Geographical description of the area

The analysis of topographic maps is carried out in order to study the study area, its features, patterns of location, the relationship of objects and phenomena, the dynamics of their development, etc. The analysis allows you to correctly select a map of a certain scale depending on the direction of intended use (for familiarization with the area, for orientation on the ground , as a basis for compiling hypsometric, soil, landscape maps, for scientific analysis of natural and socio-economic phenomena, etc.)

The selection of maps is accompanied by an assessment of the degree of their suitability for specific work in terms of the accuracy and detail of the information that is expected to be obtained using the maps. It is necessary to take into account that increasing the scale of maps leads to an increase in the number of map sheets, reducing visibility of the territory, but increasing the accuracy of the information. The time of publication of maps determines their compliance with the current state of the territory. The dynamics of geographical phenomena are revealed by comparing maps from different times to the same territory.

The following methods of map analysis are used: visual, graphical, graphic-analytical and mathematical-statistical.

Visual method is based on the visual perception of an image of a terrain, a comparison of graphically shown terrain elements by shape, size, structure, etc. It involves a predominantly qualitative description of objects and phenomena, but is often accompanied by an eye-based assessment of distances, areas, heights and their ratios.

Graphical analysis consists of studying constructions made using maps. Such constructions are profiles, sections, block diagrams, etc. Using graphical analysis techniques, patterns of spatial distribution of phenomena are revealed.

Graphic-analytical analysis divided into cartometric and morphometric. Cartometric techniques consist of measuring the length of lines on maps, determining coordinates, areas, volumes, angles, depths, etc. Morphometric techniques make it possible to determine the average height, thickness, power of a phenomenon, horizontal and vertical dissection of the surface, slopes and gradients of the surface, tortuosity of lines and contours and etc.

Numerical indicators of the prevalence of objects, connections between them, and the degree of influence of various factors make it possible to establish methods of mathematical and statistical analysis. Using mathematical modeling methods, spatial mathematical models of the terrain are created.

Geographical description of the area is compiled after a preliminary study of the map and is accompanied by measurements and calculations based on comparison of lengths, angles, areas with a linear scale, location scale, etc. The basic principle of description is from general to specific. The description is constructed according to the following scheme:

1) card details(nomenclature, scale, year of publication);

2) description of the boundary of the area(geographical and rectangular coordinates);

3) relief characteristics(type of relief, landforms and the area and extent they occupy, absolute and relative elevation marks, main watersheds, shape and steepness of slopes, the presence of ravines, cliffs, gullies with an indication of their length and depth, anthropogenic landforms - quarries, embankments, excavations, mounds, etc.);

4) hydrographic network– names of objects, length, width, depth, direction and speed of river flow, slope, nature of banks, bottom soil; characteristics of the floodplain (size, presence of old channels, floodplain lakes and depth of swamps); the presence of hydraulic structures, as well as bridges, ferries, fords and their characteristics; description of the reclamation network, its density; the presence of springs and wells;

Terrain type, like landscape or region, is one of the most common and important concepts in landscape (complex physical) geography. V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky wrote back in 1928 that “...the search for types of localities is the first, most important, essential, integral feature of geographical science...” (p. 48). Researchers showed particular interest in this concept in the post-war years, during the period of widespread theoretical and field landscape work. Despite the widespread, if not universal, recognition of terrain types as landscape complexes, until recently different researchers have not put the same content into this concept. In this article we make an attempt to clarify the concept of “terrain type” and find out its place and significance in landscape geography.

A brief overview of existing views in the literature on the scope and content of the concept “type of terrain”

In special geographical literature, the term “type of locality” or similar “typical localities”, “types of localities” began to be used from the middle XIX V. Tracing the literature published since that time, it is not difficult to identify three different points of view on the scope and content of the concept of “terrain type”. According to the first of them, the type of terrain is a regional physical-geographical unit. One of the first to express this point of view was P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky . In Western Siberia, he distinguished the Tobol-Ishim, Barabinsk, Tobolsk, Tomsk, Altai, Upper Irtysh and Lower Ob “typical localities” (Semyonov, 1884). As N.I. Mikhailov correctly notes, “typical localities” in this case are essentially synthetic geographical areas of regional zoning...” (Mikhailov, 1955, p. 122). V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky in the well-known work “Types of localities in European Russia and the Caucasus” (1915) by “types of localities” meant regional units close to physical-geographical provinces in the modern concept.. Thus, into independent “types ; localities,” he singled out the Polesie subglacial water accumulation, the Donetsk ridge, the Volga loose ravine region, the Zhiguli or Samara Luka, the Trans-Volga lowland and others. B. L. Bernstein divided the territory of the Yaroslavl province into “physical-geographical areas,” which he considered synonymous with physical-geographical regions.

According to the second point of view, until recently the most widespread, the type of terrain is a general typological concept. While putting broad typological content into this term, researchers did not limit its use to any taxonomic framework.

