Municipal budgetary educational institution
Novozorinsk secondary school
Pavlovsky district
“School years of the 80s and today...”
(Research work)
Primary school teacher
Ermolaeva Anna Mikhailovna
New Dawns
year 2014
Introduction
In different families different reasons for pride. My pride is my mother. One day, while looking at my grandmother’s family photo album, I saw my mother’s school photographs. Then I asked my grandmother how my mother studied and she showed me my mother’s School journal, diplomas and first class writing.
I became very interested in how her school years were, how they studied in the 80s and what they did. As a result, the idea arose to make a project on the theme “School years of the 80s and today.” I hope that my project will help you take a fascinating journey into the past!
Objective of the project - establish what is common and how the school years of the 80s and today differ.
Project objectives:
identify differences in the study of school subjects using the example of copybooks for 1st grade;
determine the practicality and convenience of school uniforms;
study school organizations of the 80s;
conduct an interview about the hobbies of children in the 80s.
Project type: research.
Project participants: class teacher, my mother and me.
Relevance of the project: working on the project will provide an opportunity not only to learn more deeply and better about the history of your family, but also to learn about school life in the 80s. I am proud of my family and I am interested in everything related to the history of my family and my school.
Novelty of the project: I imagine my work as a journey into the past, to the time when my mother was in first grade. It is interesting to observe changes in school life over time using the example of your family.
Expected results:
1. Creating a presentation based on the results of research work.
2. Performing in front of classmates at your home school.
3. Presentation of the work at the regional research competition.
Object of study: school.
Research methods:
study of family heirlooms;
practical work;
conversation;
collecting information from books, magazines, dictionaries;
survey;
comparison and generalization.
The project took place in several stages:
Stage 1 – research of family heirlooms, selection and study of literature.
Stage 2 – conversations with mother, grandmother; conducting an experiment; analysis of results.
Stage 3 – design of the project.
Practical and theoretical significance: the collected material reflects the history of my mother's school life in the 80s and my school life at the present time.
Expected Result:
acquiring knowledge about the history of school life for children in the 80s;
fostering interest and respect for the history of your family;
creation of the presentation “School years of the 80s and today.”
Practical part.
Earlier school books and even the copybooks were completely different. Nowadays, few people have preserved old Soviet textbooks, and the copybooks from the 80s have become a real rarity. So what were the rules for first grade 25 years ago?
Mom helped us answer this question by showing us her copybook from 1985. I am proud of my mother and grandmother because they carefully preserved family heirlooms. We have the opportunity to find similarities and differences between my 2011 copybook and my mother’s 1985 copybook.
My actions
My observations and conclusions
Let's look at the design of the recipes.
Mom’s copybook is printed on gray paper, there are no drawings in it.
My copybook is printed on white paper. There are many drawings on the cover and in the copybook.
Let's compare the lines.
In the 80s copybook there is an additional slanted line.
This line is not in the 2011 copybook.
We establish the order of learning letters.
The order of learning letters in the 80s (a, n, t, k...).
Present tense (a, o, y, e...).
We study the outline of letters.
Different spellings of the letter Y.
Copybook of the 80s (p. 7).
Copybook 2011 (p. 21).
We consider the connection of letters.
Different combinations of the letter O with the letter S.
In the 80s cursive, the letter O is connected to the letters (s, n, k) by an upper connection.
In the 2011 copybook, these letters are connected by a lower join.
Determine the degree of difficulty.
On p.10 in the 80s, children wrote sentences.
We wrote the studied letters in the copybook on p. 10.
We leaf through the pages of the copybooks.
Most letters have a similar outline and connection
In our study of copybooks, we concluded that learning to write letters in our time is much more interesting than in the distant 80s.
School uniforms from the 80s: comfortable or not.
I asked my mother another question about her school years: did everything except copybooks and textbooks remain the same as now? Mom told us about her amazing and interesting school life.
Firstly, my mother showed in her school photographs that all students used to have school uniforms the same for everyone. For girls, this is a brown dress with a black (everyday) and white (for special occasions) apron, tied at the back with a bow. The boys wore blue suits.
But in 1993, the school uniform was abolished and for twenty-five years now Russian schoolchildren they do without uniforms and come to classes in jeans, T-shirts and tracksuits. But they remembered the school uniform again. The solution to this actual problem It turned out to be quite difficult for both the family and the school.
Soviet-era school uniforms (with white aprons) are traditionally worn by graduates on " Last call"as a symbol of farewell to school, and less often on other holidays.
In modern Russia there is no uniform school uniform, as it used to be in the USSR, but today in many schools, gymnasiums and lyceums, school uniforms are becoming mandatory. School uniforms in educational institutions are becoming increasingly important.
We believe that school uniforms for boys and girls have many advantages:
helps smooth out social inequality;
instills in the child internal discipline and a good taste for elegant business style;
creates a sense of unity with the class and school.
We think that a school uniform, like any children's clothing, should be comfortable, practical, fashionable, and most importantly, the schoolchildren themselves should like it. School clothes gives children the opportunity to develop their taste and style from an early age.
My class teacher and I conducted a survey among our classmates and older students: “Do you like going to school in a school uniform?” We presented the survey results in the table.
Class
behind
against
%
100
from 5 to 9
Having analyzed the results of the student survey, we came to the conclusion that 1st grade students really like the school uniform because they feel like “real” students in it. Students in the 2nd and 4th grades are already beginning to lose interest in uniforms, and from the 5th to 9th grades they like to go to school in sportswear or jeans and a T-shirt.
School organizations in the 80s and today.
When I looked at my mother’s school photographs, my attention was attracted by some badges on the chest and red scarves tied around the neck of each schoolchild. When asked what kind of scarves and badges these were, my mother told me about the Octobrists, the “Pioneer” and Komsomol organizations.
I learned that in the 80s, a mandatory addition to the school uniform, depending on the age of the student, was the October (in primary school), Pioneer (in middle school) or Komsomol (in high school) badges. Pioneers were also required to wear a pioneer tie.
Groups of Octobrists were created in the first grades of schools and operated until the Octobrists joined the Pioneers and the formation of Pioneer detachments. When joining the ranks of the Octobrists, children were given a badge - a five-pointed ruby star with a portrait of Lenin as a child. The symbol of the group was the red October flag. The October group consisted of several units called “stars”, each of which usually included 5 children - a symbol of a five-pointed star. As a rule, in the “star”, each October child occupied one of the positions - commander, florist, orderly, librarian or athlete.
My mother, for example, was a florist, an orderly, a librarian and a chief wall newspaper artist.
