Soviet period of development of the Russian state. History of Russia (briefly)

The main stages in the development of Russian statehood in the 9th – first half of the 19th centuries.

The formation and development of Russian statehood goes back many centuries. This process began in the Old Russian state and continues to this day.

Throughout its history, Russia has gone through five main periods of state development: the Old Russian State, the Moscow State, the Russian Empire, the Soviet State and the Russian Federation. 1. The Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv arose in the middle of the 9th century and existed until the middle of the 15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Rus', the merging of its northern and southern centers, the increase in the military-political and international influence of the state, and the onset of the stage of fragmentation and loss of centralized control that was natural for early feudal monarchies. Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, named the Red Sun, was destined to become the spiritual father and founder of the Old Russian state. Under him, in 988, Rus' adopted Orthodoxy as the state religion. After this, literacy began to spread in the country, painting and literature began to develop. However, by the end of the 12th century, a number of independent states were being formed in Rus'. Due to their fragmentation in the first third of the 13th century, enemies constantly began to attack Russian lands. As a result, in the 14th century, Ancient Rus' as a state community ceased to exist. Since the 14th century, the importance of the Moscow Principality has been increasing in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, acting as the center of the “gathering of Russian lands”. The reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita played a special role in this process. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated by the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field. However, it took almost another hundred years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as the organizing and spiritual center of the emerging Russian state. 2. The Moscow state existed from the middle of the 15th century to the end of the 17th century. During this era, the final liberation of Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of “gathering lands” around Moscow was completed, and the basic state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy were formalized. A striking manifestation of the increase in the authority of the Moscow sovereign was the solemn crowning of Ivan IV to the throne in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of government bodies, the judicial system, the army, and the church. The formation of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by successes in the field of centralization of the state and the intensification of foreign policy. Ensuring the growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by a significant expansion of its territory due to successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east. All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation. At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, Russia entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called the “Time of Troubles”. Our Fatherland found itself on the verge of collapse and loss of its statehood. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. The beginning of the reign of the newly elected Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne was marked by the restoration of the country's territorial integrity and the strengthening of its international prestige. During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the preconditions for the transformation of the Muscovite kingdom into the Russian Empire. 3. The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place. The era of Peter I was a turning point in the history of Russia. His reforms covered all spheres of state and public life, determining the development of our country for a long historical perspective. They were aimed at maximum centralization in government with a decisive influence on the life of all layers of society and strict regulation of all its aspects. After the death of Peter I, the Russian Empire entered an era of palace coups. During the period from 1725 to 1762, six autocrats replaced the Russian throne, including the infant Tsar Ivan Antonovich. All-powerful temporary workers then acquired enormous importance in managing the empire. The reign of Catherine II (1762 -1796) was marked by the declared policy of “enlightened absolutism”, an unprecedented growth in the privileges of the nobility as the noble class of the Russian Empire, and at the same time the unprecedented scope of serfdom. Attempts by Paul I (1796 - 1801) to limit Catherine's liberties of the noble class led to another palace coup and the murder of the emperor, who irritated the highest officials and officers with his unpredictable actions. Russia entered the 19th century with a shiny façade of imperial power and a huge burden of ever-increasing domestic political and social problems. Alexander I (1801 - 1825) began his reign with an intense search for ways to reform the huge empire he inherited. However, this process was interrupted by the Patriotic War of 1812, which divided the reign of Alexander I into two different stages: the first was characterized by “constitutional quests”, and the second by the strengthening of the police state - Arakcheevism. The Decembrist movement, which resulted in an armed uprising in 1825 on Senate Square in St. Petersburg, clearly demonstrated the growing opposition to the central government on the part of the Russian noble intelligentsia. The policies of Nicholas I (1825 -1855), contrary to the requirements of the era, which prevented the reform of the state and social system of autocratic Russia, led the country to a deep socio-economic, political and military crisis in the mid-19th century. Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who replaced Nicholas I, finally carried out the “great reform”, declaring the abolition of serfdom among the peasantry (1861). This was followed by radical changes in central and local government, urban and judicial reforms, reorganization of the army and navy, and democratization of the education system. However, these reforms did not bridge the gap between the central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized the public consciousness of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia. Attempts by Alexander III (1881 -1894) to stabilize the state-political system of autocratic Russia through a series of counter-reforms only widened the gap between the monarch and his subjects.

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The formation and development of Russian statehood goes back many centuries. This process began in the Old Russian state and continues to this day.

Throughout its history, Russia has gone through five main periods of state development: Old Russian State, Muscovite State, Russian Empire, Soviet State and Russian Federation.

1. The Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv arose in the middle of the 9th century and existed until mid-15th century. This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Rus', the merging of its northern and southern centers, the increase in the military-political and international influence of the state, and the onset of the stage of its fragmentation and loss of centralized control, which was natural for early feudal monarchies.

Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, named the Red Sun, was destined to become the spiritual father and founder of the Old Russian state. Under him, in 988, Rus' adopted Orthodoxy as the state religion. After this, literacy began to spread in the country, painting and literature began to develop.

However, by the end of the 12th century, a number of independent states were being formed in Rus'. Due to their fragmentation in the first third of the 13th century, enemies constantly began to attack Russian lands. As a result, in the 14th century, Ancient Rus' as a state community ceased to exist.

Since the 14th century, the importance of the Moscow Principality has been increasing in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, acting as the center of the “gathering of Russian lands.” The reign of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Danilovich Kalita played a special role in this process. His political successes in gradually gaining independence from the Golden Horde were consolidated by the victory of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field. However, it took almost another hundred years for Moscow to finally consolidate its role as the organizing and spiritual center of the emerging Russian state.

2. The Moscow state existed from the middle of the 15th century to the end of the 17th century. During this era, the final liberation of Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of “gathering lands” around Moscow was completed, and the basic state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy were formalized. A striking manifestation of the increase in the authority of the Moscow sovereign was the solemn crowning of Ivan IV to the throne in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of government bodies, the judicial system, the army, and the church. The emergence of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by its successes in the field of centralization of the state and the intensification of foreign policy. The growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by a significant expansion of its territory due to successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east.

All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.

At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, Russia entered a period of deep state-political and socio-economic structural crisis, called the “Time of Troubles”. Our Fatherland found itself on the verge of collapse and loss of its statehood. However, thanks to the nationwide patriotic upsurge, the crisis was overcome. The beginning of the reign of the newly elected Romanov dynasty on the Russian throne was marked by the restoration of the country's territorial integrity and the strengthening of its international prestige.

During the 17th century, the main institutions of Russian absolutism were formed in the country, which created the preconditions for the transformation of the Muscovite kingdom into the Russian Empire.

3. The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place.

The era of Peter I was a turning point in the history of Russia. His reforms covered all spheres of state and public life, determining the development of our country for a long historical perspective. They were aimed at maximum centralization in government with its decisive influence on the life of all layers of society and strict regulation of all its aspects.

After the death of Peter I, the Russian Empire entered an era of palace coups. During the period from 1725 to 1762, six autocrats replaced the Russian throne, including the infant Tsar Ivan Antonovich. All-powerful temporary workers then acquired enormous importance in managing the empire.

The reign of Catherine II (1762 -1796) was marked by the declared policy of “enlightened absolutism”, an unprecedented growth in the privileges of the nobility as the noble class of the Russian Empire and at the same time the unprecedented scope of serfdom.

Attempts by Paul I (1796 - 1801) to limit Catherine's liberties of the noble class led to another palace coup and the murder of the emperor, who irritated the highest officials and officers with his unpredictable actions.

Russia entered the 19th century with a shiny façade of imperial power and a huge burden of ever-increasing domestic political and social problems. Alexander I (1801 - 1825) began his reign with an intense search for ways to reform the huge empire he inherited. However, this process was interrupted by the Patriotic War of 1812, which divided the reign of Alexander I into two different stages: the first was characterized by “constitutional quests”, and the second by the strengthening of the police state - Arakcheevism. The Decembrist movement, which resulted in an armed uprising in 1825 on Senate Square in St. Petersburg, clearly demonstrated the growing opposition to the central government on the part of the Russian noble intelligentsia.