Over 100 years ago, N.A. Severtsov identified “clans of localities” on the territory of the former Voronezh province, symmetrically located along the rivers. In particular, he named the following types of areas: low sand spits; sandy-silty sediments with alder, meadows and lakes; steep edge of the valley with marginal forest, yarugi or treeless; a strip of villages; a strip of cultivated fields with fallow lands; steppe (Severtsov, 1950).

A. N. Krasnov in 1886 used the term “type of terrain” when describing the right bank of the Volga and Oka in the former Nizhny Novgorod province. He named 19 types of terrain, which in their volume are close to the types of tracts in the modern concept (exposed steep clayey slopes, bottoms of shady flooded ravines, etc.). In the same period, P.P. Semenov describes the types of localities of Central Asian deserts, highlighting the loess foothills watered by ditches; short transverse valleys of the Kopet-Dag with their irrigated rivers; bare and waterless slopes and peaks of Kopet-Dag; coastal steppe flow of a large Central Asian river; a cultural oasis remote from the mountains; sandy desert near the Repetek station.

G. N. Vysotsky also uses the term “type of locality” in a general typological sense. Thus, he calls the eastern slopes of Ergeni, characterized by rugged terrain and frequent changes in soil and plant groups, a “variegated type of terrain,” while the Caspian semi-desert is an example of a monotonous territorial type (Vysotsky, 1904).

During the Soviet period, the term “terrain type” as a general, non-taxonomic concept became widespread in the works of employees of the Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the 40s, a special group was created to compile complex physical and geographical maps. In addition to the institute’s staff, representatives of the Soil* and Botanical Institutes took part in its work. Of the three maps compiled by this group, two are landscape-typological in nature. The main objects depicted on them are the terrain types of the European part and the eastern regions of the country. These researchers do not give a detailed definition of the type of terrain highlighted on the maps; it is only known that each type of terrain is characterized by “a specific and similar combination of physical-geographical conditions” (Gerasimov and Kes, 1948, p. 352). As special types of terrain, such natural complexes as loaches, taiga plateaus, mountain-hill taiga, taiga small mountains, taiga-ridge plains, steppe small hills, steppe plains, elevated tundra, low-lying swampy tundra, salt marshes, takyrs, deserts are identified as special types of terrain. sandy hilly and dune plains, etc.

The ideas underlying these maps of terrain types were further developed in the works of V. S. Preobrazhensky, N. V. Fadeeva and L. I. Mukhina (Preobrazhensky and Fadeeva, 1955; Preobrazhensky, 1957; Preobrazhensky et al. 1959 ; Preobrazhensky, Fadeeva, Mukhina, 1961; Types of terrain and natural zoning of the Chita region, 1961; Fadeeva, 1961). These authors, relying on the statements of G.N. Vysotsky (1904, 1909) about phytotopological maps, or maps of habitat types, did a lot of work to identify and map terrain types in the Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and the Chita region.

V. S. Preobrazhensky proposes to consider as a type of terrain “those areas of territory that have a complex of natural conditions necessary (or unsuitable) for the growth of a certain set of agricultural crops” (Preobrazhensky, Fadeeva, Mukhina, Tomilov, 1959, p. 42). As independent types of terrain, he and his collaborators distinguish the following natural complexes: in the Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic - mountain dry steppe, mountain steppe, forest-steppe and mountain forest-steppe, mountain taiga, pre-alpine open forest, char, meadow flat riverine plains, meadow gently sloping plains, birch forests, pine forests. forests, mountain tundra (ibid.); in the Chita region - dry steppe, steppe, forest-steppe, taiga, pre-goltsy open forest, loaches, meadow plains, birch forests, goosefoot, pine forests (Types of terrain and natural zoning of the Chita region, 1961).

It is easy to see that V.S. Preobrazhensky and his colleagues distinguish landscape complexes that are far from equivalent as types of terrain: steppe, forest-steppe, taiga, i.e. zonal complexes (types of landscape, according to most researchers) are placed on a par with meadow flat riverine plains, birch forests, pigweeds and pine forests, found in separate fragments in zonal complexes.

Essentially synonymous with the type of terrain as a general typological concept are many of the geographical landscapes of L. S. Berg (1947) (spruce forests of the lowland forest zone, ravine landscape of the forest-steppe, sands of the desert zone, river valleys of the desert zone, etc.), landscapes in the works of B B. Polynova (1926, 1927), types of territory in the works of A. N. Ponomarev (1937) and Z. M. Murzaev (1953), landscape and type of landscape in the view of N. A. Gvozdetsky (1958, 1961) and some other geographers.

According to the third point of view, a terrain type is a taxonomic unit of typological landscape mapping. In a number of previously published works (Milkov, 1953, 1955, 1956a, 1956b, 1957a, 19576, 1959a, 1959b, etc.), we sought to substantiate the concept of “terrain type” as one of the most important landscape-typological units of a certain taxonomic significance. In doing so, we proceeded from the position that in nature there are two, although closely interrelated, but independent series of landscape complexes: regional and typological. Regional complexes (district, province, zone, country) are units of landscape zoning, typological ones are units of landscape mapping. Both complexes have an independent system of taxonomic units, which includes: tract type, terrain type, landscape type.