Schoolchildren from 10 to 14 years old were accepted into the children's pioneer organization. Admission is carried out individually, by open voting at a squad meeting. A schoolchild who joins the organization makes an oath at the ceremonial meeting. The counselor ties a tie to the new member of the organization.
The All-Union Pioneer organization was built on the so-called school principle: class - detachment, school - pioneer squad.
Connected with the pioneers in the USSR were pioneer camps - places of mass summer recreation for children, houses and palaces of pioneers - houses for children's creativity. A newspaper was published - “Pionerskaya Pravda”.
My mother, like all pioneers, also wore a pioneer tie and went on vacation to pioneer camps in the summer.
The most famous pioneer camps were usually located on the sea coast - these are the all-Union ones: “Artek” and “Ocean”, the all-Russian camp “Orlyonok”.
The pioneers held various organizational events: shows, concerts, sports competitions, hikes. The paramilitary children's game “Zarnitsa” gained great popularity.
Then the crisis years of the 90s struck, and everything changed, the pioneer organization ceased to exist.
Currently in our school pioneer organization does not exist.
Hobbies of schoolchildren in the 80s and today.
When asked what they were interested in in their free time from school, my mother said that she, like me, went to an art school, a swimming pool and various sports sections that existed at the school.
I am proud that in our family, from generation to generation, all the girls attended art school and I am no exception. My mother and older sister graduated from the Children's Art School "Art Department". Mom took part in various exhibitions in the 80s and 90s artwork. She showed good results and received certificates and diplomas for participation. I'm only in my second year studying at art school, but my works have also already been at the exhibition, and I have already managed to receive a certificate.
Nowadays, as in the 80s, there are sports sections at school and in the village. The Children's Art School has not only an art department, but also a dance and music department, where children study and achieve good results.
Conclusion
School copybooks from the 80s and those from 2011 differ in design, layout, order of study, outline and connection of individual letters.
In the 80s, all children wore school uniforms. Nowadays there is no uniform school uniform, and I think this is bad. The uniform disciplines and forms good taste in the student.
I studied school organizations of the 80s. I found out who a “pioneer” or “October” is.
I found out that the children’s hobbies and activities remained virtually unchanged. Many schoolchildren today attend children's art schools and sports clubs, just like in the distant 80s.
I am glad that I was able to create a project that helped me take a fascinating journey into the distant past and learn a lot of interesting things about school life in the 80s.
Literature
1. Bubnova E., “ New encyclopedia schoolchild", publishing house "Makhaon", 2003.
2. Shalaeva G. P., Terentyeva I. G., Kurbatova N. V. Great encyclopedia primary school, publishing house: Slovo / Eksmo, 2007.
3. www.wikipedia ru _ istorii/90_ let_ pioneery. pdf.
During the Soviet period (1917-1991), school reforms took place under
direct leadership of the party and government. Development
The school system was strictly regulated by party and government regulations. The task of restructuring the education system was put forward from the very first days Soviet power. In Bolshevik policy, the school was given a special place as a means of promoting Bolshevik ideas and communist ideology. Concept new school, the goals and objectives of school education were formulated in a number of documents: “Appeal of the People’s Commissar for Education” (1917), “Basic principles of a unified labor school” (1918), “Regulations on the unified labor school of the RSFSR” (1918). The various types of schools in pre-revolutionary Russia were to be replaced by a new model of school education - a single labor school, which involved two stages: 5 years and 4 years. The abolition of curriculum by the Bolsheviks, the abolition of the class-lesson system and grades (1918) could not but lead to the destabilization of the work of the school. Language learning was reduced to a minimum, but the time allocated to mathematics and science increased. Among the figures of the People's Commissariat for Education (N.K. Krupskaya, A.V. Lunacharsky, etc.), the ideas of American pedagogy (the project method, the Dalton plan), which served as the basis for restructuring the school's activities, were very popular. Social competition among students was encouraged.
The formation of the new school was accompanied by discussions and meetings on educational issues, which took place from 1919 to the end of the 20s. The discussions centered on the structure of the school, its levels, types of educational institutions, and the content of school education. In the first decades after October, the school as an educational institution entered into a period of radical reform. The work on reorganizing the school was headed by the People's Commissariat for Education (1917), theoretical problems School education is developed by the scientific and pedagogical section of the State Academic Council (GUS). The priority task is to construct a new content of education, highlight and select its leading ideas, and determine its structure. The search in this direction often proceeds through trial and error. The turning point came only in 1923 with the introduction of the school comprehensive programs GUS, the ideological basis of which was Marxism and the Bolshevik interpretation of its ideas. The educational material was not structured by subject, but was concentrated around three main topics: nature, work, society. The GUS programs were the first attempt to create a real Soviet school program. The introduction of complex programs immediately revealed their shortcomings: unsystematic nature, lack of solid knowledge acquisition, wasteful use of educational time. The idea of an integrated design of the content of secondary education did not justify itself: the school was not ready for the innovation, and the majority of teachers did not accept the integrated system.
In the 20s XX century An important area of reform is the work of experimental demonstration institutions, in which the search for new curricula, forms and methods of educational and educational work was carried out. Pedagogical science is on the rise. A positive attitude towards innovation, attention to foreign experience, involvement of authoritative scientists in the development of documents - all this leads to active experimentation in the field of training and education.
In the 30s In the USSR, a radical reorganization of the school education system is being carried out. The resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the structure of primary and secondary schools in the USSR” (1934) determined the unified structure of school education: primary school (4 years) + incomplete secondary school (4+3), complete secondary school (4+3+3 ). This model, with minor amendments, existed until the 80s. XX century.
In 1934, subject instruction, standard programs and textbooks, a unified class schedule, and a grade system were introduced in schools. There is a return to old principles, the conservative traditions of the pre-revolutionary school are being revived. The director again becomes the head of the school, and the pedagogical council plays the role of an advisory body under him. According to the new Regulations on Internal Regulations, the school allowed the exclusion of students from its walls. A uniform school uniform becomes mandatory again. The internal rules are streamlined: the duration of lessons and the intervals between them, the procedure for conducting transfer and final exams. One cannot but agree with V.I. Strazhev, who notes that 17 years after the October Revolution, the pre-revolutionary gymnasium, of which I.V. was a supporter, triumphed again. Stalin. This return to pre-revolutionary traditions was observed in subsequent years: the restoration of awards for academic success in the form of gold and silver medals, regulation of the activities, rights and responsibilities of pedagogical councils, parent committees.
Experts identify two main periods in the evolution of the Soviet school: rise (mid-40s - late 50s) and decline (70s - late 80s).
