominant word, the core of the phrase). The morphological structure of this word determines the constructive properties of the phrase. Since a phrase has a system of forms, “there is a variety of syntactic functions of the same phrase if its dominant word is variable 2, 232.
Vinogradov notes that according to the grammatically dominant main word, phrases are divided into:
1) nominal (substantive and adjective);
2) verbal;
3) adverbial (adverbial).
This distinction is very important, since there are syntactic connections typical for individual parts of speech 1, 223; 2, 234.
phrase grammar of grapes
Qualitative difference between phrase and sentence
|
Collocation |
Offer |
|
|
nominative means of language (naming) |
communicative means of language (message unit) |
|
|
is not an integral unit of linguistic communication and message |
is an integral unit of linguistic communication and message |
|
|
non-predicative combination of words (predicative relations are not typical) |
predicative combination of words (characteristic of predicative relations) |
|
|
syntactic categories of person, tense and modality are not typical |
typical syntactic categories of person, tense and modality |
|
|
has no message intonation |
has the intonation of a message (constant characteristic feature of a sentence) |
|
|
has a system of forms |
||
|
element of the structure of a common simple sentence (building material for a sentence) |
simple sentence - element of the structure of a complex sentence |
Vinogradov also identifies another criterion for dividing phrases into groups - according to semantic classes and word-formation nests. According to this criterion, phrases are combined into groups according to the commonality of the base and the connection of word-formation relations of the main words, as well as according to the general semantic quality (approach the city, close to the city, proximity to the city) 1, 224; 2, 234.
The connections between words in a phrase can be determined not only grammatically, but also semantically. Vinogradov calls such connections, in contrast to free syntactic connections, “semantically unfree”, and the categories of phrases formed on their basis as “groups of semantically related phrases.” Their study requires the establishment and differentiation in the language system of semantic categories of words with the same forms of syntactic compatibility (dream about traveling, dreams about traveling, worry about children, worry about children - verb and noun with the meaning of thoughts, speech, feelings). 1, 224; 2, 234.
The third circle of formation of phrases covers different parts of speech and various categories of words. These are phrases with a “weakly controlled” noun attached to the main word through a preposition. A two-way and rather free prepositional connection is typical for them. “And here a huge role is played by the grouping of words into semantic, and partly also into word-forming groups.” These are phrases with a second adverbial or adverbial attributive member: plunge to the waist, wet to the waist, water to the waist; go to Moscow, way to Moscow, road to Moscow, journey to Moscow; stop by the river, house by the river 1, 224 - 225; 2, 234.
Vinogradov includes analysis of concatenations of homogeneous members (so-called coordinating phrases) as part of the doctrine of the sentence.
Vinogradov noted two circles of important issues regarding phrases that remain outside the bounds of academic syntax:
1. Methods for constructing complex phrases are not disclosed; there is no grouping of the main types of complex combinations.
2. The rules for the formation of phrases must be supplemented by the rules for the use and use of different types of phrases in the structure of a sentence.
Vinogradov distinguishes between simple and complex sentences.
A simple sentence sometimes has a very complex structure. It has various forms of construction, different types, and can also be complicated by separate and homogeneous members.
Vinogradov confirms that the distinction between simple sentences of the Russian language into two-part and one-part “has firmly entered into scientific syntax.” But the question of one-part sentences, in his opinion, “needs further in-depth research.” Vinogradov reveals the inconsistency of A.A. Shakhmatova in the description of one-part sentences. He believes that Shakhmatov’s thesis about the combination of a psychological subject and a predicate in one main member of a sentence separates researchers from specific historical linguistic material and denies the reflection of objective reality in speech
. “... it would be inappropriate to strive to find “subjects” and “predicates” ... in all types of one-part sentences. However, in some of their forms one can find morphological correspondences to one of the main members of a two-part ... sentence."
The difference between simple and complex sentences is structural. “A simple sentence is organized through a single concentration of forms of expression of the categories of time, modality and person; in a complex sentence there may be several structural centers of this kind organically connected with each other.”
Vinogradov calls complex a sentence that is a single intonation and semantic whole, but consists of parts (two or more), more or less of the same type as simple sentences in their formal grammatical structure. The parts of a complex sentence are similar in external structure to simple sentences, but “as part of the whole they do not have semantic and intonation completeness, ... and, therefore, do not form separate sentences.”
Vinogradov believes that the principles of describing and distinguishing the types of complex sentences have not yet been established; the division “inherited from a long tradition” into complex and complex sentences is very schematic and conditional. He considers cases of “mutual subordination”, based on the works of V.A. Bogoroditsky and A.M. Peshkovsky (although - but, despite the fact that - nevertheless, only - how, barely - like, etc.). This also includes many types of non-union proposals.
Vinogradov shows that “the concepts of subordination and composition are in a dialectical connection and interaction.”
Thus, according to Vinogradov, “one should not get carried away with the mechanical classification” of different types of complex sentences “according to the headings of composition and subordination,” but one should strive for a complete and comprehensive description of the structural features of all their main types. In this case, it is necessary to take into account intonation, word order, the presence or absence of words correlative with the conjunction, syntactic functions of typified lexical elements, different ways of morphological expression of syntactic connections.
Literature
1. Vinogradov V.V. Basic principles of Russian syntax // Izbr. tr. Studies on Russian grammar. - M.: Nauka, 1975. - P. 221-230.
2. Vinogradov V.V. Questions of studying phrases // Ibid. - pp. 231-253.
3. Vinogradov V.V. Basic questions of sentence syntax // Ibid. - pp. 254-294.
Similar documents
Definition of syntax as a section of grammar. The subject of syntax in modern linguistics. Types of connections between words in a phrase. Structure and types of sentences. Ways of expressing the syntactic structure of a sentence. Basic components of syntax.
course work, added 09/24/2010
The concept of the term and terminological phrases. The problem of polysemy of terminological units. Terminological vocabulary in print media. Terminological phrases in economics, features of their functioning and translation into Russian.
thesis, added 06/11/2014
The verb is the most complex and most capacious grammatical category of the Russian language. Morphological categories, syntactic functions and lexical-semantic categories of the verb. Studying the influence of verb constructions on noun phrases and sentences.
test, added 12/05/2014
Structure and basic elements of phrases in English. Types of syntactic relations. The basis of an alternative approach to the phrase, its main differences from the sentence. The theory of three ranks. The concept and properties of adjacency. Attributive connection.
presentation, added 03/13/2011
Lexical meaning of words. Russian language dictionaries. The history of the emergence of stable phrases (phraseologisms). Rules for placing stress in words. Morphemic analysis of words, spelling rules. Morphological and syntactic analysis of phrases.
test, added 04/01/2015
General characteristics of a simple sentence. A two-part simple sentence as the main structural and semantic type of a simple sentence. Types of one-part sentences. Verb and substantive one-part sentences in outdoor advertising texts.
course work, added 04/18/2010
Theories of collocation in linguistics, its principles and classification schemes. Types of nuclear (groups of words forming a grammatically organized structure) and non-nuclear phrases (based on the absence of a nucleus within the group) in the English language.
course work, added 11/29/2010
Characteristics of a phrase as a unit of language syntax. Tautology as a linguistic phenomenon, stylistic device or type of pleonasm. Structural classification of tautological combinations of Russian and French languages, semantic components.
thesis, added 04/22/2011
Members of a sentence that answer the same question and are associated with the same word in the sentence. Formation of coordinating phrases using homogeneous members of a sentence. Connecting similar terms using a comma or conjunction.
presentation, added 02/24/2011
Modern characteristics of a common proposal. A sentence is a unit of syntax. Common sentence structure. Connection in a sentence. History of the study of a common sentence. Difficulties in learning Russian.