The type of terrain represents a relatively equivalent, from the point of view of economic use, territory, which has a natural, unique combination of tracts. Like other typological units, a locality type has a discontinuous area and its distribution does not depend on the boundaries of regional units. For the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the south of the Russian Plain, we described the following types of terrain: floodplain, above-floodplain-terrace, riverside (slope), upland, interfluve undrained, watershed-outwash, remnant-watershed, low-mountain.

An interpretation of the type of terrain close to the one described is found in a large number of recent works devoted to physical-geographical zoning and landscape-typological mapping of different regions of our country. Among the landscape-typological works, the following can be named: N.I. Akhtyrtseva (1957a and b, 1959, 1961) on the Kalach Upland, S.T. Belozorova (1958) on the Odessa region, 3. P. Berdnikova and N.N. Smirnov (1959) on the relationship between riverine and upland types of terrain in the south of the Central Russian Upland, K. I. Gerenchuk (1956, 1957) on the western regions of the Ukrainian SSR, G. E. Grishankova (1958, 1961) on the Eastern Yails of Crimea and the Central Russian Upland, M. M. Koinova (1957) about the Stanislav region, A. I. Lanko, A. M. Marinich and others (1959) about the Ukrainian SSR, and many others.

The type of terrain as a taxonomic typological unit is recognized by N. A. Solntsev. He believes that localities represent “a natural combination of a certain type of tracts (Solntsev, 1961, p. 56) and at the same time are an organic component of the landscape (region).

Thus, of the considered points of view on the concept of “terrain type,” the last two are currently the most widely recognized, according to which the terrain type is considered as a general typological concept and as one of the main taxonomic units of landscape mapping. Despite the differences in these views, we do not see a sharp, insurmountable line between them. Representatives of both points of view see the type of locality as the most important typological landscape complex, the knowledge of which helps to reveal the internal content of regional units. However, it should be emphasized that the recognition of terrain type as a general typological concept does not eliminate, but, on the contrary, makes it more urgent to develop a taxonomic system for terrain types.

On the leading factors shaping terrain types

The terrain types of the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Russian Plain, which are well known to us from field work, usually show the closest connection with elements of erosional relief. This is confirmed in the names of the terrain types: nominal, floodplain-terrace, riverside (slope), remnant-watershed.

In the conditions of the Central Russian forest-steppe, where the valley-gully relief is perfectly expressed, and the subsoil almost everywhere is carbonate loess-like rocks of uniform composition, erosional relief acquires an exceptional, leading role in

formation of terrain types. This connection of vegetation and soils with the relief of the Central Russian forest-steppe was repeatedly pointed out by N. A. Severtsov, G. I. Tanfilyev, G. F. Morozov, B. A. Keller. It is therefore quite natural that the types of terrain - landscape complexes - in the Central Russian forest-steppe in many cases coincide with certain types of locations.

It should be noted that there is no complete coincidence of terrain types with location types even in the conditions of the Central Russian forest-steppe. Firstly, different types of terrain are often observed here in similar location conditions. Thus, on the flat interfluves of the Oka-Don lowland, not one, but three types of terrain are clearly visible: upland, interfluve undrained and watershed-outwash (see profile); secondly, almost every type of location is not one, but a complex complex of location types. For example, the upland type of terrain consists not only of flat, elevated-plain “upland formations”, in the concept of G.N. Vysotsky (1904), it closely intertwines a number of tracts of different locations: the uplands themselves (levels), drainage hollows, peaks ravines, steppe depressions, ponds.

Along with the relief, the lithology of the parent rocks that serve as the subsoil also plays a leading role in the formation of terrain types. If in the Central Russian forest-steppe, in the isolation of terrain types, the first place belongs to the relief, then in the Caspian lowland it very often does not play such a decisive role and the lithology of the parent rocks comes first. True, the estuary type of terrain in the Caspian semi-desert owes its existence to the relief, however, in the vast expanses of the semi-desert, landscape differences are caused not by the relief, but by the replacement of clayey and loamy soils with sandy and sandy loam.

The leading role of lithology in the formation of semi-desert landscape complexes was established by E. A. Eversmann. In the first part of the “Natural History of the Orenburg Region” he wrote about steppes devoid of fat (semi-deserts in the modern concept): “the latter can also be divided into clayey and solonetzous steppes (Katkil among the Kaysaks), actually into salt marshes, salt mud (among the Kaysaks Sur) and, finally, to the sandy steppes, sands (among the Kaisaks, kum). This division is based on nature itself and is important for determining the distribution of plants and animals." (our detente.- F. Milkov) (Eversmann, 1949, p. 219).

The landscape-forming role of lithology increases even more in dry deserts, where moisture reserves in soils are determined mainly not by meso- and microforms and relief, but by water permeability, capillarity and other soil properties. N.A. Gvozdetsky identifies the following types of Central Asian deserts: 1) loess-clay ephemeral, 2) clayey wormwood (wormwood-saltwort), 3) sandy psammophytic, 4) rocky gypsophytic, 5) saline halophytic (Gvozdetsky and Fedina, 1958). These types of deserts, from our point of view, are nothing more than enlarged types of terrain.