In the first period, the development of the Soviet school was ascending. The general consensus is that Soviet system education of the 50s in terms of its effectiveness it was considered one of the best in the world. It was distinguished by originality, pragmatism, post-Stalin conscious discipline, and clear work of all structures. However, by the end of the 50s. It became clear that deep changes were needed.
In 1958, the “Law on Strengthening the Connection of School with Life and on further development system of public education in the USSR,” which marked the beginning of a new education reform, which was carried out along the lines of integration of general and vocational education. At the same time, the task of restructuring the school was solved. The period of compulsory education was increased from seven to eight years. The secondary school became eleven years old and received a new name: “general education polytechnic labor secondary school with production activities.” The main emphasis in preparing students was on labor training, the volume of which increased to 15.3% of the time in an eight-year school. In senior grades (9-11), a third of school time was allocated to general technical academic disciplines and participation in productive work. It was planned that students would work twice a week in training workshops, factories, factories, and agricultural production and, along with a matriculation certificate, would receive certificates of working qualifications.
In addition to structural reorganization and the introduction of primary vocational training at schools, it was envisaged to expand the network of preschool education and upbringing, create boarding schools in rural areas, and overcome repetition.
By the 1961/62 academic year, the reorganization of 7-year schools into 8-year ones was completed. However, structural transformation did not solve school problems. In the early 60s. It became obvious that the goals of the reform were unrealistic and impossible to achieve under the conditions of that time: schools and communities were not ready for the primary vocational training of students. Results entrance exams recorded a sharp decline in the level of general education, primarily in the humanities, of students, the prestige of education in society was steadily falling. In the summer of 1964, a decision was made to return to a ten-year school from the 1966/67 academic year. Soon, vocational training at school was canceled, and the academic discipline “Labor” reappeared in the school curriculum.
Throughout the 50-80s. XX century Several unsuccessful attempts were made to modernize the school. Domestic experts unanimously agree that all attempts at reform were doomed to failure from the very beginning. Each subsequent reform led to the replication of errors and an even greater aggravation of problems. From the point of view of E.D. Dneprov, the ineffectiveness and often ineffectiveness of the reforms being carried out is explained by the fact that they set goals for the school or those that were obviously impossible to achieve at the given time. historical stage, or unusual for her. P.G. Shchedrovitsky reasons for failures school reforms sees that education always performs the socio-cultural function of preserving and reproducing the existing social structure. An attempt to reform the education system in the country in isolation from the entire social organism, the existing system of production and social relations, is doomed to failure from the very beginning. Almost all reforms were characterized by ill-conceivedness, poor scientific validity, unsatisfactory level of preparation, haste in implementation, race for coverage indicators, and lack of necessary financial and personnel support. Originally set by the party and government high tempo reforms, specific deadlines for implementation, were obviously impracticable.
In the 70s XX century The decline of the Soviet school begins, the main reason for which is the departure from pragmatism to projectism, the setting of unrealistic tasks and the impossibility of solving them. In an effort to solve the problems set by the party and the government, the school tried to operate as before. Specialized schools were opened, separate teaching teams and teachers developed and implemented original work systems. But, as rightly pointed out by academic researchers of the Soviet reform period (E.D. Dneprov, V.A. Kovanov, V.I. Strazhev, etc.), these oases of advanced pedagogical experience could not significantly influence the general situation in Soviet education. A situation was created in which the country knew the names of innovative teachers and was familiar with their achievements, but advanced experience existed on its own in isolation from mass practice.
In the 80s XX century The Soviet school began to talk openly about the crisis. Never before has the prestige of a school in society fallen so catastrophically low. She was criticized from all sides and at all levels. The objects of criticism were the incompetence of governing bodies, percentage mania, bureaucracy, over-centralization in management and financing, focus on the formation of a given personality type, ignoring the individuality of the student, low professional level of teachers, lack of government funding and material and technical support. The decline that the school experienced was akin to the general situation in the country. The command-administrative principle of school management, its unification and nationalization led to the separation national school from the processes in line with which the world world developed school system. In the 80s The potential of the Soviet general education system was exhausted. In 1983, at the June 11th lenum of the CPSU Central Committee, the idea was expressed about the need for school reform. In 1984, the draft reform was published and after discussion (3 months) it was taken as the basis for a document on with the title “Main Directions reform of the comprehensive school." During the 1984 reform, it was proposed to implement a set of measures:
Changing the terms of school (introduction 11 summer school) and the structure of school education (4+5+2).
Providing students in grades 8-11 with the opportunity to specialize in such disciplines as physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and the humanities.
Introduction of a single type of vocational technical school: SPTU based on the merger of general education and vocational training.
Ordering study load students: 1st grade. - 20 hours; 2 classes - 22; 3-4 grades - 24; 5-8 grades - 31; 9-11 grades - 31 hours
Reducing class sizes to 30 students (grades 1-9) and to 25 (grades 10-11).
Improving the situation and increasing remuneration of teachers.
Conceived in ministerial offices, unprepared reform
It started slipping almost immediately. The reform was not well thought out and was conceived and implemented in a hurry. It lacked a clear concept, strategy, and implementation mechanisms. The reform provided for the professionalization of secondary schools, the merger of general and vocational education, and the establishment of a new educational institution SPTU - a secondary vocational school. As time has shown, many of the goals of the reform were simply wrong.
This was so obvious that it was recognized from high stands. During the Plenums of the CPSU Central Committee in 1986-1987. There have been repeated criticisms of the reform. In 1988, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Education, and the State Committee for Public Education were merged into the State Committee for Public Education of the USSR.
The beginning dates back to 1986 public discussion about the future of the school. In the Teacher's Newspaper (1986-1988), a number of publications appear devoted to the search for ways to renew the school, signed by innovative teachers V.F. Shatalov, S.N. Lysenkova, Sh.A. Amonashvili, E.N. Ilyin, M.P. Shchetinin and others. The speeches of innovative teachers at meetings before the pedagogical community and in the press caused a great public outcry and marked the emergence of a new direction in Soviet pedagogy, known as “pedagogy of cooperation.” It was this group of teachers, who tested new teaching methods and proved their effectiveness, that became the catalyst for the socio-pedagogical movement to search for a concept for school development in new socio-economic conditions. The rejection of new ideas by official pedagogy only spurred public interest. On the wave of the socio-pedagogical movement great development got creative associations teachers, original schools. In order to prepare the reform, independent research teams were created: the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR and the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute "School", headed by E.D. Dneprov (later Minister of Education of the Russian Federation, I 990-1992)
In 1988, the All-Union Meeting of Public Education Workers was held in Moscow, during which the proposals of the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute “School” on school reform received support. In September 1989, the USSR State Committee for Public Education approved a new school curriculum, in which the humanitarian component was significantly strengthened (from 41 to 50%). During this period, a shift away from the unified model of school education began. By 1989, the first gymnasiums and lyceums appeared in the USSR.