The policies of Nicholas I (1825 -1855), contrary to the requirements of the era, which prevented the reform of the state and social system of autocratic Russia, led the country to a deep socio-economic, political and military crisis in the mid-19th century. Alexander II (1855 - 1881), who replaced Nicholas I, finally carried out the “great reform”, declaring the abolition of serfdom among the peasantry (1861). This was followed by radical changes in central and local government, urban and judicial reforms, reorganization of the army and navy, and democratization of the education system.

However, these reforms did not bridge the gap between the central government and society as a whole, but only radicalized the public consciousness of the revolutionary-minded intelligentsia.

Attempts by Alexander III (1881 -1894) to stabilize the state and political system of autocratic Russia through a series of counter-reforms only widened the gap between the monarch and his subjects.

The accession to the throne of the last Russian autocrat, Nicholas II (1895 -1917), was marked by the unprecedented scope of the revolutionary movement in Russia and the inevitable collapse of the monarchical system.

4. The Soviet state existed from February 1917 until the end of 1991 and is associated with formalizing the foundations of Soviet statehood in the era of the revolutionary transformation of Imperial Russia into the Russian Republic. This stage of development of our state absorbed the crisis of central state power and the decomposition of the ethnopolitical unity of the country, the loss by the Provisional Government of the democratic perspective of state development and the further radicalization of the revolutionary movement in the country, in the wake of which the Bolsheviks led by V.I. came to power as a result of the revolution. Ulyanov (Lenin). During the Civil War, Bolshevism, which became the ideological core of the new system, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which restored the political and territorial unity of most of the former Russian Empire.

At the head of the party-nomenklatura elite of the authoritarian-totalitarian state for 30 years (from the beginning of the 1920s to 1953) was the “great leader and father of peoples” I.V. Stalin.

Thanks to the countless sacrifices and unparalleled heroism of several generations of Soviet people, the Soviet state quickly acquired powerful economic potential and became a powerful industrial power, which allowed the USSR not only to survive, but also to defeat fascism during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945).

At the same time, victory in the war became the beginning of large-scale rivalry between two state-political and economic systems in the international arena - the USSR and the United States of America (USA). In the post-war period, under the conditions of the Cold War, an unprecedented arms race developed, based on Soviet-American rivalry.

Soviet leaders - the heirs of Stalin, realizing the need and inevitability of reforming the outdated model of a totalitarian state, but fearing the loss of party nomenklatura power in the country, tried to carry out reforms without changing the foundations of the socialist system. Attempts at reform during the Thaw period led to the resignation of the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) N.S. Khrushchev (1964), and the policy of “perestroika” of the last General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev ended with the collapse of the USSR as a single totalitarian state and the collapse of the party-Soviet system.

5. The era of the Russian Federation began in December 1991 and continues to the present day. Over the past time, fundamental changes have occurred in the country. The new Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted in 1993, which made it possible to form a democratic political system. Multi-party system has become a reality. Russians elected the President of the Russian Federation, deputies of the State Duma, governors, mayors, and local governments.

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NOU VPO "INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND LAW"

Test

in the discipline "National History"

Belov Artyom Gennadievich

Zhukovsky

Content

1. Primitive history: prerequisites for formation, Vthe emergence and development of the ancient Russian early feudal state
4. The experience of parliamentarism in tsarist Russia
5. Transformation of the Russian state into a multinational power
6. Oprichnina
7. Formation of principles and bodies of state protection (from antiquity to PeterI)
8. Liberalism in Russia
9. Ideas of a constitutional monarchy in Russia (XIX- XXcenturies)
10. Cossacks in Tsarist Russia
11. World War I in Russia
12. Political camps and parties in the first Russian revolution 1905 - 1907.
13. White movement in Russia and its fate
14. International position of the country in 20-30.
15. Post-war world: confrontation between two systems

1. Primitive history: prerequisites for the formation, emergence and development of the ancient Russian early feudal state

In the 9th century, two largest centers of formation of the ancient Russian state took shape - Novgorod (the capital of the Slavs, Krivichi and part of the Finno-Ugric tribes) and Kiev (the center of the Polans, Northerners and Vyatichi), between which there was an intense struggle for leadership in the unification of all East Slavic lands. The North, represented by Novgorod, won this fight. The transfer of the political center of the created Old Russian state of Kyiv in 882 as a result of the victorious campaign of the Novgorod prince Oleg, a native of the Varangians (Normans), is considered the year of the founding of the Old Russian state. The role of the Varangian factor in the formation of Kievan Rus has been the subject of heated scientific and political debate for several centuries. Some believed that the Slavs themselves could not create their own state and statehood was brought to Rus' by the Varangian princes and warriors led by Oleg. Others believed that by the time the Varangians arrived, the Slavs already had statehood, and were at a higher level of its development. It should be borne in mind that the Varangians most likely played the role of accelerating the processes of formation of the ancient Russian state. They were invited to Novgorod initially as a hired squad by the local residents themselves, and then seized power and used it to spread their influence to the South. The reasons for the formation of the Old Russian state are connected not with the personality of this or that person, but with the objective processes that took place in the economic and political evolution of the Eastern Slavs. Having established his power in Kyiv, Oleg managed in a short time to bring the Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi to submission, and his successor, Prince Igor, to the Ulichs and Tivertsi. Igor's son Svyatoslav fought against the Vyatichi, conquered Volga Bulgaria, and undertook a number of successful campaigns against Byzantium. During these numerous campaigns and wars, the main outlines of the territory subject to the Kyiv prince took shape.

An important phenomenon in the economic and political life of Ancient Rus' was the emergence of a large number of cities. The main categories of population in them in terms of numbers and economic status were artisans and merchants.

At the first stage of the existence of the Old Russian state, despite the increasing dependence on the power of the prince and boyars, the traditionally high role of free communities in rural areas and veche authorities in cities remained. The city council, for example, was in charge of issues of war and peace, announced the convocation of the militia, and sometimes even changed princes. However, the right to vote in veche structures belonged to the boyars, church hierarchs, rich townspeople and merchants. The baptism of Rus', begun by Vladimir Svyatoslavich, the prince of Novgorod and Kyiv, met resistance from the people and the pagan priesthood. In 988 - 989, Christianity became the main state religion.

The ancient Russian state reached its peak under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). On his initiative, the first code of laws of the ancient Russian state that has come down to us was introduced - “Russian Truth”. Under Yaroslav, the international position of Rus' also noticeably strengthened: his children were connected by family ties with the largest European royal courts. Stone construction was widespread. In Kyiv, the St. Sophia Cathedral was built on the model of Constantinople. The first school in Rus' was built in Novgorod for children of clergy, a special school for training personnel for public service. The foreign policy situation of Ancient Rus' was also quite calm - the struggle with the Pechenegs, and then the Polovtsians, although it went on continuously, victory was always on the side of Rus'. Among the greatest achievements is the construction and expansion of the cities of Ancient Rus'. The largest stone structures for that time were created: St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, the Golden Gate, the Church of the Tithes and St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. The sign of Novgorod was wooden pavements, which appeared here earlier than in Paris. The first schools were opened in Novgorod and Kyiv. Yaroslav the Wise collected a rich library, which included not only contemporary manuscripts of that time, but also some surviving ancient Greek sources. The beginnings of chronicle writing were laid - the introduction of annual records of major events by year, with the inclusion of documents and their assessments. Old Russian literature also arose, represented by such works as “The Life of Boris and Gleb”, “Teachings to Children” by V. Monomakh, “The Word of Law and Grace” by Hilarion, and epics. The peculiarity of the ancient Russian epic was that its heroes were not princes and boyars, but ordinary people with their problems and concerns. Christianity had a great influence on the cultural development of Ancient Rus'. In addition to stone construction and literacy, it brought a different view of morality from the previous one. Instead of Slavic names, the names of saints of the Orthodox Church were introduced. Thus, the culture of Ancient Rus' was the treasury of a single ancient Russian nation. In the conditions of the beginning of the specific period of development of Rus', it became not only the basis for the development and flourishing of the culture of individual lands, but also a factor that, along with a single language, allows us to talk about Russian territories as a single whole.