A completely different situation than in the Central Russian forest-steppe is developing, on the one hand, in semi-deserts and deserts, on the other, in the Baltic states, in the north of Belarus and in adjacent areas. Here, the complex glacial relief - from coarsely hilly and hilly to completely flat in place of drained lake reservoirs or secondary moraine plains - is combined with an extremely variegated, rapidly changing lithology of Quaternary sediments - subsoils (sands, clayey, loamy and sandy loam moraines, banded clays, cover loams and etc.). Under these conditions, the identification of terrain types from a methodological point of view turns out to be, perhaps, more difficult compared to the identification of the same typological complexes in the Central Russian forest-steppe or in semi-deserts. There is a need to develop new techniques and approaches to identifying and mapping terrain types that are different from those used in other areas of the country. Interesting experiments to identify the types of terrain in the glacial north-west of the Russian Plain were carried out by 3. V. Borisova (1958), A. B. Basalikas and O. A. Shleinyte (1961), 3. V. Dashkevich (Borisova) (1961), V A. Dementyev (1961).

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the relative importance of relief and lithology of source rocks as leading factors in the formation of terrain types varies depending on the degree of their “expressiveness” and, to a certain extent, on the climatic background (an increase in the lithological factor in sharply arid areas).

Distribution area and regional characteristics of terrain types

The type of locality, as a rule, generalizes a large number of specific localities. By specific locality, we, as before (Milkov, 1956b), mean a spatially unified, non-disconnected fragment of a type of locality within one regional unit - a landscape area.

A specific area in its properties is closest to regional units of landscape zoning and in some cases, during large-scale studies, can and should serve as an object of independent study. More often, however, a specific locality is studied not as an independent object, but as a standard for many other similar specific localities, which together form a type of locality. Spatial isolation and at the same time landscape proximity of the type of terrain throughout the entire range constitutes the most important property of this landscape complex, which is difficult to overestimate for theory and practice. In this regard, a completely legitimate question arises: how large is the area of ​​the same type of terrain? The following three possible answers to this question can be accepted.

Firstly, we can assume that the type of terrain is a landscape complex that has unlimited distribution. This assumption is based on the fact that similar landforms and lithology of source rocks - the leading factors in the formation of terrain types - are repeated in different provinces, zones and even continents. However, the identification of terrain types in such a broad interpretation loses its scientific and practical significance. Despite the fact that the remnant hills and ridges of the Volga Upland and the Kyzylkum desert, or sandy plains. Polesie and the Turkmen Karakum, in terms of relief forms and lithology, are somewhat similar to each other; in landscape terms, they are so far from each other that hardly anyone would risk combining them into one type of terrain.

Secondly, a locality type can be considered a landscape typological complex of local regional significance. The tendency to limit types of terrain to a relatively narrow regional framework is noticeable in the works of K. I. Gerenchuk (1957). In practice, excessive regional limitation of terrain types can lead to blurring of the lines between a terrain type and a specific location. In the end, you can get to the point that for each landscape area it seems advisable to develop its own special system of terrain. Apparently, this is what N.A. Solntsev (1957) means, proposing to replace the term “type of terrain” with another term - “terrain”. In this case, we are deprived of the opportunity to use in practice the most important quality of typological units - to serve as a criterion for establishing landscape similarity and relative economic equivalence of territorially separated specific areas. From our point of view, in all cases, even with the most large-scale studies, when we are faced with practically specific localities, it is better to talk not just about “localities”, but about “types of localities”, thereby emphasizing that the described locality is not a region, not a unique individuality, but only a fragment of a widespread type.

Finally, the type of terrain as an intrazonal landscape complex. This interpretation of it seems logically the most justified, since the types of terrain usually do not go beyond the landscape zone; their totality within a landscape zone forms a landscape type - a typological taxonomic unit of a higher rank than the terrain type. However, the nature of typological units is such that sometimes they do not take into account the boundaries of regional units and the same type of terrain can be found in different landscape zones, just as the area of ​​a landscape type does not repeat the area of ​​distribution of any particular landscape zone. For example, such types of terrain as upland, floodplain, floodplain-terrace and riverside (slope) are equally widespread in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Russian Plain; Fragments of upland and riverine types of terrain are also found in the south of the mixed forest zone.