In the BSSR, the first lyceum was created in 1990 (lyceum at BSU). Created on the basis of specialized schools, they were intended for in-depth study of subjects and were mainly of a humanitarian nature. From this period, the polarization of educational institutions began in the education system: along with mass school schools with in-depth study of subjects, gymnasiums, and lyceums began to operate in the education system.
With the collapse of the USSR in the 90s. XX century deep transformation processes are taking place in the post-Soviet educational space. The private education sector is developing. Learning programs secondary schools are being processed. They have three components: federal, regional and school. Legislative activity in the field of education is intensifying, documents and laws are being adopted that reflect new realities. An important area of school policy is the activity of experimental schools, on the basis of which new school models and educational technologies are tested, attempts are made to transfer the experience of foreign schools to Russian soil (Waldorf school, Jena-plan, ) Dalton plan, etc.). In recent time Russian system education is increasingly gravitating toward American educational model who is seen as a role model.
General characteristics of school reforms of the 60s. Under the influence of the social movement of the 60s, the tsarist government was forced to carry out a number of reforms: peasant (abolition of serfdom), judicial, military, school, zemstvo.
According to V.I. Lenin, these reforms were bourgeois in content, but were carried out by the serf owners in power. Therefore, they were stamped with half-heartedness and duality. These features are also inherent in the school reforms of the 60s, in particular the reform of primary and secondary schools in 1864 and the reform of universities in 1863.
Preparations for school reforms took place over eight years (starting in 1856). Reform projects were developed and revised several times. In the early 60s, reform projects, including school ones, were more liberal than their subsequent versions and laws approved in 1863-1864.
Describing the charter of universities, approved in 1863, and the five-fold revision of the draft of this charter, Herzen wrote: “The government took, like the Jerusalem pilgrims who had sinned too much, three steps forward and two back. There was still one left." These words are quite applicable to the preparation of the reform of primary and secondary schools.
"Regulations on primary public schools." On July 19, 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved. According to this “Regulation”, the purpose of primary public schools was defined as follows: “To establish religious and moral concepts and disseminate initial useful knowledge” (§ 1). Primary public schools included elementary schools all departments, urban and rural, maintained at the expense of the treasury, societies and individuals (§ 2).
In elementary schools, the law of God, reading “from the books of the civil and church press,” writing, four arithmetic operations and, where possible, church singing were taught. All teaching must be conducted in Russian. The duration of training is not specified in the Regulations. In fact, she was in the best (zemstvo, city) schools for three years, and in many others (especially parochial ones) even for two years. The age of the students was not indicated in the Regulations either.
Children of all classes were accepted into public schools. Where it was not possible to open separate primary schools for boys and girls, joint education was allowed. Education in primary schools could be paid or free, at the discretion of those departments, societies and persons at whose expense the schools were maintained. It was usually free.
According to the “Regulations” of 1864, teachers of primary schools had the right to be clergy (priests, deacons and sextons) or secular persons. Clergymen were not required to have any documents confirming their preparedness for teaching, good morality and political reliability, while secular persons could be teachers of primary public schools if they “received special permission from the district school council for the title of teacher or teacher upon presentation of a certificate in good morality and trustworthiness from persons known to the council” (§ 16).
All elementary public schools, which were previously under the jurisdiction of various ministries and departments, were subordinated to the Ministry of Public Education, but an exception was made for elementary schools opened by the clergy: they were under the authority of the synod.
To manage the educational work of schools (except for parish schools), according to the “Regulations” of 1864, district and provincial school councils were established. The composition of the district school council included: a representative from the Ministry of Public Education (assigned by the trustee of the educational district, usually a gymnasium teacher or superintendent of a district school), a representative from the Ministry of Internal Affairs (appointed by the governor, usually a police officer, i.e. the head of the district police), a representative of the spiritual department (a priest, as appointed by the bishop), two representatives from the district zemstvo (elected at the district zemstvo meeting), a representative of the city government. The chairman of the district school council was elected from among the council members.
The district school council supervised primary schools, gave permission to open, transfer and close these schools, and appointed and fired teachers. The provincial school council (consisted of the bishop - the chairman of the council, the governor, the provincial director of schools and two representatives from the provincial zemstvo) considered mainly complaints about decisions of the district councils of a given province.
The “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” shows the duality of the school reform, which lies in its bourgeois nature and in the preservation of the prerogatives of the pre-reform education system. The new ones were the replacement of the feudal-class primary school with a class-less school, the granting of the right to open public schools to local governments (zemstvos, cities), societies and individuals, the admission of women to teaching, and the establishment of collegial school management bodies. Along with these, parochial schools were preserved. When determining the purpose of public schools, the dissemination of religious and moral knowledge came to the fore. Churchmen were allowed to teach without any certificates, while secular persons were allowed to teach only after receiving certificates of their preparedness, morality and trustworthiness.
Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of 1864. The draft charter for gymnasiums was revised several times, discussed by the pedagogical community, and finally was approved on November 19, 1864.
According to this charter, two types of gymnasiums were established: classical - with the teaching of ancient languages - Latin and Greek, and real - without ancient languages, both with a seven-year period of study.
In real gymnasiums, compared to classical ones, mathematics was taught to a greater extent (26 lessons in all classes per week, in classical 22), natural science (23 lessons and 6 lessons), physics and cosmography (9 and 6 lessons), drawing (in real ones) ; in real gymnasiums two new languages were taught, in classical ones only one of the new languages (French or German). The remaining subjects: Russian language, literature, history, geography - had the same number of lessons in all gymnasiums; Russian language in real gymnasiums - one lesson more. The duration of the lesson was set at 1 hour 15 minutes.
The curriculum of the real gymnasium was distinguished by progressive features and was more vital. In addition, a greater amount of knowledge in mathematics, physics, and natural sciences better met the requirements for applicants to physics, mathematics, and medical faculties university. However, the right to enter universities was granted only to those who graduated from classical gymnasiums. They could enter all higher educational institutions, while those who graduated from real gymnasiums had access only to technical and agricultural ones.
According to the charter of 1864, gymnasiums were declared to be classless educational institutions: boys of all classes were accepted as students, without distinction of the rank of their parents or religion. Corporal punishment of students was abolished. The functions and rights of pedagogical councils of gymnasiums were expanded. The director of the gymnasium did not have the right to cancel the decisions of the pedagogical council, but could only appeal them to the trustee of the educational district.