§ 1. Subject of syntax. The term “syntax” is used to designate both the object of study and the branch of the science of language. The syntax of a language is its syntactic structure, a set of laws operating in the language that regulate the construction of syntactic units. Syntax as a science is a section of grammar that covers the syntactic structure of a language, the structure and meaning of syntactic units. “Syntax” is a Greek word (syntax) that literally means “composition”, “construction”, “structure”. Indeed, syntax as the science of the syntactic structure of a language makes it possible to show the system of syntactic units, the connections and relationships between them, what and how they are composed of, how, and by what means components (elements) are connected into syntactic units.
The fundamental concepts of syntax are concepts about the system of syntactic units, syntactic relations, syntactic connections (and means of communication) and grammatical (syntactic) semantics.
§ 2. System of syntactic units. Syntactic units are constructions in which their elements (components) are united by syntactic connections and relationships. As part of syntactic units, inflected words are used in one of their forms (word forms), which together form the morphological paradigm of the word. Yes, in a sentence By morning frost will stick to_ pine branches_(Kedrin) 7 words, but 5 word forms, since the preposition is an element of the word form and is part of the members of the sentence. In this sentence, the number of word forms and sentence members coincides, but such a relationship is not always observed. In a sentence Heavy evening dew must have settled on the grass(L. Tolstoy) 7 word forms, but 5 sentence parts.
Word forms are studied both in morphology and syntax. In syntax, word forms are considered as building elements of syntactic units.
Word combinations are built from word forms: warm rain, half of the night, starting to drizzle and so on.
Simple sentences are built from word forms and phrases: Warm rain began to drizzle from mid-night(Paustovsky).
Complex sentences are constructed from simple sentences, differing in the degree of semantic and grammatical cohesion. Yes, from the proposals The wind blew from land And The water was calm near the shore You can form complex non-conjunctive, complex and complex sentences: The wind blew from land - the water was calm near the shore; The wind blew from the land, and the water was calm near the shore; If the wind blew from land, the water was calm near the shore.(Other variants of complex sentences are possible.)
A complex syntactic whole is built from simple and complex sentences." For example: Our people have always loved, known and appreciated the forest. It’s not for nothing that so many fairy tales and songs have been written about our dense forests. In the forests lies our future, the fate of our harvests, our deep rivers, our health and, to a certain extent, our culture. Therefore, the forest must be protected, just as we protect human life, as we protect our culture and all the achievements of our extraordinary era.(Paustovsky). In this complex syntactic whole, simple and complex sentences are united by a common microtheme. The means of expressing interphrase connections and relationships are intonation (in oral speech), word order, pronominal adverb, and therefore the repetition of the word forms forest and our. So, the main syntactic units are a phrase, a sentence (simple and complex), and a complex syntactic whole. This hierarchy of syntactic units reflects a view of them “from below.” Syntactic units can also be considered in a different sequence (“from above”): a complex syntactic whole can be divided into simple and complex sentences, complex sentences into simple (predicative parts), predicative parts into combinations of words (including phrases), and in combinations of words and sentences, highlight word forms (members of the sentence).
These two approaches to the identification of syntactic units reflect different levels of the syntax system, in which lower-level units are included in higher-level units and, conversely, higher-level units are divided into lower-level units. Syntactic units of a lower level in constructions of a higher level act as elements (components!) that enter into syntactic connections and relationships with each other. For linguistic and methodological purposes, the first approach is more legitimate (from less complex constructions to more complex ones), although the second approach is more “syntactic”, since it allows you to show how syntactic units function in speech, how they change, combining with each other, entering into those or other connections and relationships. Thus, simple sentences within complex ones lose their semantic and intonation independence, the order of components in speech may change, combinations of words may appear that cannot be constructed outside the sentence, etc. These include predicative combinations (combinations of subject and predicate) , rows of homogeneous members of a sentence, etc. For example, in the sentence And the trees, air and meadows sounded, rang (Yashin) there is not a single phrase in a strict terminological meaning, but there is only a predicative combination and composed series of word forms in the position of subject and predicate.
The difference between the approaches “from below” and “from above” is especially clear when comparing word forms and sentence members. Word forms are the minimal elements of syntactic units, from which phrases and sentences are formed. Members of a sentence are structural and semantic components of a sentence. They exist only as part of a sentence and are isolated from it. As part of a sentence, word forms act as members of a sentence or are part of them.
A look “from below” and “from above” at the same syntactic phenomenon makes it possible to see its different sides, therefore, when describing individual syntactic units, both approaches will be taken into account or the one that will show more significant features of syntactic units.
Methodological note. At school, students practically become familiar with all of the specified syntactic units, only, instead of a complex syntactic whole, “text” is introduced, which is defined as “several sentences related in meaning and grammatically”"
§ 3. Syntactic connections and relationships. Syntactic connections and relationships between elements (components) of syntactic units are the main feature of syntactic constructions. 2 A syntactic connection is an expression of the relationship of elements in syntactic units.
The main types of syntactic connection are composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal components are combined, while subordinating them - syntactically unequal components: one acts as the main one, the other as the dependent one. A coordinating connection connects homogeneous members and parts of complex sentences, a subordinating connection connects word forms within phrases and sentences, as well as parts of complex sentences.
Syntactic connections of elements of syntactic units express syntactic (semantic) relationships, which reflect the relationships between objects and phenomena of reality. Reality is reflected in language through generalization in logical and psychological categories: judgments, concepts and ideas. Language performs the function of communication only because thought is formed and expressed in it.
Syntax in a language system begins where there are syntactic relationships between elements.
Syntactic relations are divided into predicative and non-predicative. Predicative relations are characteristic of the grammatical basis of a sentence: subject and predicate. Non-predicative relations, in turn, are divided into coordinating and subordinating (attributive (definitive), objective and adverbial). They can occur between components of all syntactic units.
Under the influence of syntactic relations, elements can change some of their properties. Thus, a word form in space has the lexical and grammatical meaning of place. In the phrase flights in space (cf.: space flights) between word forms flights and in space attributive relations arise that complicate the lexical-grammatical meaning of the word form in space.