What, ultimately, is the criterion for establishing the boundaries of the distribution of a particular type of terrain? It lies in the very definition of the type of terrain - the boundaries of a locality are determined by the geography of its constituent characteristic tracts and dominant tracts. To clarify what has been said, let us consider the boundaries of the distribution of the upland type of terrain. This type of terrain, perfectly expressed in the watersheds of the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Russian Plain, represents a combination of the following types of tracts: level areas, steppe depressions, drainage hollows, and the tops of gullies. To the north of the forest-steppe - in the zones of taiga and mixed forests - watersheds are rarely flat, and where they are found, they are characterized by groundwater occurring close to the surface, are often swampy and, therefore, are not similar to plain-type flats in the forest-steppe and steppe zones . However, in some areas of taiga and mixed forests, mainly in the so-called opoles, the upland type of terrain continues to be found. A classic example of an opole is Yuryevskoye in the Vladimir region. On its territory there are quite well developed flats without signs of waterlogging; there are saucer-shaped depressions and runoff hollows. The fact that the Yuryevsky opole region belongs to the plain type of area is also confirmed by the peculiarities of its economic use: the opole region, covered with fertile dark-colored soils on loess-like loams, like the plains of the forest-steppe and steppe zones, is almost completely plowed.

The southern border of the distribution of the upland type of terrain is the northern semi-desert: here the role of solonetz tracts in the structure of upland areas sharply increases, and the importance of runoff hollows disappears. The upland-plain locations of the southern semi-desert and desert constitute a different type of terrain, different from the upland. The area of ​​the upland type of terrain extends very widely from west to east. In addition to the Russian Plain, it is found on the plains of Hungary, distributed in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of Western and Central Siberia, very close analogues are known in the prairies of North America.

Different types of terrain have different habitats - sometimes very extensive, sometimes relatively limited. One of the most extensive habitats belongs to the floodplain type. Establishing its boundaries is a task of special research, but it seems to us that the Dnieper or Dniester floodplains and Central Asian tugai form independent types of terrain, different from the floodplain type of terrain in the middle zone of the Russian Plain.

Here it is appropriate to raise another question - about the role of the climatic factor in the formation of terrain types. Obviously, relief and lithology are the leading factors in the formation of terrain types only on a certain, albeit fairly broad, climatic background. Such a background is provided by zones of a region located within one zone with the same or similar moisture balance, which is expressed in the ratio of the annual amount of precipitation to the amount of evaporation.

Recognizing wide areas for terrain types, we must not forget about the presence of certain landscape differences in these typological complexes, caused by local regional features of nature. For example, the weak development or complete absence of fresh ravines is a regional feature of the riverine (slope) type of terrain in the High Trans-Volga region. A regional feature of the interfluve undrained type of terrain of the Central Russian forest-steppe are aspen bushes, which are unusual for the interfluve undrained type of terrain of the Dnieper lowland. The almost complete absence of steppe depressions represents a regional feature of the upland type of terrain of the Kalach Upland.

Taking into account the above, when identifying, characterizing and mapping terrain types, one should constantly keep in mind not only their general - typological - features, but also the main regional features. This problem turns out to be not easy, and some researchers, trying to solve it, follow the path of fragmenting terrain types. Following this path, one can identify countless types of terrain and still not solve the problem - the regional influences on the types of terrain are so diverse. The only satisfactory solution is to combine typological units with regional ones in the text and on the landscape map. Typological units should be considered in inextricable connection with regional ones, and in both units one should see only different aspects of a single whole - the landscape sphere of the earth. It was precisely this path that a team of geographers from Voronezh University followed in the monograph “Physico-geographical zoning of the central black earth regions” (1961). In it, in addition to brief information about the types of terrain in general, The Central Black Sea Region, in some detail, indicating the areas, describes the types of terrain in each physical-geographical region.

As a generalization of everything stated above about regional influences on terrain types, it seems appropriate to introduce the concept of “variant of terrain type” (Milkov, 1959a and b). Depending on the nature of regional influences, we can talk about zonal, altitudinal-geomorphological and lithological variants of the terrain type. The flatland type of terrain in the forest-steppe and steppe zones represents two zonal variants of the same type of terrain. The riverine (slope) type of terrain on the Central Russian Upland and on the Oka-Don Lowland are not two different types of terrain, but different altitudinal-geomorphological variants of the same riverine (slope) type of terrain. Finally, the riverine type of terrain in the north of the Central Russian Upland, with outcrops of Devonian limestone, and in the south of the Central Russian Upland, with outcrops of white chalk, are not different types of terrain, but only lithological variants of the same riverine (slope) type terrain.

Theoretical and applied significance of studying terrain types

At present, the overwhelming majority of geographers quite reasonably admit that without preliminary identification and mapping of terrain types, it is difficult, if not impossible, to objectively identify physical-geographical areas. The main significance of terrain types lies precisely in the fact that their study leads to a more in-depth knowledge of regional differences in the nature of the country. Moreover, even physical-geographical regions (other authors refer to landscapes), which until recently were depicted as a kind of “homogeneous whole,” represent a complex unity consisting of unequal typological complexes.