Each gymnasium was required to have a library of books approved for student and teacher libraries of secondary educational institutions, a set of visual teaching aids in natural science, geography, mathematics, drawing, and a physics classroom.
Progymnasiums were incomplete secondary schools, had four classes corresponding to the first four classes of gymnasiums, and were opened more often in small towns.
The former class-serf gymnasium was transformed into a bourgeois-class secondary school, but the duality and half-heartedness of the school reforms of the 60s had a strong impact on the reform of the gymnasium. It was required that the secondary school provide more extensive knowledge in mathematics, physics, and natural sciences than the classical gymnasium, as well as knowledge of new languages and modern literature, ability to draw and analyze drawings. This is exactly what the real gymnasium was like. However, the tsarist government gave preference to the classical gymnasium. Half of all gymnasiums were made semi-classical (with one Latin language), 25% of the gymnasiums were classical (with Latin and Greek languages) and only 25% were real.
In 1866, the reactionary Count D. A. Tolstoy was appointed Minister of Public Education, who was hostile to real gymnasiums because they contributed to the spread of a materialistic worldview among young people. He began to intensively plant in high school classicism and soon turned all the gymnasiums into classical ones.
Secondary female education. At the beginning of the 60s, a step forward was made with regard to women's education, although this issue was only half-resolved.
On May 10, 1860, the “Regulations on women's schools ah departments of the Ministry of Public Education.” According to this “Regulation”, women's schools could be of two categories. First-class schools had a six-year training period. They taught the law of God, the Russian language and literature, arithmetic and the beginnings of geometry, geography, history (universal and Russian), natural science, physics, calligraphy and handicrafts. Optional subjects included French and German, drawing, music, singing and dancing. Women's schools of the second category had a three-year course of study. They taught the law of God, the Russian language, geography, Russian history, arithmetic, calligraphy and handicrafts. Girls of all classes were accepted into women's schools.
Compared to men's gymnasiums, first-class women's schools had a one-year shorter duration and significantly narrowed training programs. They, as can be seen from the wording of the “Regulations on Women’s Schools,” were intended to prepare women as wives and mothers, but did not aim to prepare women for social activities. The number of women's schools was small. In 1870, in all of Russia there were only 37 first-class women's schools and 94 second-class schools. In the same year they were transformed into women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums.
Higher school reform. Professors and students took a large part in the social movement of the 60s. Already in 1856, student unrest began, to which the government responded with repression, until the dismissal of all students of St. Petersburg University in 1861. But along with this, the government was forced to make some concessions. The development of a new university charter began. Its draft was revised five times, and finally, on June 18, 1863, the charter was approved under pressure from the social movement.
According to this, the most progressive of all university statutes of pre-revolutionary Russia, universities were granted some autonomy: the right to elect a rector and vice-rector by the academic council of the university (for a four-year term); election by competition of professors; Faculty councils elected deans. The number of departments was increased and they were given the opportunity to conduct scientific work. The number of teachers has increased by more than one and a half times.
The previously existing institutes were reorganized and turned into full-fledged higher educational institutions: St. Petersburg Technological, Mining, Railways, Moscow Higher Technical School, Petrovsko-Razumovskaya (now Timiryazevskaya) Agricultural Academy; Riga Polytechnic Institute was opened.
The beginning of zemstvo activities in public education. In 1864, the “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions” were approved, according to which local self-government - zemstvos - was introduced in 34 provinces of European Russia, populated mainly by Russians and peoples of the Volga region.
The introduction of the zemstvo was, as V.I. Lenin noted, a concession by the government to society. The population (represented, however, only by owners of large real estate - landowners, factory owners, homeowners, as well as the wealthy part of the peasantry) was given the right to manage local economic and cultural affairs under the control of governors: healthcare, public education (maintenance of primary schools and promotion of secondary education ), road construction, water supply, etc.
In the field of public education, tsarism gave the zemstvo a modest role: participation in the development of public education “primarily in economic terms,” that is, the zemstvo could open (with the permission of the district school council) schools and maintain them in economic terms (rooms, heating, lighting, equipment, supply of textbooks and writing materials permitted by the Ministry of Public Education, teacher pay, etc.). But the zemstvo was forbidden to interfere in the educational work of the school, which was under the jurisdiction of district school councils and public school inspectors, whose positions (one per province) were established in 1869.
The role of the zemstvo was also limited in another respect: it could only support primary schools, but not secondary schools. With regard to secondary education, the zemstvo had the right only to “encourage” the issuance of subsidies to secondary educational institutions and the establishment of scholarships for secondary school students.
And yet, in the first ten years of their existence, the zemstvos of most provinces created a significant network of primary rural schools; About 10,000 zemstvo schools were opened. Leading zemstvos tried to organize the training of people's teachers in zemstvo teachers' schools, held courses and congresses of teachers, and organized school libraries, which were used by those who graduated from school.
It should be noted, however, that the zemstvo took upon itself only part of the economic expenses for schools, and the main expenses (renting premises for schools, building school buildings, heating, lighting, payment of teachers, watchmen) were borne by rural societies.
Of all the types of primary schools that existed at that time (zemstvo, ministerial, parish, etc.), zemstvo schools were the best. The educational level of their teachers was higher than that of teachers in other primary schools; they had special buildings and were better equipped with teaching aids. However, the activities of zemstvos in public education did not go beyond the framework of bourgeois enlightenment in essence.
School policy of tsarism in the 70-80s of the 19th century. In the 70-80s, the political reaction in Russia intensified. In the field of public education, it began after Karakozov’s shot (1866), when Count D. A. Tolstoy became the Minister of Public Education, combining this post with the duties of chief prosecutor of the synod. He (in the apt expression of Ushinsky) “crushes... public education with the weight of two ministries...”.
The tsarist government began to slow down in every possible way the opening of zemstvo and city schools and, in contrast to them, persistently established parochial schools. The influence of the clergy on primary schools was strengthened and strict government supervision was established over the activities of teachers, for which the positions of inspectors were created in 1869, and since 1874, directors of public schools. Real gymnasiums were liquidated, all gymnasiums were turned into classical, in fact, noble schools (children of nobles in the mid-90s made up more than 50% of gymnasium students, while nobles made up only 2% of the Russian population). Secondary educational institutions began to be distinguished by pedantry and formalism; strict regime. The liberal university charter of 1863 was replaced by the reactionary charter of 1884: the autonomy of universities was eliminated, student organizations were prohibited. A number of progressive teachers were subjected to repression. Ushinsky's educational books were banned for a long time.