§ 4. Means of syntactic communication and construction of syntactic units. To construct syntactic units, word forms, function words, typified lexical elements, intonation, word order, etc. are used. They also serve to formalize syntactic connections and relationships.
Word forms, as minimal elements of syntactic constructions, serve the semantic side of syntactic constructions with their lexico-grammatical properties, and the elements of word forms that have syntactic meaning are endings and prepositions.
The main function of the ending is to express syntactic connections and relationships between word forms in phrases and sentences. Therefore, the ending is called a service morpheme. The role of endings is especially important in the design of subordinating connections: in coordination and control.
Note. Of the other morphemes, prefixes (prefixes) are important for syntax in some cases, especially those that are part of verb forms. They often determine the associative (valence) properties of verb forms and correlate in their role with prepositions: enter a room, walk to the forest, take a break from work, drive down a mountain, etc. The word forms include prepositions that complement and enhance the auxiliary role of endings. In a sentence Yellow leaves lie on cold gray marble(Kedrin) 6 word forms (the preposition na is part of the word form on marble, despite the fact that it is separated from the noun by adjectives). Connections and relationships between word forms in this sentence (and the phrases that are in this sentence) are formalized using endings and the preposition na.
The role of derived prepositions in the expression of syntactic connections and relationships is especially pronounced, since they, while maintaining living word-formation connections with significant words, concretize and clarify the semantics of the word forms in which they are included. Wed: at the house - near the house, opposite the house, behind the house, past the house, around the house, along the house, etc.
Other function words - conjunctions and particles - are also important means of constructing syntactic units. Conjunctions, connecting homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinating conjunctions when, before, after, etc. express the meaning of time, because, since, for etc. - the meaning of the reason, So- the meaning of the consequence.
Less clear indicators of grammatical meanings are coordinating conjunctions, but they also express semantic relationships between the components being composed. These shades are recognized with varying degrees of clarity by speakers for whom Russian is their native language.
The range of unions is constantly being replenished. Their functions are assumed by some significant parts of speech, modal words, and particles. Conjunctions are often accompanied by semantic specifiers that clarify and differentiate the expressed meanings: and yet, and yet, and therefore, etc. Wed: Not only people, but also ideas can cause surges of hatred(Paustovsky) - Both people and ideas can cause... The increase in the range of allied means is due to the desire to clarify the shades of semantics of statements. Particles and their combinations can form indivisible sentences (Yes. No. But of course! Well, so what! Of course! Etc.), formulate the syntactic meanings of sentences, sentence members, act as semantic specifiers, independently perform the functions of means of communication of syntactic units, highlight the semantic center of statements, etc.
Particles are not included in the members of a sentence if they formulate the grammatical meaning of the entire sentence. For example: Is it really possible that room conditions will remain in the cabin at thousand-degree temperatures?(Stepanov). In other cases, particles, like prepositions, are part of the sentences: Curly lilac bushes here and there seemed to be sprinkled on top with something white and purple(L. Tolstoy). An important role in the construction of syntactic structures is played by the lexical means of the language, which are called typified. These include pronominal words: interrogative and relative (who, what, which, where, where, etc.), demonstrative (this, that, such, etc. in different forms; there, there, therefore and under); lexical-semantic groupings of words of other significant parts of speech (they can be combined thematically, as well as by synonymous or antonymic connections, etc.).
Typical lexical means also take part in the formation (construction) of simple sentences. Thus, interrogative pronominal words are one of the means of forming interrogative sentences, a lexico-grammatical group of impersonal verbs ( it's getting light, it's freezing etc.) forms the structural center of one-part impersonal sentences; thematic group of verbs with the meaning of speech ( talk, say and so on) - component of sentences with direct speech, etc.
For the structure of syntactic units, the order of their components is very important, which is determined by semantic and structural factors. In Russian, the order of the components of syntactic units has two types: direct (fixed) and inverted (free). With direct order, each component of syntactic constructions occupies a certain place, with free order, the components can change their place.
One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and the emotional and expressive coloring of syntactic units is tone, the constituent elements of which are the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), rhythm, tempo and timbre of speech, as well as logical stress, highlighting the information center in a sentence.
Intonation is included among the essential features of a sentence, since it is one of the indicators of completeness and integrity of a sentence in oral speech; intonation formalizes the types of simple sentences distinguished by the purpose of the statement, gives them an emotional coloring, expresses syntactic connections and relationships between members of the sentence, etc. Intonation is also very important when expressing the verbal meaning of a sentence: it can turn a positive assessment into a negative one, etc. Intonation characteristics of syntactic units in written speech (in the language of fiction) are often given with the help of lexical-semantic groups of words that perform the functions of circumstances of the manner of action, with verbs of speech: with reproach, with reproach... angrily, joyfully... quickly, slowly...; quietly, loudly... with emphasis on... and so on.
Several means are usually involved in the construction of syntactic structures.
§ 5. Grammatical meanings of syntactic units. In the morphology of parts of speech, lexical and grammatical (categorical, general grammatical) meanings are distinguished. The same is true in syntax. All syntactic units and their components have lexical (speech, individual) and grammatical (linguistic, syntactic, categorical, etc.) meanings.
Let us consider in the most general form the difference between lexical and grammatical semantics using the example of some phrases and sentences.
Let's take two series of phrases: warm day, magnificent palace, ironic smile; sing songs, shed tears, take tests. Each of these phrases has its own lexical meaning, determined by the lexical meanings of the words included in these phrases. In addition, the first group of phrases differs from the second in grammatical meaning, due to the different structure of these phrases. Thus, the first row has a general grammatical meaning - “an object and its attribute” (definitive relations), the general grammatical meaning of the second row is “the action and the object to which the action is transferred” (object relations). These general meanings are called the grammatical meanings of phrases. The question of the semantics of sentences is currently the subject of heated debate, however, some provisions have already entered into the practice of university and school teaching, since without attention to semantics it is impossible to study syntactic units.
In sentences Students listen to lectures; Pupils learn lessons; Collective farmers harvest crops- grammatical meaning - a message about an object and its action (predicative feature)
In sentences Do students listen to lectures? Are students learning lessons? Do collective farmers harvest crops?- grammatical meaning - a question about the subject and its action.
In sentences Students, listen to the lectures! Students, learn your lessons! Collective farmers, harvest the crops!- grammatical meaning - encouragement to action.
These general meanings of sentences can be supplemented with the grammatical meaning of phrases: listen to lectures, learn lessons, harvest crops(“action passing on to an object”)
Let's compare the following series of proposals: Students listen to lectures; Students work with a book; Our best students work hard; Students work in the evenings; Students working in the library etc. All these sentences have a common grammatical meaning - “a message about an object and its action.” The difference is determined not only by different speech, but also by different typical meanings of phrases: objective, attributive, adverbial.