2. The main stages of Russian foreign policy in the 19th century

The beginning of the new century was characterized by two most important international circumstances for Russia. Firstly, despite all the attempts of the former monarch to limit French expansion in Europe and the Middle East, it continued and even intensified. Paul's alliance with Napoleon did not lead to its limitation and at the same time deprived Russia of its traditional rather close relations with England. Secondly, the expansion of Russian influence in the Caucasus caused an objective confrontation between Russia and Turkey and Iran. Tensions remained with Sweden, threatening to break out into a new war. Paul I's sharp attacks against Prussia brought Russia to the brink of war with this power. Relations with Austria were also tense, which, after an unsuccessful fight against Napoleon, was forced to conclude a treaty with him in 1801. A peace that consolidated the interests and positions of France in Italy, Belgium, and on the left bank of the Rhine. All this objectively required the new emperor to “change milestones” in foreign policy.

Immediately after the coup, Alexander resumed trade with England. The Cossack units sent to conquer India were immediately recalled. On June 5, 1801, Russia and England concluded a convention “On Mutual Friendship” directed against Napoleon. At first, Alexander was afraid to make an open break with France. In September 1801, a Franco-Russian treaty and a secret agreement were concluded in Paris, which were of a compromise nature and temporarily delayed an open break. It followed only in 1804. By July 1805, Russia and England completed the formation of the third anti-French coalition.

In 1801, Eastern Georgia became part of Russia. In 1803 Mingrelia was conquered. In 1804, Imereti, Guria and Ganja became Russian possessions. In 1805, Karabakh and Shivran were conquered. In 1806 Ossetia was annexed. This rapid penetration of Russia into the Transcaucasus not only worried Turkey and Iran, but also the great European powers, despite their busy fight against Napoleon. In June 1807, a meeting of two emperors took place on a raft in the very middle of the Neman near Tilsit. It led to the conclusion of a peace treaty between the two countries on June 25. It was of a compromise nature. According to this document, Russia recognized all of Napoleon's conquests. She entered into allied relations with France and pledged to enter into war with England if she continued to pursue the same course. Despite the compromise nature of the treaty, Napoleon benefited most from the Peace of Tilsit. French expansion was never stopped. Alexander’s accession to the continental blockade hit hard not only England, but also Russia itself, which suffered great economic damage as a result. Finally, a sharp turn in foreign policy led our country to international isolation, as well as to a decline in the authority of Alexander himself. Russia's international position after Tilsit was extremely difficult. On the one hand, Russia has lost friendly relations with its traditional allies in the anti-French coalition - England, conquered and defeated by Austria and Prussia. On the other hand, the secret agreements in Tilsit on the spheres of influence of France and Russia in Europe opened up for Alexander the possibility of expanding the borders of the empire at the expense of neighboring countries and the successful completion of protracted conflicts with Turkey and Iran. These areas have become the main ones in Russian foreign policy.

3. Political change of the government system. Fall of Soviet power

TO middle 1980s yy. The USSR experienced an economic, social and political crisis. It was expressed in a drop in the growth rate of industrial and agricultural production, a decline in the standard of living of the population, increased corruption, the development of the shadow economy, and an increase in social apathy. An understanding of the need for profound changes was maturing in the public consciousness. They were desired by all layers of society - from ordinary citizens to a certain group of party and government officials.

The country was on the verge of change. The beginning of perestroika is associated with the name of M.S. Gorbachev, who V March 1985 G. became General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee. In April 1985, a course was proclaimed to accelerate the country's socio-economic development. It was planned to improve the structure of management of the national economy, using “Hidden Reserves” to achieve economic growth in a short time, overcome stagnation, and significantly improve the financial situation of the Soviet people. Further developments did not live up to optimistic forecasts. It was not possible to cope with the crisis. As perestroika processes deepened the need for political reform emerged. Without updating the political structures of society, new economic methods of management could not produce tangible results. Realizing this, Gorbachev and his like-minded people went for democratization of political structures. Its main instrument was glasnost - objective coverage of all aspects of the life of society. At the First Congress of People's deputies ( May- June 1988 G.) Gorbachev was elected head of state - Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and in March 1990 - President of the USSR with the right to issue decrees and resolutions that had the force of law. In the process of further democratization of public life in the country, Article 6 (on the leading role of the CPSU) was excluded from the USSR Constitution, the one-party system of governing the country was eliminated, and various parties and social movements began to emerge.

The beginning of changes in the Russian political system is associated with the election of B.N. Yeltsin Chairman of the Supreme Council ( May 1990 G.) and the adoption of the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Federation ( June 1990 G.), which in fact meant the emergence of dual power in the country. By this time, the people were increasingly refusing to trust M.S. Gorbachev, the authority of the CPSU was rapidly falling. Perestroika, based on the ideas of democratic socialism, failed.

Yeltsin's landslide victory in the Russian presidential election 12 June 1991 G. testified to the weakening of the foundations of the old state power. August events 1991 G. led to a radical change in the situation in Russia. All executive authorities of the USSR operating on its territory became directly subordinate to the Russian president. On his instructions, the buildings of the CPSU Central Committee, regional committees, district committees, and archives were closed and sealed. The CPSU ceased to exist as a ruling, state structure. The Supreme Council became the highest authority in the Russian Federation, but real power was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the president.

Yes, in the fall 1991 G. all major legislative acts were put into effect not by parliamentary resolutions, but by its decrees. To spring 1992 G. The balance of political forces changed dramatically. The opposition that arose in parliament sought to weaken presidential structures and establish control over the government. The president's supporters proposed dissolving parliament and stopping the activities of the Congress of People's Deputies. In order to eliminate the confrontation between the legislative and executive powers that had reached dangerous limits, Yeltsin announced a special procedure for governing the country. Presidential rule was actually introduced in Russia. A referendum on confidence in the president and his draft constitution was scheduled for February 25. Although the referendum strengthened the position of the president, the constitutional crisis was not overcome. On the contrary, it took on an increasingly threatening character. The opposition did not hide its intention to limit the power and powers of the president. Then the President, by decree of 21 September 1993 G. " On stage-by-stage constitutional reform in Russia” announced the dissolution of the Congress of People’s Deputies and the Supreme Council and the holding 12 December referendum on the adoption of a new Constitution and holding elections to the bicameral Federal Assembly (State Duma and Federation Council). The ensuing confrontation between the president and parliament ended in the tragic events of October 1993 G. in Moscow.

Russian state world war

4. Experience of parliamentarism in Tsarist Russia

Unlike many European countries, where parliamentary traditions have developed over centuries, in Russia the first representative institution of the parliamentary type (in the newest understanding of this term) was convened only in 1906. It was called the State Duma. Twice it was dispersed by the government, but it existed for about 12 years, until the fall of the autocracy, having four convocations (first, second, third, fourth State Duma).

In all four Dumas (in different proportions, of course), the predominant position among the deputies was occupied by representatives of the local nobility, the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, the urban intelligentsia and the peasantry. They brought to this institution their ideas about the paths of development of Russia and the skills of public discussions. It was especially significant that in the Duma the intelligentsia used skills acquired in university classrooms and court debates, and the peasants carried with them to the Duma many of the democratic traditions of communal self-government. In general, the work of the State Duma was an important factor in political development in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, influencing many spheres of public life.

What can you learn from the experience of the State Duma? Analysis shows that at least two lessons from its existence are still very relevant.

First lesson. Parliamentarism in Russia was an “unwanted child” for the ruling circles. Its formation and development took place in a sharp struggle against authoritarianism, autocracy, and the tyranny of the bureaucracy and executive power.

Lesson two. During the formation of Russian parliamentarism, valuable experience was accumulated in working and combating authoritarian tendencies in the activities of the authorities, which it would be unwise to forget today.

Despite the limited rights, the Duma approved the state budget, significantly influencing the entire mechanism of autocratic power of the Romanov dynasty. She paid great attention to the orphaned and disadvantaged, and was involved in the development of measures for social protection of the poor and other segments of the population. In particular, she developed and adopted one of the most advanced factory legislation in Europe.

The subject of constant concern of the Duma was public education. She rather cockily insisted on the allocation of funds for the construction of schools, hospitals, charity homes, and churches. She paid special attention to the affairs of religious denominations, the development of cultural and national autonomies, and the protection of foreigners from the arbitrariness of central and local officials. Finally, foreign policy problems occupied a significant place in the work of the Duma. The Duma members constantly bombarded the Russian Foreign Ministry and other authorities with requests, reports, instructions, and shaped public opinion.