The study of terrain types has not only theoretical, but also versatile applied significance. The relative economic equivalence of terrain types makes it possible to carry out a primary qualitative accounting of land wealth using a landscape-typological map. Good results on the economic assessment of the types of terrain in Transbaikalia were obtained by V. S. Preobrazhensky, L. I. Mukhina and N. V. Fadeeva (Preobrazhensky, Fadeeva, 1955; Preobrazhensky et al., 1959; Fadeeva, 1961, etc.). The first experiments in economic assessment of terrain types were given in the works of Voronezh economic geographers (Velsky, Porosenkov, 1961; Goncharov, 1961). With the help of terrain types, the internal natural and economic differences of limited territories - individual collective farms and state farms are successfully revealed (Nature and economy of the Chapaev collective farm, 1956; Velsky, 1957, 1959; Tarasov, 1957). A promising problem, standing on the verge of physical and economic geography, is the district and regional grouping of collective farms according to the predominant type of terrain, identifying the characteristics of the current state of the economy and the prospects for its development for each group of collective farms (Milkov, 1961a).

V.V. Nikolskaya and L.F. Nasulich conducted interesting studies in the Amur region to identify types of terrain that differ in the degree of soil moisture and soakability, which largely determines the nature of their economic use (Nikolskaya and Nasulich, 1958).

The study of terrain types helps the planning of new cities and towns (Dorfman, 1961), opens up new opportunities in the study of erosion processes, and makes it possible to draw not a generalized average for the region, but a real picture of the gullyiness of the territory (Ezhov, 1957, 1958, 1959). There is no doubt that the broad and in-depth study of terrain types, which has developed in recent years in our country, will contribute to the further strengthening and development of landscape geography.

Terrain types and their constituent tracts are subject to mapping in nature. This important work has not yet essentially begun, and at present it is not possible to map the geographical distribution of all types of terrain. We will limit ourselves to presenting a table of the occurrence of terrain types in the provinces of the south of the Russian Plain (Table 3).

Despite the conventions of the frequency scale, the table gives an idea of ​​the internal structure of the provinces. In the future, the conditional scale of occurrence of terrain types should give way to exact percentages. The latter will allow us to approach the development of practical recommendations for each province separately, since each type of locality needs its own special system of economic measures.

Considering the geography of terrain types, it is easy to notice that two groups stand out among the provinces, sharply different from each other in their frequency of occurrence.

First group form provinces with low, flat terrain. It is characterized by the widespread occurrence of upland terrain, the weak development of riverine terrain and the complete absence of low-mountain terrain. It includes: in the forest-steppe zone - steppe forest-steppe of the Dnieper lowland, forest-steppe of the Oka-Don lowland, forest-steppe of the Lowland Trans-Volga region; in the steppe zone - the province of the Black Sea steppes and the steppe Lowland Trans-Volga region.

1Second group constitute provinces with elevated, dissected relief. In the provinces of this group, the role of the riverine type of terrain sharply increases due to the reduction of the upland type, a low-mountain type of terrain appears; in all provinces (with the exception of the Central Russian Upland) there is a remnant-watershed type of terrain. This includes: in the forest-steppe zone - the forest-steppe of the Volyn-Podolsk Upland, the forest-steppe of the Central Russian Upland, the forest-steppe of the Volga Upland, the forest-steppe of the high Trans-Volga region; in the steppe zone - the Lower Don province, the steppe of the High Trans-Volga region.

The group of lowland and the group of elevated provinces differ from each other not only in external, morphological features - different frequency of terrain types, but also in the different history of landscape development. This can be seen especially well in the example of the provinces of the forest-steppe zone. The group of elevated provinces combines areas of ancient, pre-glacial forest-steppe; On the territory of these provinces there are refugia (shelters) of heat-loving preglacial and interglacial flora and fauna. The hills, both in the forest-steppe and in the steppes, are places of concentration of relicts of different ages.

On the contrary, the group of lowland provinces consists of territories with a relatively young forest-steppe landscape, formed in post-glacial times. The predecessors of the forest-steppe landscape in the lowlands were lowland swamps and meadows that existed in the late glacial and partly post-glacial times, when the lowlands were still poorly drained. The post-glacial evolution of the landscape of forest-steppe lowlands is closely related to the progressive erosion of the relief, their drainage, the formation of steppes on chernozems at watersheds and the penetration of forest groups there.

All this can be seen in the high and low groups of provinces landscapes-analogues of genetic type.

The study of terrain types acquires important practical significance in the light of recent decisions of the party and government on issues of agricultural planning. The new planning procedure involves

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Milkov F.N. Physical geography: the study of landscape and geographic zoning. - Voronezh: Voronezh State University Publishing House, 1986. - 328 p.

The monograph covers the most important problematic issues of complex physical geography; it sets out the current state of the study of geography. The publication is intended for physical geographers of a wide profile, teachers and students.