Thus, grammatical (linguistic, syntactic) semantics is the general meaning of syntactic units of the same structure. Lexical semantics is the speech, specific, individual meaning of a particular syntactic unit associated with the lexical meanings of words and word forms.
Note. In school and university practice of teaching the Russian language, the concepts of “language” and “speech” are not clearly opposed, but they are not identified either. They are considered as two sides of one phenomenon, interconnected and complementary. In accordance with this, the term “linguistic semantics” is often used as a generic name for the meanings of all language units, and specific designations are used for different levels of the language system. For units of morphology and syntax (sections of grammar), the general term is the term “grammatical semantics,” which can be differentiated: “morphological semantics” for parts of speech (categorical meaning), “syntactic semantics” for units of syntax.
The term “lexical meaning” (“lexical semantics”) is used as a generic name for the individual meanings of speech units in syntax, although it is not entirely accurate, since the “speech meaning” (“speech semantics”) of syntactic units does not arise from a simple sum of lexical meanings combining components, but is complicated by additional semantic shades that are introduced into the semantics of syntactic units by connections and relationships between the components, the entire text as a whole, etc.
Syntactic and lexical semantics of syntactic units and their components differ from each other by different degrees of abstraction: syntactic semantics is the highest level of generalization of lexical semantics. Syntactic and lexical semantics can be represented as different poles, between which lies a zone of transitional phenomena reflecting different stages of abstraction. In this zone of interaction between the grammatical and lexical, structural-semantic types of sentences, phrases, etc. are formed. The syntactic semantics of the varieties of these sentences, phrases, etc. is called typical semantics. Thus, the general grammatical meaning of an impersonal sentence It's cold in the room is a message, and its typical value is the state of the environment; the general grammatical meaning of the subject is the meaning of the subject of speech (thought), and its typical meanings are the doer (producer of the action) and the bearer of the attribute. Wed: The wind howls and the wind is strong. The general meaning of the circumstances is specified by the typical meanings of the circumstances of place, time, reason, purpose, etc. Methodological note. The school textbook discusses the grammatical meanings of both phrases (p. 22-23) and sentences (p. 31) (2 Hereinafter, for references to the school textbook, see: Barkhudarov S. G., Kryuchkov S. E. Maksimov L Yu., Cheshko L.A. Russian language: Textbook for grades 7-8. - 12th ed., revised - M., 1985.) The grammatical meanings of phrases are related to their structure, and sentences - with the meanings of the moods of the predicate verb.
§ 6. Syntax in the language system. In modern research, language is considered as a system of systems in which subsystems (tiers, levels) are distinguished. The lowest tier (level) is phonology, the highest is syntax. The multi-level structure of the “language building” can be called multi-story: syntactic units are located on the top floor, sounds (phonemes) are located on the bottom floor, and the middle floors are occupied by the remaining units in accordance with their functions in language and speech.
Completing the “building of language,” syntactic units cannot exist without support from other floors: without the lower floors, the building will crumble. From above, from the syntactic level, the relationship and interdependence of individual tiers is better visible, so syntax allows you to show organic connections between vocabulary, morphology, syntax, etc.
See for more details: Babaytseva V.V. Semantics of a simple sentence: Sentence as a multi-aspect unit of language. - M. 1983.
Ticket 1. Syntax subject. Four aspects of syntax. Basic syntax concepts.Syntax is a word of Greek origin, translated “together”, “simultaneously”, “construction, arrangement”. Thus, this is the doctrine of juxtaposition, the construction of forms of language in the form of a connected text.
Grammar = syntax (phrase, sentence) + morphology (word).
A word is a lexical and morphological unit. phrases and sentences are more complex syntactic structures that have the ability to undergo unlimited complication.
Morphology is the study of paradigm in language (inflection). Syntax is the study of syntagmatics ( compatibility), laws of combining different forms.
^ Syntactic paradigmatics - a set of syntactic units united by relations of interchangeability or interchangeability. (I'm sick / I'm in pain).
Basic syntax concepts:
Syntactic position. In a sentence there is only one specific syntactic position for a specific form. (Sasha saw Katya, incompatibility).
Syntactic relations are relations of coordination (correlation). Subject and predicate - there is no main thing, they coordinate.
Relationships essay (equality).
Relationships of subordination (dependence).
Hierarchy as a type of relationship, a relationship of inclusion, one level is included in another, more complex one. + relationships of subordination (relationships of unity of command), vertex node and dependent node.
Syntax dependency
^ 4 aspects of syntax.
1) Formal-structural(refers to the plane of expression). Categories of syntactic forms (simple/complex, types of subordinate clauses, etc.).
2) ^ Semantic aspect . From a content point of view, a syntactic page is divided into a surface structure (form structure) and a deep structure (subtextual meaning, author's intentions). From the point of view of semantic syntax, the preposition performs a naming function, also being a name. Proposition constitutes the structure and meaning of a situation. Each sentence has 2 types of nominative meaning proposition(that part of the meaning that conveys the state of affairs in the world, the objective content of the sentence) and mode(that part of the meaning that shows the speaker’s attitude to what is being communicated, the subjective beginning). Mode: explicit (verbalized) + unexplicit (non-verbalized).
^ Types of explicit modes : 1) perceptual (sensory perception); 2) mental (intellectual, mode of belief, doubt, knowledge, ignorance, societies of assessment). 3) emotive (emotions); 4) volitional (expression of will) 5) speech-mental action.
^ Elements of the semantic structure of a sentence: action producer agent; predicate – what is communicated about the subject of speech; object - an element of an action, a situation, what the action is directed at; instrumental - an instrument of action; mediativ - by means of which, means; destination; counterparty is a participant in a symmetrical relationship.
3) ^ Communication aspect . This implies an actual division of speech, a theme-rhematic division.
4) Pragmatic aspect. The subject of the characteristic is the communicative purpose for which we pronounce. The basis- speech act theory, idea of John Austin, Sirle monograph - 2 Speech acts”, Arutyunova, Zvegintsev. The subject of analysis is a sentence in a utterance situation. The means of constructing a statement are analyzed - the locutionary aspect (language of the unit). The purpose of analysis is the illocutionary aspect, the result is the perlocutionary aspect.
^ Typology of illocutionary meanings : question, answer, informing, warning, criticism, threat, assurance.
Speech acts: 1. Direct (rude, evaluative, categorical). 2. indirect.
2 Collocation
Syntactic union significant words
- subordinating the connection between these significant words
- nominative function (this is not a communicative unit)
phrase - a grammatic unity formed by combining two or more words belonging to the significant parts of speech and serving as a designation of a single undivided concept or representation.
Red pencil – two-part sentence = e Red pencil – phrase
In the first case, word order conveys such a characteristic as predicativeness. In the second case, the sign has nothing to do with real time, its manifestation and location.
In the first case, a specific object in a specific time (here and now).
The absence of predicativity deprives the word of communicativeness.