The Duma’s greatest merit was its unconditional support for lending for the modernization of the Russian army, which was defeated in the war with Japan, the restoration of the Pacific Fleet, and the construction of ships using the most advanced technologies in the Baltic and Black Sea. From 1907 to 1912, the Duma authorized a 51 percent increase in military spending.

There is, of course, a liability, and a considerable one. Despite all the efforts of the Trudoviks, who constantly raised the agrarian question in the Duma, it was powerless to solve it: the landowner opposition was too great, and among the deputies there were many who, to put it mildly, were not interested in solving it in favor of the land-poor peasantry.

The experience of parliamentarism in Tsarist Russia is extremely relevant. It teaches today's parliamentarians militancy, the ability to defend people's interests in conditions of severe pressure from the executive branch, intense struggle, ingenuity in the forms of activity of the deputy corps, high professionalism and activity.

5. Transformation of the Russian state into a multinational power

The process of incorporating different regions and peoples into the Russian state had a heterogeneous typology. In the middle of the 16th century. the main direction was the eastern direction. Russia sought to achieve the annexation of the Kazan Khanate. The proximity to this subsidiary state of the Horde created a constant threat to Russian possessions. Murom, Kostroma, Vologda and other counties were attacked. The need to annex the Volga region was determined by both economic reasons (fertile lands, the mighty Volga River - the most important trade route) and political ones. Despite the fact that the peoples of the Volga region accepted Russian citizenship, the first campaigns against the Kazan Khanate (1547 - 1548; 1549 - 1550) ended in failure. The assault on October 2, 1552 ended with the capture of Kazan.

Four years later, Astrakhan shared the fate of Kazan. Khan Derbysh-Ali fled the city. A year later, the Great Nogai Horde accepted Russian citizenship. The fall of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates created the conditions for the voluntary entry into the Russian state not only of the Mari, Mordovians and Chuvash, but also of Bashkiria, previously subject to the Siberian Khanate. The western part of Bashkiria recognized the power of Tsar Ivan in the 1650s.

Moscow organized a number of actions against the Crimean Khanate. To protect against Crimean raids on the southern Russian districts, the Tula notched line was built - a line of fortresses, forts, forest debris (zasek) to the south and southeast of the Oka. Victories in the Volga region and defensive-offensive measures in the south significantly strengthened the state. The Russian state was an important step towards moving east - to Siberia, the natural resources of which have long attracted attention. Here, in Western Siberia, along the Irtysh, Tobol, Ob and their tributaries lived the Siberian Tatars, Khanty and other small nations. These were cattle breeders (southern regions), hunters and fishermen. But after the Crimean attack on Russia in 1572, the new Khan Kuchum broke relations with the tsar. His warriors began to raid Russian possessions.

The Russian government again set the task of annexing Siberia at the end of the 16th century. At the end of 1581 - beginning of 1582, Ermak’s detachment (about 600 people) marched from the Chusovaya River, crossing the Ural ridge, to the Tura River. Then we moved along the Tobol and Irtysh. At the end of October, the detachment approached Kashlyk, the capital of Khan Kuchum, not far from modern Tobolsk. Here the military detachments of Khan Kuchum (from the Tatars, Khanty and Mansi) were defeated and fled. Khan Kuchum migrated to the south, to the steppe. Local residents began to pay tribute to Moscow. By the end of the century, Kuchum, who attacked Russian troops and forts from the depths of the steppes, suffered a final defeat. The Siberian Khanate ceases to exist. The eastern borders of the state were greatly expanded.

The most important task of Russian foreign policy in the 17th century. there was a struggle for reunification with Ukraine. Most of Ukraine at the beginning of the 17th century. was part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. A special stratum among the population of Ukraine were the Zaporozhye Cossacks. There was no official land ownership in Zaporozhye; the Cossacks had their own self-government - an elected hetman.

Realizing that his own forces were not enough to win independence and a long struggle with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Crimean Khanate, B. Khmelnitsky several times appealed to the Russian government with a request to accept Ukraine into Russian citizenship. And yet Russia began to act actively. The Zemsky Sobor in Moscow on October 1, 1653 decided on reunification. An embassy was sent to Ukraine led by boyar Buturlin, who led the deputies of the Pereyaslav Rada to the oath of allegiance. Russia recognized the election of the hetman, the local court and other authorities that emerged during the war. The tsarist government confirmed the class rights of the Ukrainian nobility. Ukraine received the right to establish diplomatic relations with all countries except Poland and Turkey, and to have registered troops of up to 60 thousand people. Taxes were supposed to go to the royal treasury.

In the West, the Russian state was of particular interest at the beginning of the 18th century. represented an outlet to the Baltic Sea, to which it had been striving for centuries. In 1700, Russia declared war on Sweden. As a result, on August 30, 1721, peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden in the Finnish city of Nystadt. Russia is assigned the Baltic coast from Vyborg to Riga: Ingria, Karelia, Livonia and Estland. Russia paid 1.5 million rubles for the acquired lands. Finland returned to Sweden. The Treaty of Nystadt in 1721 not only legally formalized the victory of Russia, but also confirmed the formation of a new empire. Peter took the title of emperor. Russia entered the international arena, became a great European power, and not a single issue in international life could now be resolved without its participation.

In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. Austria sent its troops into Western Ukraine (Galicia), Prussia - into Pomerania. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus up to Minsk and part of Latvia. In January 1793, Russia was reunited with Right Bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus, from which the Minsk province was later formed.

The second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth caused the rise of the national liberation movement in it. In 1794, Polish patriots under the leadership of T. Kosciuszko rebelled. In the fall of 1794, the troops of A.V. Suvorov entered Warsaw. The uprising was suppressed, Kosciuszko was captured. In October 1795, the third partition of Poland took place, which put an end to its existence. Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and western Belarus went to Russia.

Three fraternal Slavic peoples - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians - have once again united within the framework of a single state. The fate of Estonia and Latvia was decided under Peter I, when, as a result of the Northern War of 1700-1721. they became part of Russia, where they remained until October 1917.

Finland was annexed to Russia in 1809 by the Treaty of Friedrichsham, which summed up the results of the Russian-Swedish war of 1808 - 1809. It received autonomous status as the Grand Duchy of Finland.

After the end of the Northern War, Russia had the opportunity to intensify its foreign policy in the Transcaucasus. In the Caucasus, Russia's interests collided with the claims of Turkey and Iran to these territories.

According to the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783, Kakheti was taken under the protection of Russia. In 1801, Alexander I signed a Manifesto on the acceptance of Eastern Georgia into Russian citizenship. In 1803 - 1804 Russia included the remaining parts of Georgia - Mengrelia, Guria and Imereti. The war ended with the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813. Iran recognized Russian rule over much of the Transcaucasus.

As a result of the Russian-Turkish and Russian-Iranian wars of the late 20s of the 19th century. The second stage in the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia was completed. Georgia, Eastern Armenia, Northern Azerbaijan became part of the Russian Empire.

The North Caucasus was inhabited by many peoples, differing in language, customs, morals and level of social development. At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. The Russian administration concluded agreements with the ruling elite of tribes and communities on their entry into the Russian Empire.

The Central Asian direction consists of three separate entities: the Bukhara Emirate, the Kokand and Khiva Khanates, as well as several independent tribes. To conquer this region from the middle of the 19th century. Russia is being pushed by Great Britain. The first clash occurred with the Kokand Khanate. In 1864, Russian troops M.G. Chernyaev undertook the 1st campaign against Tashkent, but unsuccessfully. The Kokand Khanate was experiencing an acute crisis at that moment; it was weakened by the struggle with Bukhara. M.G. took advantage of this. Chernyaev, in June 1865 he virtually bloodlessly captured Tashkent. In 1866, Tashkent was annexed to Russia. A year later, the Turkestan Governor-General was formed from the conquered territories. The process of conquering Central Asia ended in 1885 with the voluntary entry of Merv (the territory bordering Afghanistan) into Russia. Thus, the lands of Central Asia were mainly conquered by Russia. A semi-colonial regime was established on them. On the other hand, as part of Russia, the Central Asian peoples received the opportunity for accelerated development.

Central Asia was gradually drawn into Russia's internal trade, becoming a source of raw materials and a market for Russian textiles, metal and other products. In other words, the peoples of Central Asia within Russia have not lost their national, cultural and religious traits. On the contrary, from the moment of their accession the process of their consolidation and the creation of modern Central Asian nations began.