In high school, classicism was persistently instilled, in which the tsarist government saw a means of distracting young people from contemporary issues, from participating in political circles and from mastering materialist ideas.
Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of 1871. In 1871, the reactionary “Charter of Gymnasiums and Pro-Gymnasiums” was published, which was in force (with some changes) until the Great October Socialist Revolution. According to this statute, everything men's gymnasiums were transformed into classical, real gymnasiums were liquidated. The gymnasium course was made eight years old (there were seven grades, the seventh grade was two years). Latin and Greek took up 41.2% of the total teaching time in these gymnasiums. Latin was taught throughout the eight years of study, with 5 to 8 hours per week allocated to it in different classes. Teaching Greek began in third grade and lasted 6 years, 5-7 hours a week in each grade. Natural science was excluded from the gymnasium curriculum.
In the Russian language, in the first three grades they studied grammar, in the fourth grade - the grammar of the Church Slavonic language, and the remaining four years were devoted to the study of literature (folklore and literature), with the largest number of hours spent on the study of ancient literature and literature XVIII century.
In mathematics, the main attention was paid to knowledge of formulas and the development of mathematical thinking; The mathematics course, like the teaching of other subjects, was distinguished by formalism.
Physics has only been studied for the last three years with only a small number of hours. Chemistry was not taught at all. The syllabus listed “short science,” but the syllabus note implied that the subject was optional and even undesirable. Geography teaching was mainly aimed at memorizing geographical names.
History program and explanatory letter it was required that the course concentrate mainly on the facts of “external history.” At the same time, the history course turned into the history of kings.
With the intensification of the reaction in the 80s, under Minister I.D. Delyanov, tuition fees were increased, the admission of Jews to gymnasiums was limited, and a circular was issued in 1887, called the “circular on cooks’ children.” This circular ordered the directors of gymnasiums and pre-gymnasiums to refrain from admitting into the educational institutions entrusted to them “the children of coachmen, footmen, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like, whose children, with the exception of those gifted with genius abilities, should not at all strive for secondary and higher education.” education." As a result of these measures, the government from the early 80s to the mid-90s managed to reduce the number of students in classical gymnasiums and reduce the percentage of children of non-noble origin.
Real schools. In 1872, a charter was issued for real schools, a junior high school with a 6-7-year course of study and a vocational focus in high school. This type of school was intended to provide some training to service personnel in commercial and industrial establishments. The fifth and sixth grades of the real school were divided into departments: basic (i.e., general education) and commercial, and the seventh (additional) grade had 3 departments: mechanical-technical, chemical-technical and general education.
In 1888, well-established and equipped secondary technical schools were created in order to train personnel for the developing industry. Then the mechanical-technical and chemical-technical departments of real schools were liquidated, and real schools were transformed into a comprehensive secondary school.
In real schools the content of education was more vital than in gymnasiums. Therefore, real schools enjoyed the sympathy and support of the progressive forces of society. In real schools there were no ancient languages; courses in mathematics and physics were much broader; natural science and two new foreign languages were taught.
Much attention was paid to drawing and drawing. Russian language and literature, history, and geography were taught in real schools to the same extent as in gymnasiums.
Despite the fact that the course of mathematics and physics in real schools was broader than in gymnasiums, and there was a course in natural science, those who graduated from real schools were not accepted into the university. They could only enter higher technical and agricultural educational institutions.
Women's gymnasiums. In 1870, the “Regulations on Women's Gymnasiums” were published. Depending on which department opened and maintained women's gymnasiums, they were divided into women's gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education and women's gymnasiums of the department of institutions of Empress Maria (Since the end of the 18th century, there was a special department of institutions of Empress Maria, wife of Paul I, which was in charge of the institutions of noble girls and other women's educational institutions, educational homes, orphanages, etc.). The curricula and programs of both were slightly different from each other. Women's gymnasiums had seven classes and an eighth, additional (pedagogical) class. Graduates of women's gymnasiums did not have the right to enter the university.
Women's gymnasiums had four classes and corresponded to the first four classes of women's gymnasiums.
“Regulations on primary public schools” of 1874. Elementary school in the 70-8E years. The “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved in 1874. It operated without changes in the pre-revolutionary period and was a big brake on the development of primary education. Compared to the previous one, a number of reactionary changes were made to the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of 1874. Thus, the chairman of the district school council was now the district marshal of the nobility (according to the “Regulations” of 1864, the chairman was elected by the members of the district school council themselves). The meaning of this change was that primary schools, serving mainly peasants, were placed under the care of the nobility. The supervision of the clergy over the way of thinking and behavior of public teachers and the spirit of teaching in primary schools increased. Inspectors (established in 1869) and directorates of public schools were given greater power over schools and public teachers.
Zemstvo schools. The reaction of the 70-80s also greatly affected the activities of zemstvos in public education. Zemstvo schools did not receive adequate support from the tsarist government. Over 20 years (1875-1894), three times fewer zemstvo schools were opened than in the previous 10 years, although the need for rural primary schools increased every year.
Zemstvos played a certain role in the development of the primary public school. They found great support from advanced teachers and public education figures. By the mid-90s, zemstvos had already completely taken over the payment of teachers; a number of zemstvos opened zemstvo teacher schools (seminaries) for training teachers; zemstvos had the right to nominate candidates for the positions of teachers in zemstvo schools and submit them for approval to the district school council. Zemstvos, by supplying schools with textbooks and teaching aids, had a certain influence on the improvement academic work, contributed to improving the level of teaching. Some district zemstvos organized libraries at schools for extracurricular reading students and school graduates.
Even in those districts where zemstvo assemblies and their executive bodies- zemstvo councils - consisted primarily of reactionary individuals - serf owners, advanced teachers of zemstvo schools sought to apply best methods training, to put into practice the ideas of progressive Russian teachers. Among the zemstvo teachers there were also revolutionaries who worked in public schools for political reasons in order to become closer to the masses and conduct educational work and revolutionary propaganda among the peasantry.
Although the activities of zemstvos in public education were built in the interests of noble landowners and factory owners who needed competent agricultural and factory workers, the zemstvo school, thanks to the influence of progressive figures of public education and advanced teachers on it, significantly outgrew the official framework assigned to it; the content of primary education was expanded, especially through explanatory reading, it was communicated to students initial information in natural history, geography and Russian history. The tsarist government therefore treated the zemstvo activities in public education with suspicion and in every possible way slowed it down, opposed the zemstvo parish schools and, for its part, began to open “ministerial” elementary schools as exemplary ones, but there were, however, significantly fewer of them, they did not become the main type elementary school.