The phrase and the word (word form) bring together the trace of the saint:
1. not a communicative unit, included in speech only as part of a sentence
2. does not have predicative meanings, message intonation
3. acts as a nominative means of language
4. has a system of forms, and an initial form, which is established according to the initial form of the main word
differences:
more complex word structure
includes at least 2 significant words (main or core and dependent), formed on the basis of subordinate connections
A phrase enters a sentence through its main word, which in a sentence can be a dependent word of another phrase
in contrast to words, they give a detailed name for objects and phenomena, while limiting their range by indicating certain holy properties
Soc-e vile and tale: “The earth is round”
essay writing, i.e. homogeneous rows: “Cheerful, cheerful”
a paired combination of words that forms a composite nomination: father and mother (parents), day and night (days)
soch-e-tov, between which semi-predicative relations arise (noun-mean + participial/adverbial phrase): “The house rising outside the window blocks the sun” = the house rises outside the window.
Connecting structure: “We had to make sure of this, and soon" - an connecting part of information that is additional to the main content of the sentence. (attachment relations)
Shakhmatov – a parallel point of view: the phrase does not exist as a self-unit; any combination of words is a phrase; the term collocation has a broader meaning.
Is it worth distinguishing between a sentence and a word as syntactic units?
In the works Shcherby, Shakhmatova it is necessary to distinguish them.
U Fartunatova they are considered in one row: completed (sentences) and unfinished phrases.
Trubetskoy says that there are predicative syntaxes (prepositions) and non-predicative syntaxes (words).
Peshkovsky One-word constructions are also classified as phrases.
^ Classification of phrases according to the nature of syntactic relationships:
Attributive– relationships in which an object or phenomenon is determined from the point of view of its external or internal quality, sacredness, affiliation.
Attributive-qualitative meaning (hard work, porcelain teapot)
Attributive-quantitative (second number, two friends)
Attributive-subjective (the artist’s singing, the clank of wheels)
Attributive-possessive (fox tail, my house, grandfather’s house)
Attributive-objective (defense of the fatherland, price of bread)
Attributive-temporal (travel in winter, a habit from childhood)
Attribute-target (drawing table, cough medicine)
Object- the relationship between the action, state or sign called in the word and the object towards which the action is directed or associated.
object of direct application of action (build a house, dig beds)
Object of desire, search, achievement, removal (to crave happiness, to wish good luck, to fear meeting)
Object of coverage (eat berries, drink water)
Object of speech perception (speaking to a friend)
Object of emotional relationship (enjoy music, enjoy spring)
Tool object (writing with a pen, digging with a paw)
Recipient object (write to mother, give to child)
Circumstantial– relative, in which an action, state or sign is determined in terms of its quality or the conditions of its manifestation
qualitative-circumstantial meaning (look closely, look with regret)
measures and quantities (weigh a kilogram, cost a hundred rubles)
spatial (rest in the village, turn right)
temporary (learning from childhood, sitting until dark)
causal (cry for joy, say rashly)
targeted (to do out of spite, to say as an excuse)
conditions (to carry out if funds are available, to escape in case of flooding)
acquiescent (to walk despite the rain, to clear up despite the prediction)
replenishing relatives (to be considered an eccentric)
the dependent word is expressed as a noun in R.p.
R.p. with the meaning of the subject (birds singing (=bird singing), thunderclap)
R.p. chatsi of the whole (mountain peak (=mountain peak), chair leg)
R.p. supplies (student notebook = student notebook)
R.p. definitive (man of feat = heroic person)
R.p. in the function of the object, i.e. object on which the action is directed (reading a book)
Relation of the subject to the manager (plant director)
R.p. content (purpose of travel)
Complementary relationships (replenishing) –
relationships, measures, quantities (basket of flowers, kilogram of flour)
dependent word expressed noun in Tv.p.:
defining relations
the meaning of the accompanying feature (hair with gray hair – gray hair)
object relations
etc. togetherness (cat and kittens)
etc. spreads a verbal noun (dispute with a neighbor)
Connection:
Mandatory – the absence of a dependent word creates structural and semantic incompleteness
Optional - dependent component is optional
Coordination– the form will subordinate the connection, which is expressed by assimilating the form of the dependent word to the form of the core word in gender, number and case.
Word order is preposition of the dependent word.
Subsubstantive connection (core word - noun\ substantivized word (delicious second)
Coordination:
Complete (in gender, number and case) – beautiful girls
Incomplete (not all gram forms are likened): our doctor\ appendix.
Control– the species will subordinate the connection, which is expressed by joining the main word of the noun in the cosv case with or without a preposition (to build a house capable of feats, a walk in the forest, on the sly from parents)
There are different types of controls:
Verb: make jam
Substantive: playing with fire
Adjective: visible from above
Pronoun: someone in white, someone you know
Numerical: two houses, five days
Narechnoye: long before dawn, up the path
Impersonal-predicative: sorry for a friend
Comparative: long before dawn, above your head
Word order - postposition of the head of the word
Control:
Strong – necessary connection between the case form of the name and the dictionary or grammatical form of the verb (move down the mountain, angry at everyone, alone with yourself):
cases with interchange verbs or direct control (V.p. without preposition)
R.p. parts (drink milk, read a book)
R.p. denial (not loving a friend)
the preposition repeats the prefix of the verb (to reach the forest, to get down from the tree)
numeric (three boys)
Weak - the connection is not necessary, when the case is not obligatory and the lexicon or gram of St. control words is not predicted (to come for things, harm to health, invitation to dinner)
Adjacency– the type will subordinate connections, with unchangeable words and word forms acting as dependent components, for example:
adverb: turn right
infinitive: ask to come
gerund: to go out of breath
comparative: work better
indeclinable adj: flared skirt
As part of the adjacency, the following phrases are distinguished:
verb: to sleep soundly
substantive: hat on one side
adjective: friendly, caring
numbered: twice two, third from left
with impersonal predicative words: it’s a pity, it’s desperately needed
There are connections:
strong: he weighed a lot - mandatory distribution
weak: he reacted very joyfully - no distribution necessary
parallelism (application)– appositive combinations, consisting of two entities that have the same case form. (winter sorceress, old hunter, Russula mushroom, female astronaut, Gorki village, boy-woman, unfortunate hotonic, girl named Katya).
personal:
substantive (warm day, roof of a house, old man with glasses, meeting alone, desire to please)
adjectival (red with embarrassment, very inquisitive, well-known, white speckled)
with a numeral as the main word (two students, two friends, the first on the list)
with a pronoun as the main word (one of the students, someone else, any of the listeners)
verbal (read a book, read aloud, want to travel, speak while smiling)
adverbial (adverbial): very fun, far from family
with sks as the main word (it hurts my arm, I'm sad)
Simple phrase includes two components, between which there is one type of syntactic relationship.