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The doctrine of landscape
If a geographical complex is a certain form of unity of a long series of natural elements and man with his economic activity at a certain stage of development enters into it as an equal

Landscape in the understanding of L. S. Berg
In one of his early works, L. S. Berg (1915, p. 9) gives the following definition of geographical landscape: “A natural landscape is an area in which the nature of the relief, climate, plant and soil

About the physical-geographical process
A brief but extremely meaningful definition of geographical landscape is given by A. A. Grigoriev. According to A. A. Grigoriev, the geographical landscape is the external expression of the structure of physical geography

On the limits of landscape fragmentation
A significant number of researchers are not limited to identifying relatively large territorial gradations, such as a region, and find it possible to distinguish even smaller landscape units

Lithogenic basis, its significance and role in the differentiation of the landscape sphere
Determination of the lithogenic basis and general assessment of its significance in the differentiation of the landscape sphere. The lithogenic basis of a landscape is usually understood as its geological structure and relief. Introduction this

From the history of the issue
Agricultural landscapes have long been the subject of study by geographers, biogeocenologists, climatologists, geobotanists, and zoogeographers. The objectivity of their existence follows from the reality of rural

Two levels of landscape organization of agricultural complexes
Agricultural complexes are heterogeneous in their landscape organization. There are two groups of them: agricultural landscapes proper and agricultural landscapes

Ecological texture of agricultural landscapes
Compared to their natural predecessors, the agricultural landscapes of some zones, in particular the forest-steppe, are characterized by greater ecological homogeneity. Their ecological texture

Regional structures of agricultural landscapes
The regional structure of the agricultural landscape, like all its other most important properties, is determined by the features of the natural landscape and socio-historical conditions. Subregional

And agricultural landscape science
A. N. Rakitnikov (1970, p. 3) begins his monograph “Geography of Agriculture” with the words: “This book is devoted mainly to the search for more advanced research methods in the field of agriculture

Definition of the geographic triad
A complex and far from solved problem in physical geography remains the problem of dividing the whole into parts. And as a consequence - subjectivity in matters of typology, inconsistency in the division of geographical

The triad rule and the division of natural zones
There is currently no great disagreement regarding the natural zones themselves - their quantity, content and even names. The exception is the forest-tundra zone. Her independent character is like

Temporal triads
Along with spatial - vertical and horizontal - triads, there are temporal triads. They are widely used in establishing the stages (stages) of

Triad as a working hypothesis in geographical research
The most important applied significance of the triad lies in its widespread use as the first working option for classifying the object being studied. The variety of objects studied entails

Zonal-climatic landscape boundaries
The flat relief and large size of the Russian Plain contribute to the manifestation of latitudinal landscape zoning on its territory. Unlike other taxonomic units, landscape zones in tracts

Orographic boundaries
Orographic boundaries are located on the border of lowland plains and hills. Inside. landscape zones, they are the most important, easily perceptible boundaries. Among race researchers

Geological boundaries
Changes in the geological structure, observed during the transition from large hills to lowlands, were taken into account when assessing orographic - provincial - landscape boundaries. But besides these

Glaciation boundaries as landscape boundaries
Following the works of K.K. Markov, the presence of traces of three ancient glaciations on the Russian Plain can be considered proven - the Likhvinsky, the Dnieper with the Moscow stage, and the Valdai. No. quality

Geomorphological boundaries
The boundaries of Quaternary glaciations constitute only one group of widespread geomorphological landscape boundaries. The boundaries of geomorphological regions simultaneously serve as landscape rubrics.

River valleys and landscape boundaries
Analyzing the map of landscape zones and provinces of the Russian Plain, we easily notice the following curious detail: the boundaries of zones and provinces, i.e. the most important landscape boundaries, often coincide

From the history of the problem. Its current state
The dynamics of landscape complexes is a new problem. Already in the 20s. There was a widespread view of the landscape as a dynamic formation. Features of landscape as a dynamic phenomenon

Chorological dynamics
This is the dynamics of the area, spatial changes in the boundaries of landscape complexes. A classic example of chorological dynamics is the displacement of natural zones. In the literature, the problem of zone displacement is discussed by

Structural dynamics
It means a change in the morphological structure of the landscape complex and the relationships between its constituent structural parts. Let us explain the structural dynamics with some examples. Preds

Temporal dynamics and its types
The concept of temporal dynamics unites all changes in the landscape associated with time - the duration and nature of the rhythm of dynamic manifestations. It seems appropriate to distinguish three

Directed dynamics or developmental dynamics
Directed dynamics, or development, presupposes stable, one-sided changes in the landscape with repeated changes in its states and transformation of structures. Needs to

Genetic types of dynamics of landscape complexes
The visible, or more precisely, amenable to your “research” manifestations of landscape dynamics are caused by the sum of many components, but from among the latter you can always single out the leading factor and use it to distinguish

A measure of the dynamism of landscape complexes
The dynamics of different landscape complexes proceed with unequal intensity and speed. In the literature, such expressions as dynamic complexes, low-dynamic complexes, etc. are common, but with

Physiographic landscape as a five-dimensional paradynamic geosystem
In the last two decades, following the speech of V.B. Sochava (1963), the concept of a geosystem has become one of the most widespread in physical-geographical literature. "This time coincided with the wide

Free fields and the problem of dynamics in physical geography
Definition of free field. Field is a word with a broad semantic meaning. V. Dahl gives up to 10 interpretations of it. Mathematicians and physicists put their content into the concept of field. Geobotany justification

Geographical zonation
And since all the named elements, water, earth, fire (heat and light), air, as well as the plant and animal worlds, thanks to the astronomical position, shape and rotation of our planet in