6. Oprichnina

In 1565, Tsar Ivan 4 suddenly left Moscow, taking with him his family, treasury, and courtyard. He addressed messages to the Boyar Duma remaining in Moscow and to the townspeople, in which he accused the boyars of treason and set the conditions for his return to the capital. All conditions were accepted, and soon the tsar returned, but he announced the establishment of a special state appanage - the oprichnina, which included the most economically developed territories. All owners of patrimonial lands were evicted to another part of the country that remained under the control of the Boyar Duma - the zemshchina. In the oprichnina domain, the tsar began to form his own bodies of state power - the Duma, orders, and court. They also organized their own (oprichnina) army, which turned into an instrument of political terror and repression, carried out under the leadership of the Tsar’s closest assistant, Malyuta Skuratov, Belsky.

The question of the essence of the oprichnina is controversial in Russian historical literature. In recent years, the previously unchallenged view that the oprichnina was necessary to strengthen the central government in the fight against the boyar opposition has been revised. However, in his works V.B. Kobrin showed that within the framework of centralization, reforms of the Elected Rada were also carried out, and it was they that led to very positive results that had long-term significance. The oprichnina terror equally punished both representatives of the boyar class and the nobles, as well as other categories of the population, and therefore cannot be assessed solely as an anti-boyar action. As a result, a despotic regime of personal power was established under Ivan 4, nicknamed the Terrible during these years, which turned out to be less effective than the reforms of the 50s. As a result, the tsar agreed to abolish the oprichnina in 1572, but at the same time the despotic regime itself was preserved.

The result of the oprichnina was the economic and political crisis of the 70-80s, the ruin of peasant farms, which were the basis of the economic life of the country and, as a consequence, a series of defeats on the fields of military battles. In the long term, the oprichnina largely determined the crisis of power and the Troubles of the early 17th century.

7. Formation of principles and bodies of state protection (from antiquity to Peter I)

At the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries, statehood actually began to take shape in Rus'. One of the most important functions of the Russian state has become the function of reliable security and defense of state territory and the inviolability of state borders. This type of activity was the prerogative of the princely power, which, in the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, initially acted as a “border guard” and only then, uniting with the trading elite of the cities, turned into a structure that took care of the defense of the country’s borders and maintaining the security of trade routes to overseas markets. On this occasion, the famous Russian historian S.F. Platonov quite rightly emphasized that “the Kyiv princes came to the Russian land for the first time as defenders of its borders, and in this respect, subsequent princes did not differ from the first.”

In the 10th-11th centuries, ancient Russian statehood reached its peak. At the same time, endless armed clashes with neighbors, and primarily with nomads, prompted the Old Russian state to take care of strengthening the armed protection of its own borders. Under these conditions, a fairly harmonious, echeloned, interconnected border guard system of a military-defensive nature was created in Rus', the main elements of which were special engineering and fortification structures - guard lines, temporarily assembled forces to serve in identifying attacks on Russian lands being prepared by neighbors and in advance notification of this to the population of Rus' and the Grand Duke, as well as the forces of the Grand Duke's squad (and, if necessary, militia from among the local population). But a special permanent centralized state body responsible for ensuring state security in the border area (i.e., border service) was not created during this period of history.

At the same time, the first known chronicle mention of government measures to organize the protection of the borders of Rus' and their protection dates back to 988, when the Grand Duke of Kiev Vladimir appealed to the population to stand up for the protection of the borders of the Russian Land. It was under Vladimir the Saint that a set of measures was carried out in the Old Russian state to organize the protection of its borders and ensure more reliable protection of its territory. These measures were predominantly military-defensive in nature and included: the introduction of the so-called service on the outskirts of the state. "heroic outposts"; construction of fortified cities (large and small), located in the most convenient places for defense; erection of guard lines along the routes of probable enemy invasion; extensive use of natural obstacles (forests, rivers, ravines, etc.); mobilization of the necessary forces and means to perform overseas service; organizing an alert and warning service about the appearance of the enemy; rapid concentration at strategically important points of the necessary military forces from various cities and principalities in the event of a direct military threat to the state.

With the collapse in the second quarter of the 12th century. The Old Russian state broke up into separate (often warring) feudal principalities and a unified system for protecting its border borders. The borders of Russian lands and principalities in this period of historical development represented, in essence and in the terminology of that time, the boundaries of their own possession, state-political supremacy and economic sovereignty. In fact, they were installed for the purpose of “toll travel.” Thus, in a number of treaty documents of the XIII - XIV centuries. Novgorod and its neighbors indicated mutual obligations to observe the “old line” or “old line.” The boundaries were called “right”, i.e. mutually approved, recognized, actually legalized. At the same time, the boundaries of the Russian principalities of the appanage-veche period in the history of Rus', in modern terms, were transparent. But this did not mean that they were beyond the control of the princes: any attempts by neighbors to change their passage often led to wars. In other cases, complete freedom was established for people when crossing them. And that was the law. This is evidenced by the words of one of the contractual documents: “And between us, our people and the guest, the path is clear, without a boundary: and whoever makes a boundary or withdrawal, the boundary officer and the withdrawal officer will be handed over as correct.” Particular attention was paid to the passage of ambassadors, for whom “the path was clear and free of dirty tricks.” At the same time, both Russian and foreign traders were firmly aware of the existence of the borders of the Russian principalities. Trading people, crossing the borders of the principality with goods, were required to pay certain duties for this: first of all, wash and bones (bones).

To collect entry duties, the princes appointed special service people - Mytniks (Mytchiki), who served on the borders in strictly designated places, “at the gate” (outpost), on the main roads connecting the principalities. If trading people tried to bypass the gates, then the tax collectors, having detained the violators, subjected them to a fine, which was called promyt and was many times higher than the tow.

In fact, in the XIII-XIV centuries. the borders of Russian principalities and lands began to have not a conditional, but a certain concrete-objective meaning. They received their formalization on the ground, which was confirmed by bilateral written agreements on boundaries and boundary documents. It was here, on the borders of the principalities, that not only the tasks of armed defense of their territorial possessions began to be carried out, but also the tasks of protecting the economic interests of the principalities.

During the same period, the foundations were laid for the protection of both land and river, lake and sea sections of the border. So during this period, in the coastal lands of Rus', there was a so-called “sea guard” (usually guards at river mouths), which set up special patrols with the same responsibilities as land border guards. For example, posts (watches) of the naval guard carried out guard duty on the outskirts of the Novgorod land at the mouths of the Neva and Izhora, on the shores of Lake Peipus near the Crow Stone, etc. Their service was quite efficient. The victory in July 1240 of Alexander Yaroslavovich, Prince of Novgorod (1236 - 1251), was largely achieved thanks to the patrol of the Izhorian sea guard, led by Elder Pelgusy (Pelguy). The sentinels promptly discovered the invasion of the Swedish army into the Novgorod lands, conducted reconnaissance and reported it to the prince. And Alexander’s decisive actions and the unexpected blow of the army he led ensured the victory of the Russians over the Swedes, who had violated the northwestern borders of Rus'.

And yet, the appanage princes, not having sufficient strength, moreover, sometimes actively opposing each other, were unable to do so in the 13th - 14th centuries. ensure the security of the borders of their principalities, their reliable protection, repel invasions of the Mongol-Tatars, Hungarians, Poles, and Lithuanians into their borders.

The formation and strengthening of a new state entity - the Grand Duchy of Moscow - created the conditions for the restoration of a strong Russian statehood destroyed by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and with it a new system for protecting the borders of the Russian state.

In the second half of the 14th century, the service for protecting the borders of the Great Moscow Principality was reduced to monitoring the movement of the Tatar hordes and delivering “news” (reports) about this to Moscow, which was carried out by “secret guards” and “hidden dens” (places) located far from the Moscow borders serving as voluntary servants of the Moscow prince).

In the 15th century, the Moscow princes managed to create the so-called watchdog service in Russian border cities, the task of which was to monitor the advance of the enemy army (or its individual predatory detachments) to the Russian borders, and timely notify the border governors and the Grand Duke about this. For many years, this service was temporary and organized only in the most threatened areas. The guards actually represented up to a regiment of Russian army led by a prince or governor.