Parish schools. The tsarist government and the church, in order to combat the zemstvo school and cultivate religiosity and “devotion to the throne” in primary schools, intensively planted parochial schools. By the beginning of the 20th century, the number of these schools in Russia had increased greatly and amounted to almost half of all primary schools in the country.
Allocations for parish schools were increased from treasury funds. So, in 1902, 10.5 million rubles were allocated for these schools, and only 5 million rubles for all other primary schools. In those villages where parochial schools existed, it was forbidden to open zemstvo schools. In provinces where there was no zemstvo, parochial schools in 1900 accounted for about 80% of all primary schools.
Parochial schools were the worst type of elementary school. Most of the school time was devoted to the law of God, Church Slavonic reading and church singing. Information on natural history and geography was not communicated to students at all; stories from Russian history were presented in a purely religious and monarchical spirit. The teachers of parochial schools were priests, deacons, sextons and teachers who received training in church teaching schools. After the establishment of diocesan schools (female secondary educational institutions of the church department with a seven-year course), graduates of these schools became teachers in many parochial schools.
The term of study in parochial schools, according to the rules on parochial schools of 1884, was two years, while in zemstvo schools a three-year term was established already in the 60s. Only towards the end of the 90s, when a four-year course began to be introduced in many zemstvo schools, the duration of education in parochial schools was increased to three years.
The population was forced by the church to collect funds for the maintenance of parochial schools under the guise of “voluntary donations from pious parishioners.” Senior schoolchildren of parochial schools were often used by clergy as work force not only for the needs of the school, but also in the farms of the churchmen. The cost of textbooks and writing materials was collected from the parents of students in these schools, while in zemstvo schools they were provided to students free of charge.
All this forced village assemblies to often pass “sentences” to replace the parish school in a given area with a zemstvo school, but such “sentences” were canceled by the tsarist administration, and the peasants who made such decisions were subjected to repression and persecution.
The clergy sought to concentrate all primary schools in their hands. In the 80-90s of the 19th century, several times projects were introduced to the State Council to transfer all primary schools to the jurisdiction of the synod, that is, to transform them into parish schools. The rise of the social movement in the second half of the 90s prevented these reactionary intentions from being realized.
Two-class public schools. City schools according to the “Regulations” of 1872. Primary schools with a three-year course of study could not meet the needs of the national economy, which had already switched to capitalist lines. There is a need for advanced schools. Two-year primary schools were created with a five-year period of study: the first three years of study were considered the first class and corresponded to the course of a one-class public school; the fourth and fifth years were the second grade, they taught the Russian language, arithmetic (fractions, progressions, the triple rule, percentages), visual geometry, basic information in natural science, physics, geography and Russian history.
Two-year elementary schools were dead-end schools. Those who graduated from it did not have the opportunity to continue general education in secondary schools, since the curricula and programs of their and secondary schools did not have a continuous connection. The number of two-year schools was small, approximately one per volost. Those who graduated from these schools entered agricultural schools, teachers' seminaries and various courses by examination.
City schools were more advanced primary schools. Most of the district schools that existed under the charter of 1828 were transformed in the 70s into city schools according to the “Regulations” of 1872. These schools had a six-year course of study, their goal was to give children of non-noble origin (sons of artisans, small employees, small traders, etc.) an increased elementary education and some applied knowledge.
The city schools taught the law of God, Russian language and literature, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, geography, history, natural science (information from botany, zoology, human anatomy and physiology), drawing, drawing, and singing.
City schools, like two-year schools, were dead-end schools, since there was no continuous connection between them and secondary educational institutions. Many city schools organized one- and two-year courses for graduates: bookkeeping and accounting, pedagogical, drawing, etc.
City schools existed until 1912. After this, they were transformed into higher primary schools with a four-year course of study (after primary school).
Training of primary school teachers. Teachers' seminaries and institutes. The growth in the number of primary schools, especially in the 60-70s of the 19th century, acutely raised the issue of training teachers for them. The best Russian teachers worked on the issue of teacher training. Thus, K. D. Ushinsky in 1861 compiled and published a project for a teachers’ seminary. According to this project, zemstvos of various provinces opened several zemstvo teacher seminaries and teacher schools. The best of them were the St. Petersburg Zemstvo Teachers' School, which arose in the 70s, which had a four-year (and after the 1905 revolution, even a six-year) course of study, and the Tver Women's Teachers' School named after Maksimovich. Even earlier, a follower of Ushinsky, a famous methodologist in geography, D. D. Semenov, with the active participation of the local community, opened and perfectly organized a teachers' seminary in the city of Gori (Georgia).
In the 70s, the tsarist government began to limit the opening of zemstvo teachers' seminaries and teachers' schools. Instead, state-owned teacher's seminaries were created, in which future teachers for the people were supposed to be educated in the spirit of Orthodoxy and “devotion to the throne.” The “Regulations on Teacher Seminaries” developed in 1870 and the instructions of 1875 prescribed seminary students to strictly comply with rituals and requirements Orthodox Church, attending services, observing fasts, fasting, and reading books of religious content in their free time.
The course of teachers' seminaries was established for three years (after the revolution of 1905 it became four years). The seminary accepted mainly graduates of two-year schools. Teachers' seminaries had dormitories, and most seminarians received scholarships: state and zemstvo. At first, teachers' seminaries were only for men, but later women's seminaries also began to open. By January 1, 1917, there were 171 teachers’ seminaries in Russia. They taught the law of God, Russian language and literature, mathematics, natural science, physics, geography, history, drawing, singing, pedagogy, and methods of primary education. In many seminaries (especially in zemstvo) they also taught manual labor and agriculture.
The teachers' seminary, in comparison with the gymnasium and the real school, provided a smaller amount of general educational knowledge. Periodicals often pointed out this shortcoming. The positive side of teacher seminaries was the pedagogical training of students. Pedagogy with elements of psychology and history, methods of teaching Russian language and arithmetic in primary schools were taught. Seminary students conducted their pedagogical practice in existing exemplary schools.
Teachers' seminaries could not meet the needs of primary schools for teachers. A number of primary school teachers prepared girls' gymnasiums with an eighth (pedagogical) grade. The teachers who graduated from this class had more general education, but less pedagogical training compared to teachers who attended a teacher's seminary. Known number teachers of zemstvo schools and a significant number of teachers of parochial schools graduated from seven-grade women's diocesan schools.
Some primary school teachers in late XIX and the beginning of the 20th century, one- and two-year pedagogical courses were given, organized at city schools. However, these educational institutions did not fully satisfy the need for primary school teachers. Some of them received the title of teacher as an external student.