From the history of the issue
Natural zonation is one of the earliest patterns in science, ideas about which deepened and improved simultaneously with the development of geography. Zoning, presence of natural

Landscape zoning
Depending on the determining factor, five types of landscape zonation should be distinguished: latitudinal, hydrothermal, orogenetic, paradynamic, vertical. Latitude

At various depths of the World Ocean
[Aizatullin T. A., Lukyanova T. S., Suetova I. A., Khailov K. M., 1980] Depth, m Area

Rhythmic dynamics, development and zoning of landscape complexes
Rhythmic dynamics, development, zoning are different, but equally important properties of landscape complexes, revealing their spatiotemporal features. Despite all the dissimilarity of these three funds

Geographic cycles of biostrome development and periodic system of geographical zones
The geographical (landscape) belt is widely used in the literature, but its volume and content remain unclear. Of foreign geographers, of great importance

In different geographical zones
[Perelman A.I., 1975] The periodic system of geographical zones, first published by us in 1969 [Milkov F.N., 1969a], caused the following critical remark

From the history of the issue
In the author’s preface to the 2nd edition of the monograph “Climate and Life” L. S. Berg (19476, p. 4) one- CONCLUSION In two monographs - the present one and the previously published [

Shchukin I. S. General geomorphology
Shchukin I. S. Four-language encyclopedic dictionary of terms in physical geography. M., I"98"O. E versman E. A. Natural history of the Orenburg region. Orenburg, 1Y40, vol. II.

Video tutorial 2: Degree grid

Lecture: Geographical models. Geographic map, area plan. Their main parameters and elements

Geographical models of the Earth

The surface of the Earth cannot be depicted on paper due to its large size, so it is depicted in the form of models.

Models of the Earth or surface include:

• area plan.

The surface of the planet is most accurately depicted on the globe:

firstly, the globe follows the shape of the Earth;

secondly, the distortion on the globe is less than when transferring the surface to a map (we transfer a round surface to a flat one);

thirdly, the globe gives an idea of ​​the position of our planet in outer space (angle of inclination, trajectory of rotation).

Using a map projection, the earth's surface is depicted on a globe, map or plan. A map and a site plan are depicted on a flat surface, but they are different from each other. The map shows large areas of the Earth, and the plan shows small areas (several kilometers). Maps and plans differ in scale.

Image of the Earth on a map

To depict the surface of the earth on a map it is used degree grid: These are parallels and meridians located perpendicular to each other.

The parallels are located horizontally (parallel to the equator), the meridians stretch vertically from the north pole to the south. For convenience, we determined the prime meridian (Greenwich) from which the meridians go at a distance of 10° from each other, i.e. The prime meridian is the beginning of the hemispheres, which extends to 180° (the 180° meridian is the boundary of the hemispheres). To the east is considered to be eastern longitude, to the west is considered to be western longitude. The parallels also run at a distance of 10°. For convenience, the equator is chosen as the zero parallel. To the north is the northern latitude, to the south is the southern latitude. Using a degree grid, you can plot objects on a map, as well as find their locations, that is, coordinates. To determine coordinates, you need to know the longitude and latitude of the area.

Types of cards

Maps differ from each other according to several criteria:

1. By scale
2. By content
3. By territory coverage

1. Maps are divided by scale into:

large scale,

medium-scale,

small-scale.

Scale– the ratio of the actual size of the territory to its image on the surface.

The scale can be numerical, linear (used when measuring the distance from point A to point B) and named.

The smaller the scale of the map, the larger the territory that can be depicted on it. Maps of hemispheres, continents and oceans, maps of states are small-scale maps. Medium-scale maps ranging from 1:200000 to 1:1000000. And large-scale (topographic) maps (1:10,000, 1:25,000 and 1:50,000).

2. According to the content of the card there are:

general geographical

thematic

Among the thematic maps there are tectonic, climatic, a map of the “peoples of the world”, and the “Physical map of the hemispheres” is a general geographical map. Thematic ones, in turn, are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Accordingly, the first depict natural phenomena, the second economic. Eg, "Map of Prevailing Winds" refers to a thematic physical-geographical map. Map "World Population" refers to thematic socio-economic.

3. By territory coverage:

hemispheres map,

continents and oceans,

large regions, states, economic regions.

Maps are also complex, synthetic and analytical. Comprehensive maps provide a wealth of information about the area depicted. Synthetic maps show a holistic image, but do not provide an idea of ​​individual terrain objects. The climate map shows the types of climates, but we do not learn from this map either the temperature or the prevailing winds. Analytical maps give an idea of ​​one characteristic of the territory, for example, the extent of arable land.

Legend

In order to be able to read a map and find information on it, you need to know symbols and be able to read them correctly. All cards are depicted using symbols. Each card has its own set of symbols. The map of mineral resources shows the relief using isolines and colors. By color we determine the type of relief; isolines (lines connecting points of the same height) provide more accurate information about the height of the surface above or below sea level. Mineral deposits are indicated by special icons.