^ Complex phrase consists of three or more components, between which there are two or more types of syntactic connections. free phrases – each component retains independence due to sufficient information content (each member functions independently): work in the garden, wait for an answer.
Unfree– the completeness of the lexical meaning of one of the components is weakened or it is informatively insufficient (close cohesion of the components and the functioning of such a word as one member of the sentence): five tables are considered allies, start building, master of speech
^ Syntactically indecomposable combinations of words :
1) quantitative-nominal combinations: head word - Gen.p., main word - (I.p., R.p. with the preposition before, with, about, over\with nar in the middle degree more, less):
Five years fell on the soldiers' shoulders
Few weeks disasters pass by
More than half of people screamed immediately
One hundred trees each the estate is growing
We're off the bones looked at each other
Each of us will stand at the very edge of the site
pronoun in I.p. + pronoun\number\adj in I.p.
All this will seem like a masterpiece of nature to you.
His movement was something feverish.
3 Offer.
The sentence is the basic unit of syntax, since it is in the sentence that the most essential functions of language are found: cognitive or expressive (language as a tool, an instrument of thinking) and communicative (language as a means of communication).
The modern definition goes back to the structural-semantic direction, the founder of which was Vinogradov.
Offer – a unit that represents a specific situation.
Offer– a means of expressing theme-rhematic relations.
Offer – one of the forms of expression.
Offer- this is an integral unit of speech, grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of formation, expression, and communication of thought (Vinogradov)
According to a number of characteristics, a simple sentence is contrasted with units of a lower syntactic level.
Word and sentence.
Functionally, a sentence is always larger than a word in its syntactic form. Nominative proposal ^ Wind. in the context of Tyutchev’s poem (1) Wind. Everything around is humming and swaying, Leaves are spinning at your feet... performs a different function than a word wind in its dictionary meaning (movement of air flow in a horizontal direction), realizing the nominative function in the phrases western, gusty, sea wind. Form named after case in a sentence not only names the phenomenon, but also reports its observability: it acts as independent, indefinable. Wed. with offer (2) The wind sleeps and everything goes numb. Just to fall asleep..., in which the state of the wind is characterized by the word sleeping in the present tense. Together with the intonation of the completed message, the word form wind in example (1) conveys existential meaning, i.e. has a modal-temporal meaning of real relevance (observability) to the moment of speech, which turns it into a sentence, into a communicative unit, as in example (2)
Word and phrase.
A sentence is also different from a phrase. Let's compare the use of the phrase Starlight Night from F. Tyutchev: (3) Quiet, starry night, The moon shines tremulously, Sweet are the lips of beauty On a quiet, (4) starry night.
Example (3) is similar to a one-word sentence ^ Wind, because denotes a certain situation, and in example (4) the phrase becomes dependent on the predicate sweet position, it as a whole, like the word, performs the function of nomination. The phrase implements attributive relations (what night?), which are expressed by the connection of complete agreement. Offer Starry night is a message about a real fact in the present tense. Here, relations that are different from those in the phrase are realized: the name of the phenomenon + its characteristics, i.e. the pairing of two concepts between which relationships of mutual dependence predetermined by syntactic positions are established (predicative).
Statement and proposal.
Statement– any linear segment of speech that performs a communicative function (dialogue from Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”).
Formulated as separate sentences, interjection utterances are not divided into sentence parts: Really? Really?
In modern consideration of the proposal, the relation is very relevant sentence - statement. It should be taken into account that a statement and a proposal are phenomena of the same order, but not identical. MM. Bakhtin believed that statement- this is a sentence addressed to someone, connected with previous and subsequent texts that determine the speaker’s intention, overgrown with extra-textual meanings. That's why They're calling. is both a sentence and a statement, and a sentence Boy reading a book contains two statements: boy reads, boy reads a book.
Unlike a sentence (as a unit of language and speech), a statement entirely belongs to the sphere of speech: it belongs to a certain sender, is aimed at a certain recipient, produced at a certain point in time, committed for a certain purpose, correlates with a certain fragment of reality (situation), fulfills a certain communicative function and turns out to be appropriate (meaningful) precisely in a given speech situation.
A sentence, a unit of grammar, usually corresponding to a complete statement and capable of acting as a separate message (text of minimal length). A sentence consists of words appearing in morphological forms and in a linear order, which are provided for by the grammar of the language.
Aspects of logical, psychological, formal and grammatical definition of a sentence.
Boolean(Buslaev): a sentence is a judgment expressed in words, it can express a question, an emotion. Sentences different in composition and structure can express the same judgments (I'm having fun. I'm having fun).
Psychological(Potebnya, Ovsyannikov-Kulikovsky): A sentence is a word, or such an ordered combination of words, which is associated with a special movement of thought, known as
predicates. The main feature of a sentence is predicability (verb in personal form). But! Noun – impersonal and infinitive.
Logical-psychological direction(Shakhmatov): A sentence is a message expressed by a combination of ideas - a predicative connection.
^ Formal-grammatical direction (Fortunatov, Peshkovsky): A sentence is a complete phrase.
Signs of an offer.
Offer- this is a statement that is based on an abstract grammatical pattern (a certain scheme, model). This grammatical pattern has a typical grammatical meaning. All sentences constructed according to this model have this meaning. This value is called predicativity.
Predicativity– the relationship of the content of a sentence to reality, expressed in the forms of tense, modality and person.
Time
Temporal definiteness: associated with a verb in the indicative mood, a participle in the passive form
Temporal uncertainty
The indirect form of expressing time is the infinitive.
To the basic meaning of temporal certainty and uncertainty, various temporary shades or connotations are added to the sentence (from time to time - phraseology, regular repetition).
The offer has intonation design(completeness; intonation of a message, question, motivation..) Therefore, intonation is one of the constant characteristic features of a sentence.
It is a means of highlighting the semantic center.
The sentence is constructed according to an abstract pattern, scheme. ^
Structural diagrams
form the basis of different sentences - the main members of sentences are identified and on this basis the structure of the sentence is determined as two-part or one-part, characterization of the distribution of main members by secondary ones, identification of syntactic completeness/incompleteness of the structure, characterization of types of complication.
4. MODALITY.
an integral part of predicativity. Modality expresses the speaker's attitude towards what is being communicated in the sentence.
Determining the content of the modality category:
Broad view:
contrasting statements according to communicative purpose
opposite high on the basis of affirmation/negation
gradation of modal values in the range “real-unreal”
subjective-modal meaning
^ Objective modality - a mandatory feature of any statement.
- real(indicative)
- surreal(subjunctive, modal verb, short adjective with modal meaning: “need to start”, “need to start”).
Meaning real modality characterized by temporal certainty. Meaning unreal modality– uncertainty.
In a sentence, lexico-grammatical forms of predicate expression can be used in a figurative meaning - transposition(transfer of meaning of grammatical form).