Having united by the beginning of the 16th century. Under its rule, almost all the lands of northwestern and northeastern Rus', the Moscow state came into direct contact with Sweden, Poland, German lands, and the Tatar khanates. These states, including Moscow itself, had quite ambitious aspirations and far-reaching plans aimed at expanding their rights to more and more new territories, strengthening economic and military-political influence in Central and Eastern Europe. As a result, endless interstate conflicts and disputes arose, which were quite often resolved with the help of military force. Only in the first half of the 16th century. The Crimean Khan undertook 48 predatory military campaigns against Rus'.

In the 16th century, the great princes and sovereigns of all Rus' in the western sections of the state’s border ensured its security by constantly staying near the border of regiments of the Russian army, which to a certain extent began to solve the problems of quarantine control within the border territories. On the southern and southeastern borders of Russia in the summer months, the main forces of the Russian army carried out the so-called “coast service” as part of regiments.

In the last quarter of the 16th century, with the formation and significant strengthening of the Russian centralized state, with the development of a coherent system of public administration in it (which was based on the activities of various Orders), with the development of the legal system (here we are primarily talking about the two famous Code of Laws), the service protection of the “sovereign borders” received a fundamentally new device.

It became known as watchdog, village and field service. At the end of the 16th century it reached its peak. The service had a military-defensive, secretive, reconnaissance and search character. The guard and stanitsa service became not only an element of ensuring the security of the Russian state, but also an instrument of its active border policy, a means of steady agricultural colonization of the southeastern territories.

During the “Time of Troubles” in Russia, there was no service on the borders of Russia. Its restoration began only with the accession to the Russian throne of the Romanov dynasty. With some changes, the entire system of organizing the system of protection and defense of Russia's borders in the 17th century repeated the domestic experience in this area accumulated by the end of the 16th century.

In the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries, with the expansion of the state's territory in the Russian borderlands, active construction of powerful border fortified lines began, on which large contingents of state troops began to be stationed. The involvement of Cossack formations in border protection on a legal basis has become widespread. The abolition of the order system of public administration in Russia and the formation of collegiums, the fundamental development of the legal system, the creation of regular regiments of the Russian army and a number of other transformations led to the fact that the former guard and stanitsa service in the country was replaced by an outpost service, which began to be carried out by the forces of the military department. The troops who carried out this service, in addition to military-defensive tasks, were also assigned the tasks of quarantine supervision, streamlining the procedure for crossing the state border and state boundaries exclusively through customs, customs outposts and other points, the tasks of detaining and capturing fugitives and deserters, meeting and escorting within Russia, ambassadors and eminent foreigners. During this period, troops solved a wide range of tasks on the country’s borders. The question of creating a special Russian border service was not raised.

In addition to the border guards, the state was also protected by a standing army. Delving into the history of the 9th-13th centuries, we must begin with the fact that the main part of the princely army (army) was the squad. It had a clear classification of people according to their level of experience and professionalism. She was divided into older and younger. The senior squad included not only Slavs, but also various Scandinavians who contributed to the formation of the ancient Russian army. The younger group was divided into three subgroups: youths (military servants, who could be people of various nationalities), gridi (the prince’s bodyguards) and children’s (children of older warriors). Later, new categories appeared in the younger squad - almsmen (armed at the expense of the prince) and stepsons (a prototype of the gentry). The system of official position is also known - after the prince came the governors, then the thousanders, centurions, and tens. By the middle of the 11th century, the senior squad turned into the boyars. The exact number of squads is unknown, but it was small. One prince hardly has more than 2000 people. For example, in 1093, the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk had 800 youths. But, in addition to the professional squad, free community members from the common people and the urban population could also take part in wars. In the chronicles they are mentioned as warriors. The number of such a militia could be several thousand people. At the same time, women took part in some campaigns on an equal basis with men. People living on the border combined crafts and agriculture with the functions of border troops. Since the 12th century, cavalry has been actively developing, which is divided into heavy and light. The Russians were not inferior to any of the European nations in military matters.

Sometimes foreigners were hired to serve. Most often these were Normans, Pechenegs, then Cumans, Hungarians, Berendeys, Torques, Poles, Balts, and occasionally even Bulgarians, Serbs and Germans.

The bulk of the army was infantry. But by that time there was already cavalry formed to protect against the Pechenegs and other nomads, taking into account the Hungarian experience. There was also a good fleet consisting of rooks.

Armament varied depending on the stratification. Swords were mainly used by senior warriors and gridi. Two types of battle axes were very actively used - Varangian axes with long handles and Slavic infantry hatchets. Impact weapons were widespread - maces with bronze or iron tops. Flails were also very much used, but as an additional weapon, and not the main one. The main protective equipment was shields, teardrop-shaped or round. Helmets in Rus' have always traditionally been dome-shaped, with only a few exceptions.

At the turn of the XIV-XVI centuries, for various reasons, the main one being the influence of Asian peoples (especially the Mongols), the importance of cavalry sharply increased. The entire squad becomes mounted and by this time is gradually transformed into a noble militia. The Mongols also had a great influence on military tactics - the mobility of cavalry and its use of deceptive techniques increased. That is, the basis of the army is quite numerous noble cavalry, and the infantry fades into the background.

Firearms in Rus' began to be used at the end of the 14th century. The exact date is unknown, but it is believed that this happened under Dmitry Donskoy no later than 1382. With the development of field firearms, heavy cavalry lost its importance, but light cavalry could effectively resist it, which, in particular, was shown by the battle of Vorskla. At the end of the 15th century, they moved from the feudal militia to a standing all-Russian army. Its basis was the noble local cavalry - the sovereign's servicemen, united in regiments under the command of the grand ducal commanders. But at first they did not have firearms. It was used by gunners and squeakers, the first information about which dates back to the beginning of the 15th century.

Under Ivan the Third, a system of military recruitment for temporary service was introduced. Squads of squeakers were formed from the urban population. From the rural areas - auxiliary infantry detachments - a marching army. A clear system for collecting military personnel was developed. The military command was the grand ducal governors. The noble cavalry was equipped with hand grips, convenient for shooting while riding. Under Ivan the Fourth, the Streltsy army appears. Streltsy are a fairly numerous (several thousand) infantry armed with arquebuses. Recruited from among urban and rural residents. The total number of troops in the middle of the 16th century could be increased to 300 thousand people. The nobles supplied one man with full weapons and a horse from one hundred quarters of good land. For long trips - with two horses and supplies for the summer. Landowners supplied one person from 50 households, or from 25 households if necessary. The army usually gathered by March 25th. Those who did not appear at the appointed place were deprived of their estate. Non-local troops (merchants, foreigners, clerks, etc.) received a salary for their service - such troops were called stern troops.

Back in the 30s of the 17th century, “regiments of the new system” appeared, that is, soldier, reiter and dragoon regiments formed according to Western European models. By the end of the century, their number amounted to over half the number of all troops, which amounted to over 180 thousand people (not counting more than 60 thousand Cossacks). The army reform was carried out under Peter the Great. In 1698-1699, the rifle regiments were disbanded, and regular soldiers were formed instead. In preparation for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training of recruits according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. This first recruitment gave Peter 25 infantry regiments and 2 cavalry - dragoons. At first, he formed an officer corps from his friends, former members of the “amusing regiments,” and later from the nobility. The army was divided into field (infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineering troops), local (garrison troops and land militia) and irregular (Cossacks and steppe peoples) troops. In total, its number exceeded 200 thousand people. The infantry had approximately twice as many men as the cavalry. In 1722, a system of ranks was introduced - the Table of Ranks.

The armament was also changed to a European style. The infantry was armed with smoothbore rifles with bayonets, swords, cutlasses, and grenades. Dragoons - carbines, pistols and broadswords. The officers also had halberds, which were not the best weapons for battle. The uniform was similarly changed.

On October 20, 1696, the Boyar Duma decided to found a navy. The ships were built with the help of European engineers, and by 1722 Russia had a good fleet of 130 sailing and 396 rowing ships.

After this, until the middle of the 19th century, there were no particularly serious changes in the structure of the army.

8. Liberalism in Russia

Liberal ideas penetrated into Russia in the 18th century, almost immediately after their appearance and theoretical formulation in Europe, and it is incorrect to attribute liberalism only to Western borrowing, as most foreign researchers believe. Liberalism is one of the intellectual traditions of Russian social thought, associated with the new conditions for the development of Russia, namely, with its “entry” into a new historical cycle, the emergence of the sprouts of bourgeois civilization, and therefore with the entry onto the path of pan-European development, with subordination to the same historical laws that determine the development of Europe. The ideas of liberalism became the most adequate form of expression of this process, which was noted by both outstanding Russian thinkers and some foreign researchers.