Everyone lower their collars (inf will command the knuckle)
a) real modality - forms will express the following:
Present time (it is working)
Past time (he worked)
Bud.time (it will work)
Subjunctive mood (conditional) – would (he would work)
Desirable mood - would it work
The meaning of incentive (commands the knuckle) - let it work!
Obligation - he must/obliges to work
The complete paradigm is sevenfold. Consists of forms of change of the predicate from the point of view of change of forms of temporal meaning.
In this system of form changes, the commonality in dictum(proposition, invariant). The opposition/difference between them forms mode.
The meaning of objective modality is a mandatory feature of an utterance. This value is optional, maybe. enclosed in a “modal shell” - subjective modelability.
^
Semantic scope of subjective modality:
1) evaluation value
A) intellectual (rational, logical)
B) emotional (irrational)
C) aesthetic (beautiful - ugly)
D) ethical (truth - false)
2) expression (expressiveness) – expressive components (“Libra of the unsteady heart”)
^
Means of expressing subjective modality
1) introductory words and components
2) modal particles: What an event! -surprise, Maybe go for a walk - guess
3) interjections (ah, oh, alas)
4) word order (he will listen to you)
5) special syntactic constructions (she say yes and say no to wait)
^
Affirmation/denial modality
On the basis of affirmation, negation of a sentence are contrasted on the basis of whether the connection between the subject of speech and its predicative attribute is affirmed or denied:
The day was cool - will approve the proposal
It wasn't him - they deny it
Negative Suggestions:
generally negative(negation refers to the predicate): “Father did not come”
partial negatives(negation refers to some other component of the sentence): “He gave me not a letter, but a small note” (the object is negated)
Means of expressing negative modality:
negative word NO
negative particles NOT, NOR
negative pronouns NOBODY, NOTHING
modal predicative words with a negative meaning (impossible, impossible)
Some sentences with a negative particle do NOT take on an affirmative meaning. This happens when:
a double negative gives a statement as part of a compound verbal tale: “The breadth of her interests could not help but amaze me”
It’s impossible + not – double negative: “it’s impossible not to notice that...”
Who/what/how + not in exclamatory sentences: “Who in the old Tanya, poor Tanya, would not recognize the princess now” (anyone would recognize)
Sentences with combinations who neither, where nor, whatever - intensifying, not negative: “Whoever you are, my sad neighbor, I love you as a friend of my youth” (=any, everyone)
In the subordinate part of the SPP: “no matter where you turn, there are children everywhere”
Sentences in the affirmative form may contain expressive negation (I will feed the dog!), a discrepancy between the plan of expression and the plan of content.
Predicativity– a specific relationship between the subject of speech/subject and its modal temporal feature. In this understanding of predicativity, modality is part of it.
According to the communicative orientation, statements are distinguished declarative, interrogative and incentive sentences.
By the presence or absence of emotional coloring - exclamation and non-exclamation. Voskl sentences are characterized by exclamation intonation, the presence in their composition of interjections, pronouns and adverbs (which, such, as, so, that for), acquiring the properties of emotional-enhancing particles.
According to the nature of the communicative nature of the question, the sentences can be divided into:
proper interrogative– the speaker sets the goal of obtaining some information from the interlocutor.
Improper interrogatives are not aimed at obtaining information:
Interrogative and incentive– contain a wish, request, advice, etc. (Perhaps you should go to the hut, Savely? You will read something to us, won’t you?)
Interrogative-rhetorical- sentences containing affirmation or negation (Well, who among us is not happy about spring?)
^ Incentives – the speaker expresses a request, advice, order, warning, wish, etc., i.e. encourages the interlocutor to take some action.
Incentive sentences always have the meaning of unreal modality. Simple interrogative and declarative sentences are contrasted with imperative ones as sentences that have the meaning of both real modality (more often) and unreal (less often).
Means of expression: forms will command the direction of the word, will induce particles (let, yes, come on...)
5. Word order and actual division of sentences.
Depending on the communicative goal pursued by the speaker, the same lexical composition of a sentence can acquire different meanings:
1) due to word order
2) due to actual division
^
Communicative/actual division
– division into a given (original) topic and a new (known) rheme.
lt;...gt; A sentence is a unit of speech grammatically formed according to the laws of a given language (that is, not further divided into speech units with the same basic structural features), which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts. Language as a tool of communication and exchange of thoughts between all members of society uses the sentence as the main form of communication. The rules for using words in the function of sentences and the rules for combining words and phrases in a sentence are the core of the syntax of a particular language. On the basis of these rules, different types or types of sentences characteristic of a given specific language are established. The sentence expresses not only a message about reality, but also the speaker’s attitude towards it.
Each sentence, from a grammatical point of view, represents the internal unity of its verbally expressed members, the order of their arrangement and intonation. lt;...gt;
Currently, the main task of the syntax of the Russian language in the field of studying sentences is to some extent predetermined by the history of the development of our domestic grammar. This task is to study all specific linguistic forms or structural features of the main varieties of two-part (or two-member) and one-part (or one-member) sentences in the modern Russian language and find out the sequence, paths and patterns of their historical development.
The general theory of syntax, built on the basis of the Marxist doctrine of language, does not discard the problem of the connection between logical and syntactic, and more broadly, grammatical categories in general. Consistent application of the Marxist position on the inextricable unity of language and thinking makes it possible to substantiate and confirm with the facts of language the connection of logical and syntactic categories and at the same time to discover their real differences, due to the specific internal laws of language development. However, grammar as a science that abstracts its laws from specific folk language material on a broad historical basis cannot and should not be mixed with logic. In contrast to formal logic as the science of the laws of correct thinking, grammar, relying on materialist dialectics, studies the historical laws of the construction of a particular folk speech in which thought is realized. Consequently, syntax as a part of grammar has its own objects of study - phrases and sentences, its own scientific method and solves its own specific problems, including its own problems of studying sentences and their members. lt;...gt;
2
When studying the rules for composing sentences, syntax must first of all find out how words and phrases, combining in the structure of a sentence as its members, form a sentence and what are the characteristic constructive and grammatical features of a sentence. In our domestic grammatical science, two general characteristic features of a sentence in the Russian language have been put forward, although the relationship and interaction of these features remains not entirely defined to this day. This is the intonation of the message and predicativity, i.e. the relation of the expressed content to real reality, manifested in the totality of such grammatical categories that define and establish the nature of the sentence as the main and at the same time primary grammatically organized unit of speech communication, expressing the speaker’s attitude to reality and embodying a relatively complete thought. The presence of both of these signs is mandatory for an offer.
It is usually said that words and phrases, connected in a sentence for the most part through the same techniques of coordination, control and adjacency that are characteristic of the connections of words within a phrase, without the appropriate organization of their intonation means do not yet constitute a message. Intonation means establish and determine the communicative meaning of words in a sentence, determine the division of the sentence and ensure its internal unity. Thanks to intonation, not only combinations of words, but also individual words can acquire the meaning of sentences. lt;....gt; The intonation of a message is thus an important means of formalizing a sentence and acts as one of the constant characteristic features of a sentence. It is in this feature that one of the fundamental differences between a sentence and a phrase lies.
The difference in intonation largely determines the main functional and at the same time modal types of sentences - narrative, interrogative and incentive sentences. lt;...gt;
The main intonational means that perform the main functions in the organization of a sentence are stress and melody. Being an essential, integral feature of a sentence, intonation, however, does not exhaust and does not determine the grammatical essence of the sentence and, with its variations, does not determine or create the entire variety of types of sentences in the Russian language. lt;...gt;
Intonation by itself, that is, outside the verbal content, outside the relationship of speech to reality, does not express a dissected, complete, logically constructed thought. Intonation is not a means of forming and embodying a thought; without words it can be expressive, but it is not meaningful, that is, it does not serve as the material shell of a thought. We can say about the intonation of a message that it is only a form of expression of a more or less closed unit of speech (sentence). However, intonation is not at all a form of grammatical construction of a sentence. True, intonation can serve as a means of transforming words and phrases into sentences and can perform a predicative function, but intonation is not characterized by objective semantic content. Often it is directly classified as a means of subjective expression. But at the same time, it is necessary to remember that this means of subjective speech expression is socially organized and socially conscious. At the same time, in such forms of communication as written speech, intonation often fades into the background.
lt;...gt; With a purely morphological approach, the syntactic doctrine of the sentence as a whole becomes one-sided and distorted: it does not reflect the entire variety of structural and grammatical forms of the sentence in the Russian language. In general, when constructing a theory of sentences, “morphologism” in its pure form cannot lead to an understanding of the entire variety of structural types of sentences. The fact is that the structure of a sentence is associated with its own special syntactic categories, based on morphological categories, but going far beyond them: the categories of tense and modality, as well as - in a broad syntactic sense - the category of person, i.e. those categories which express the relationship of the message to reality and are subsumed under the general concept of “predicativity”; these categories can be characteristic of the sentence as a whole - regardless of the presence of a verb in its composition. lt;...gt;
The meaning and purpose of the general category of predicativity that forms a sentence is to relate the content of the sentence to reality. This is the difference between the word winter with its characteristic lexical meaning and the sentence Winter in such a Pushkin verse: Winter. What should we do in the village? lt;...gt;
The general grammatical meaning of the relation of the main content of a sentence to reality is specified in the syntactic categories of modality, as well as tense and person. It is they who give the sentence the significance of the main means of communication, turning the building material of language into living, effective speech.
In a specific sentence, the meanings of person, tense, and modality are established from the point of view of the speaker. But this point of view itself is determined by the objective position of the speaker at the moment of speech in relation to the interlocutor and to the “segment”, “piece” of reality reflected and expressed in the sentence. The relationship of the message contained in a sentence to reality is, first of all, modal relationships. What is being communicated can be thought of by the speaker as real, present in the past or present, as being realized in the future, as desirable, required from someone, as invalid, etc. Forms of grammatical expression of various kinds of relations between the content of speech and reality and constitute the syntactic essence of the category of modality. The category of modality determines the differences between different modal types of sentences. In addition to the forms of verbal moods, the category of modality is expressed by modal particles and words, as well as intonation. It is known, for example, that there is a complex and subtle variety of modal colors of infinitive sentences in the Russian language. The modality of infinitive sentences is determined by the form of the infinitive itself and intonation, and is enhanced and differentiated by particles. lt;...gt;
The variety of forms and ways of expressing predicativity, different types of combination and interweaving of syntactic categories of time and modality, wide possibilities for expressing the speaker’s attitude to reality through modal intonations, the emotional-volitional influence of the speaker on the listener and his emotional-volitional reaction to the listener through the same intonations. certain facts, phenomena of reality - all this is found in the variety of specific linguistic forms (or types) of sentences in the modern Russian language.
Their isolation, delimitation, grammatical characteristics, clarification of qualitative differences between different types, study of interactions of individual types, study of ways of development of sentence forms in spoken and book-written speech are important tasks of the syntax of the Russian language. lt;...gt;
4
The correlative members of a sentence, connected by predicative relations, are the subject, expressed by the nominative case of a noun or pronoun (as well as a substantivized word), and the predicate, expressed by the personal form of the verb, the short form of the participle, adjective or other morphological means.
Sentence members are syntactic categories that arise in a sentence on the basis of word forms and phrase forms and reflect the relationships between the structural elements of the sentence. There is a connection and even interaction between the parts of speech and the members of the sentence, but there is no parallelism. The syntactic essence of a word or an indivisible phrase as a member of a sentence is determined by the function that it carries in the structure of the sentence. lt;...gt;
The subject and predicate as the main members of the sentence are contrasted with the secondary ones: definition, complement and circumstance. lt;...gt;
In the secondary members of the sentence, the various grammatical relationships that are found between words in the structure of phrases are, as it were, synthesized, generalized according to function. In sentence structure, phrases are connected and arranged in a strictly defined hierarchical perspective. Serving to explain the main members of the sentence - the subject and the predicate, the secondary members can, in turn, be defined and supplemented by secondary members that explain themselves. lt;...gt;
And yet, the syntactic features of the secondary members of the sentence are formed and developed on the basis of firmly established morphological categories and their functional-syntactic complication in the system of different types of phrases. This is how the category of definition was established, the morphological core of which was qualitative and relative adjectives. No less definite are the morphological foundations of the category of addition: the forms and functions of the indirect cases of nouns and pronouns in cases where the objective meaning of the name is not absorbed by shades of a defining and adverbial nature and does not dissolve in them. The morphological basis of the syntactic category of adverbial circumstances consists of adverbs and functionally close forms of indirect cases of nouns (usually with a preposition), when the meanings of adverbial relations are fixed in them. But the functional-syntactic shades that form the morphological core of the categories of definition, complement, and especially adverbial circumstances turn out to be so complex, and sometimes undifferentiated and internally contradictory, that they very often go beyond the scope of these categories (cf., for example, the functions of the so-called objective infinitive: expected to finish the work today; it’s gratifying to remember, etc.) or they create a number of transitional, mixed types.
Thus, given the instability of the three categories of secondary members of a sentence - definitions, additions and circumstances - observations of transitional and “syncretistic” cases (i.e., combining the meanings of different members of the sentence) are very important. lt;...gt;
Thus, the traditional doctrine of minor members of a sentence needs to be radically revised. This revision requires an in-depth study of all types of syntactic connections between words, both in the forms of phrases and in the structure of sentences. The fact is that in the structure of a sentence, syntactic connections between words, characteristic of the main types of phrases, are expanded and replenished with other types and types of connections. The connections that arise and develop in predicative relationships are especially diverse. Therefore, it is generally accepted that the rules for the formation of phrases do not cover the entire grammatical scheme of a sentence and all its possible complications. lt;.gt;