Russian liberalism went through three waves, three stages in its historical development. Each of them had its own characteristics.

The first stage - “government” liberalism, initiated “from above” - covered the periods of the reign of Catherine II and Alexander I: it was liberal-educational in content, relied on an enlightened limited monarchy (constitutional projects of M.M. Speransky), and caused the Decembrist movement in opposition to the autocracy.

The second stage (wave) is liberalism of the post-reform period, i.e. “protective” or conservative liberalism is distinguished by its political, sociological and philosophical theories (conceptual foundations - K.D. Kavelin, systematic development - B.N. Chicherin, P.B. Struve). He influenced the worldview of S.L. Franka, S.N. Bulgakov in the tradition of liberal conservatism. He caused the zemstvo, and from the beginning of the 90s - the bourgeois liberal movement.

The third stage is the “new” liberalism of the beginning of the century (before October 1917), i.e. social liberalism, which proclaimed the need to ensure every citizen “the right to a decent human existence.” He gave impetus to a new understanding of the problems of the rule of law and “legal socialism” in an environment of ideological struggle with both representatives of conservative and left-radical forces (N.I. Kareev, P.I. Novgorodtsev, B.A. Kistyakovsky, S.I. Gessen , M.M. Kovalevsky, P.N. Milyukov, L.A. Petrazhitsky, S.A. Muromtsev, etc.), prepared, along with the second direction, the formation of the liberal Cadet Party, and subsequently its split. Conventionally, the political-sociological and philosophical-legal content of the ideas of first-wave liberalism can be characterized as the official version. The second wave - as a more “right” option in comparison with classical liberalism (synthesis of the ideas and values of liberalism and conservatism), and the third wave - as a more “left” option (synthesis of classical liberalism and some socialist and social democratic ideas) in comparison with " pure" economic and political liberalism.

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The main stages of the formation and development of Russian statehood

Introduction

Russian state political empire ruler

The Russian state, in order to become a state, underwent five main stages:

v Old Russian state.

v Moscow state.

v Russian Empire.

v Soviet state.

v Russian Federation.

I. Old Russian state (mid-9th century - mid-15th century)

Kimevskaya Rums, also the Old Rums state (Old Slavic Rus, Russian land, Greek ?SchuYab (First used Konstantin Porphyrogenitus V treatise "About management empire" (948--952 gg.)), lat. Russia, Ruthenia, Russia, Ruzzia ( Writing Russia typical For Latin texts from Northern Germany And Central Europe, Ruzzia -- For South Germany, various variations Rus(s)i, Rus(s)ia -- For Romance-speaking countries, England And Scandinavia. Along with With these forms With started XII century V Europe starts be used book term Rut(h)enia, educated By consonance from name antique people ruthenov), ex. Garрar, Garррнki (Designation Rus' V Swedish, Norwegian And Icelandic sources, including runic inscriptions, skalds And sagas First meets V hanging Hallfreda Difficult skald (996 year). IN basis toponym lies root garр- with meaning "city", "fortified settlement". C XII century is being forced out shape Garррнki - letters "A country cities")) .

WITH a medieval state in Eastern Europe that arose in the 9th century as a result of the unification of East Slavic tribes under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty. At its peak, Kievan Rus occupied the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the headwaters of the Northern Dvina in the north. By the middle of the 12th century, it entered a state of political fragmentation (in Soviet Marxist historiography -- feudal fragmentation) and actually broke up into one and a half dozen separate Russian principalities, ruled by different branches of the Rurikovichs. Until the Mongol invasion (1237-1240), Kyiv formally continued to be considered the main table of Rus', and the Principality of Kiev remained in the collective possession of Russian princes.

Kyiv Rus' arose on the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” on the lands of the East Slavic tribes -- Ilmen Slovenians, Krivichi, Polyans, then covering the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Polochans, Radimichi, Northerners, Vyatichi.

This period was marked by the establishment of the basic principles of statehood in Rus', the merging of its northern and southern centers, the increase in the military-political and international influence of the state, and the onset of the stage of its fragmentation and loss of centralized control, which was natural for early feudal monarchies.

The first information about the state of the Rus dates back to the first third of the 9th century: in 839, the ambassadors of the Kagan of the people of Rus were mentioned, who arrived first in Constantinople, and from there to the court of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious. From this time on, the ethnonym “Rus” also became known. The term “Kievan Rus” appears for the first time in historical studies of the 18th-19th centuries.

“Per year 6370 (862). They drove the Varangians overseas, and did not give them tribute, and began to control themselves, and there was no truth among them, and generation after generation arose, and they had strife, and began to fight with each other. And they said to themselves: “Let’s look for a prince who would rule over us and judge us by right.” And they went overseas to the Varangians, to Rus'. Those Varangians were called Rus, as others are called Swedes, and some Normans and Angles, and still others Gotlanders, -- like this and these. The Chud, the Slovenians, the Krivichi and all said to the Russians: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule over us." And three brothers were chosen with their clans, and they took all of Rus' with them, and they came and the eldest, Rurik, sat down in Novgorod, and the other, Sineus, -- on Beloozero, and the third, Truvor, -- in Izborsk. And from those Varangians the Russian land was nicknamed. Novgorodians -- Those people are from the Varangian family, but before that they were Slovenians.” (“The Tale of Bygone Years” translated by D. S. Likhachev)

II. Grand Duchy of Moscow (late 15th - mid-16th century)

Muscovy -- various names of Russia, relating to the period from the adoption by Ivan III of the title of Sovereign of All Rus' (1478-1485) to the transfer of the state capital to St. Petersburg (1712). According to the royal title, which determined the official name of the state, this period belongs to the eras of the Grand Duchy of Moscow (before 1547) and the Russian Tsardom.

The term “Moscow State” is found both in historical documents and writings of the 16th and early 18th centuries, and in scientific historical literature (historiography) of the 19th–21st centuries.

As noted by S.O. Schmidt, “for more than a century and a half, the expressions “Moscow State” and “Moscow Kingdom” have been recognized as generally accepted. They are usually used as identical to the terms “Russian state” and “Russian state”. “The phrases “Moscow State” and “Moscow Sovereign”, “Moscow Kingdom” and “Moscow Tsar”, “Moscow Land” were adopted in Russia itself in the 16th and especially in the 17th centuries, which is confirmed by a variety of written sources.”

Under Ivan the Terrible and his successors, the concept of the Moscow state was used in a narrow sense and corresponded to the old concept of the Moscow principality. The full title of the Moscow rulers included the names of various former principalities and republics, to which over time the term “states” began to be applied. The entire territory that was under the rule of the tsar and called the Russian kingdom was understood by contemporaries as a conglomerate of these states, that is, as many thrones occupied by a single monarch. In various documents and works, the phrase “Moscow state of the Russian kingdom” found only meant part of the overall Russian kingdom, albeit the main one, including the location of the royal throne. The name of the famous literary monument of the French traveler Jacques Margeret should be understood in the same vein. -- The state of the Russian state and the Grand Duchy of Moscow, written in 1608.

During this era, the final liberation of Russian lands from the vassal dependence of the Golden Horde took place, the process of “gathering lands” around Moscow was completed, and the basic state-political, socio-economic and cultural principles of the Russian autocracy were formalized. A striking manifestation of the increase in the authority of the Moscow sovereign was the solemn crowning of Ivan IV to the throne in 1547. This event was followed by the most important reforms of government bodies, the judicial system, the army, and the church.

The emergence of the Russian autocracy in the 16th century was accompanied by its successes in the field of centralization of the state and the intensification of foreign policy. The growth of the international authority of the Moscow state was also facilitated by a significant expansion of its territory due to successful campaigns of conquest and the colonization of new lands in the east.

All this led to the formation of the Great Russian nation.

Russian the state, in addition to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, included the neighboring main territories of Great Russia, annexed under Ivan III: the Novgorod Republic, the great principalities: Tver, Yaroslavl, Rostov, and partially Ryazan, cities conquered from Lithuania: Novgorod-Seversky, Chernigov, Bryansk. The idea of gathering all Russian lands into a single state, including those related to Lithuania and, subsequently, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was traced throughout the existence of the Russian state and was inherited by the Russian Empire.

Ivan III, like his predecessors Dmitry Shemyaka and Vasily the Dark, used the title “sovereign of all Rus'” long before the annexation of Tver in 1485 and the conquest of the Novgorod Republic in 1471). However, Lithuania did not want to recognize this title: so in March 1498, Prince was sent to Lithuania. V. V. Romodanovsky. The embassy was supposed, among other things, to achieve recognition by Lithuania of Ivan III of the title of Grand Duke of “All Rus'”.

The collapse of the Golden Horde into several khanates, which was predetermined by the defeat of Tokhtamysh by Timur in 1395, made it possible for the Moscow princes to pursue an independent policy towards each of them. The Kasimov Khanate, formed on the middle Oka under Vasily the Dark, was an ally of Moscow. The Kazan Khanate became the object of constant military pressure from Moscow, during which in 1487 Ivan III accepted the title of “Prince of Bulgaria”. The Crimean Khanate, after the attempt of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat to capture it, became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, an ally of Moscow and an enemy of the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV. While standing on the Ugra in 1480, the Crimean Khan launched a campaign against the southern Russian possessions of Casimir and thereby diverted his forces from the Moscow-Horde confrontation. And although a general battle did not take place, Akhmat lost power in the Horde, a year later he was killed, and in 1502 the Great Horde was divided between different khanates.

Board Ivan III and Vasily III completed the process of expanding the external borders of the Grand Duchy of Moscow at the expense of other Russian lands that did not belong to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The main stages in this were the annexation of the Novgorod Republic (1478), the Grand Duchy of Tver (1485), the Pskov Republic (1510) and the Ryazan Grand Duchy (1521).

At the same time, there was a process of increasing the grand ducal possessions at the expense of liquidated appanages and the distribution of lands to Moscow nobles under the condition of service -- estates, which at first were lifelong holdings, and from the beginning of the 16th century -- hereditary. The centralization of management was facilitated by the publication of an all-Russian code of laws, which, in particular, protected the interests of landowners by limiting the transition of peasants on St. George's Day in the autumn.

After Moscow’s successes in the fight against the Tatar khanates, the princes of the appanage Verkhovsky principalities, together with their lands, transferred from Lithuanian service to Moscow, which became the cause of the first of the Russian-Lithuanian wars at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. In 1500, the grandson of Vasily the Dark's main rival in the struggle for power in the 15th-16th centuries, Vasily Ivanovich Shemyachich, Prince of Novgorod-Seversky and Rylsky, also switched to Moscow service. As a result of the second war, a third of the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania went to Moscow. After this, Lithuania entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khanate. As a result of the fourth war (1512-1522), the Smolensk lands were ceded to Moscow.

During the reign of Ivan III, disagreements arose among church hierarchs over the issue of church property. The group defending the permissibility of significant church properties was led by Joseph Volotsky (“Josephites”), and the group advocating their inadmissibility -- Nil Sorsky (“non-possessors”). The secular authorities were initially inclined to support the second group, seeing in this an opportunity to increase the grand-ducal possessions, but did not dare to undertake large-scale secularization (with the exception, in particular, of including part of the lands of the Novgorod archbishop into the grand-ducal possessions after the annexation of the Novgorod Republic to the Moscow Principality).

In 1547, the Sovereign of All Rus' and Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Ivan Vasilyevich (Ivan IV the Terrible) was crowned Tsar of All Rus', and took the full title: “We, Great Sovereign Ivan, by the grace of God, Tsar and Grand Duke of All Russia, Vladimir, Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, Rezan, Tver, Yugorsk, Perm, Vyatsk, Bulgarian and others”, subsequently added “Kazan, Astarahan”, “and all Siberian lands ruler”.

The new title of the Russian autocrat began to fully correspond to historical reality after the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates. Therefore, only in 1557 Moscow politicians and diplomats turned to the Patriarch of Constantinople with a request to approve the royal wedding. In 1561, it was approved by a charter given on behalf of the Council and Patriarch Joasaph II of Constantinople.

Global acceptance of the change has varied. England readily recognized Ivan's new title and even called him “emperor.” In Catholic countries, recognition came later: in 1576, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II recognized Ivan as Tsar of All Rus'.

III. Russian Empire (late 17th - early 20th centuries)

Russian Empire (Russian doref. Russian Empire; also All-Russian Empire, Russian State or Rossimya) -- a state that existed from October 22 (November 2), 1721 until the February Revolution and the proclamation of the republic in 1917.

The Empire was proclaimed on October 22 (November 2), 1721, following the results of the Northern War, when, at the request of senators, Russian Tsar Peter I the Great accepted the titles of Emperor of All Russia and Father of the Fatherland.

The capital of the Russian Empire was first St. Petersburg in 1721-1728, then Moscow in 1728-1730, then again St. Petersburg in 1730-1917 (in 1914 the city was renamed Petrograd).

The Russian Empire was the third largest state that ever existed (after the British and Mongol Empires) -- extended to the Arctic Ocean in the north and the Black Sea in the south, to the Baltic Sea in the west and the Pacific Ocean in the east. Head of the Empire -- Emperor of All Russia, had unlimited, absolute power until 1905.

On September 1 (14), 1917, the Provisional Government of Russia proclaimed the country a republic (although in fact Russia was a republic after the February Revolution). However, the legislature of the empire -- The State Duma -- was dissolved only on October 6 (19) of the same year.

The state of the Russian Empire covers the era from the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 20th century. During this time, the formation, flourishing and collapse of the Russian autocratic monarchy took place.

...

Soviet period of development of the Russian state. History of Russia (briefly)

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1. Primitive history: prerequisites for the formation, emergence and development of the ancient Russian early feudal state

An important phenomenon in the economic and political life of Ancient Rus' was the emergence of a large number of cities. The main categories of population in them in terms of numbers and economic status were artisans and merchants.

2. The main stages of Russian foreign policy in the 19th century

3. Political change of the government system. Fall of Soviet power

4. Experience of parliamentarism in Tsarist Russia

What can you learn from the experience of the State Duma? Analysis shows that at least two lessons from its existence are still very relevant.

First lesson. Parliamentarism in Russia was an “unwanted child” for the ruling circles. Its formation and development took place in a sharp struggle against authoritarianism, autocracy, and the tyranny of the bureaucracy and executive power.

Lesson two. During the formation of Russian parliamentarism, valuable experience was accumulated in working and combating authoritarian tendencies in the activities of the authorities, which it would be unwise to forget today.

5. Transformation of the Russian state into a multinational power

Finland was annexed to Russia in 1809 by the Treaty of Friedrichsham, which summed up the results of the Russian-Swedish war of 1808 - 1809. It received autonomous status as the Grand Duchy of Finland.

After the end of the Northern War, Russia had the opportunity to intensify its foreign policy in the Transcaucasus. In the Caucasus, Russia's interests collided with the claims of Turkey and Iran to these territories.

As a result of the Russian-Turkish and Russian-Iranian wars of the late 20s of the 19th century. The second stage in the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia was completed. Georgia, Eastern Armenia, Northern Azerbaijan became part of the Russian Empire.

6. Oprichnina

7. Formation of principles and bodies of state protection (from antiquity to Peter I)

The formation and strengthening of a new state entity - the Grand Duchy of Moscow - created the conditions for the restoration of a strong Russian statehood destroyed by the Mongol-Tatar invasion, and with it a new system for protecting the borders of the Russian state.

Sometimes foreigners were hired to serve. Most often these were Normans, Pechenegs, then Cumans, Hungarians, Berendeys, Torques, Poles, Balts, and occasionally even Bulgarians, Serbs and Germans.

The bulk of the army was infantry. But by that time there was already cavalry formed to protect against the Pechenegs and other nomads, taking into account the Hungarian experience. There was also a good fleet consisting of rooks.

On October 20, 1696, the Boyar Duma decided to found a navy. The ships were built with the help of European engineers, and by 1722 Russia had a good fleet of 130 sailing and 396 rowing ships.

After this, until the middle of the 19th century, there were no particularly serious changes in the structure of the army.

8. Liberalism in Russia

Russian liberalism went through three waves, three stages in its historical development. Each of them had its own characteristics.

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