Teachers' institutes. To train teachers in city schools, which were transformed into higher primary schools in 1912, teacher institutes were created, which accepted men who graduated from teachers' seminaries or city schools and pedagogical courses at city schools.
The course of study in teacher institutes was three years and the general education training provided by teacher institutes did not even reach the level of a comprehensive secondary school, but in them pedagogical and methodological preparation was delivered well. Most of the prominent methodologists of the pre-revolutionary period - the authors of methodological manuals for teaching the Russian language, mathematics, natural science and other subjects - were teachers at teacher training institutes.
Have schoolchildren changed in recent years? And over the past few decades? Do each generation have characteristics?
Let's immediately accept the thesis that children are different and the school primarily reflects the state of society.
USSR schools maintained the tradition of separate education of children until 1954. Only this year the male and female classes are being combined. As before, there is a school uniform. For boys, this is an analogue of the military one - a tunic or jacket with a white collar, for girls - brown dresses and an apron (black everyday or white dress). The children could stand out somehow only by the quality of the uniform material, sewing, and unusual handles.
A mandatory element of clothing was a pioneer tie. Forgetting it at home, losing it great tragedy for the child and caused a harsh reaction from others. The tie is first secured with a clip, then tied with a special knot.
Relations between the children were smooth, parental positions and well-being did not affect them. But the teacher was at a certain distance from the student. The teacher was an unquestioned authority. The words engineer, teacher, doctor sounded proudly; this was the dream of many. But few could afford to get higher education, I had to go to work and help my family.
In the 60s A compulsory eight-year period is introduced. At this time, books are extremely popular; schoolchildren read, not only heroic adventure novels, but also poetry. The idols of children were the heroes of the revolution, the Civil and Patriotic Wars.
To 70m - 80 Over the years, there has been a certain variety of school uniforms, different styles of dresses, and alternatives to them in the form of skirt suits. Fashion trends force girls to shorten their skirts as much as possible.
There are a lot of children at this time, large classes in primary and secondary schools, many classes in parallel. Still actively reading. Books are considered the best gifts, they are hotly discussed, Remarque and Aitmatov are especially popular.
Children are interested in new areas of knowledge, astronautics is at its peak and in general natural Sciences. There are many clubs, sections, and electives. What is typical is that teachers work with children unselfishly, developing new methods and approaches. The authority of the teacher is still high; he teaches not only to memorize information, he tries to teach the child to process it and analyze it.
Various events are often held: celebrations of various dates, excursions, amateur concerts, to which parents are also involved. Joint cleaning, repairs, and collection of waste paper and scrap metal are also practiced. True, by the end of the 80s it became more of an obligation, which they tried to evade. And it’s really not clear why you need to collect and drag heavy waste paper to the schoolyard, where it then gets wet in the rain, is blown away by the wind, or, moreover, is burned here in the school boiler room.
Patriotism is still strong and war heroes are popular. But Afghanistan is already beginning and fear appears. Girls are strict, gender relations are chaste.
90s years become a turning point. The first change is related to the cancellation of the form. And if in the first years there are still some restrictions, certain requirements, then very quickly they are eroded. Clothes at school become just as loud and awkward as on the streets, right down to tracksuits. The girls are already wearing makeup, quite bright and aggressive, and they finally have the opportunity to wear trousers.
The worldview of schoolchildren is changing. This is a period of rapid growth and redistribution of capital. That’s why the children’s attitude is the same – money decides everything. Economic and legal professions are becoming prestigious. Teachers and doctors completely lose their prestige; the main criterion when choosing a profession is the amount of earnings. Although higher education is still valued and prestigious. But as a symbol of well-being, the only important thing is the presence of a crust, as a decorative decoration.
At the beginning of the 21st century, children have become pragmatists. They see a goal and persistently go towards it. They stopped paying attention to optional subjects. They only need those that are useful for entering a university and passing exams. Everything else is a waste of time. Mathematics and languages become such leaders.
The attitude towards books has changed. Firstly, books became an expensive pleasure, and secondly, schools had a problem with textbooks. Therefore, a simple solution was found - just download the text from the Internet, print it and throw it away after use. In principle, I developed the habit of downloading free software, videos, music, games, maps for navigators. With literature, you can do it even easier - download an audiobook and listen to it.
The approach to the teacher has also become utilitarian - he is just an assistant or, on the contrary, an obstacle to admission and passing exams (depending on the compulsory nature of the subject being taught). Again, higher education is still prestigious and necessary, but it is already assessed from the point of view of the prospect of getting a good position later. In addition, the eternal lack of money for teachers does not improve their position in the eyes of students.
Another characteristic attitude of the students is that cleaning or any social events become unacceptable, money decides everything, and they treat the school as a kind of service.
So children are a product of the civilization that surrounds them. School, like a litmus test, reflects trends in society and it’s probably worth taking a closer look at them...
2010
Schools in the USSR were very different from modern ones. And the Soviet school had one peculiarity. Common school uniform for the whole country. The most interesting thing is that the uniform of those times is still popular among graduates - a school dress with a white apron, usually white knee socks and the obligatory white bows. On ordinary days, girls went to school in dark aprons. The boys had an emblem on the sleeves of their jackets, which depicted an open book and the sun. At that time, everyone was either an October warrior, or a pioneer, or a Komsomol member, and they always wore a corresponding badge on the lapel of their jacket or dress. In the 1st grade, all schoolchildren were accepted into the October class. In the 3rd - to the pioneers. Moreover, first of all, excellent students, and secondly and even thirdly - those whose academic performance or discipline were lame. I was accepted into the Komsomol in the 7th grade.
In the 80s, every more or less large enterprise had its own pioneer camp, where they sent the children of their employees. The vast majority of Soviet children have visited a country pioneer camp at least once. In addition, in all cities, as a rule, at schools, “urban” camps were created with daytime stay for children. Each suburban pioneer camp operated in three shifts, each lasting approximately three weeks. All children in the pioneer camp were divided into groups according to age. The 1st detachment was the oldest. Then 2nd, 3rd, etc. Various children's camps worked in pioneer camps. amateur groups based on interests, conducted military sports game"Zarnitsa" During the shift, the camp carried out various games, hikes, competitions... At the end of each summer shift, a “Farewell Bonfire” was organized.
The selection of products in grocery and department store stores in the 80s was far from amazing in its variety. Residents of all nearby cities went to Moscow to buy food. At this time, in 1985, a new scourge fell on the heads of Soviet citizens: the anti-alcohol campaign. All over the country, all alcohol disappeared from store shelves, restaurants and cafes. Of course, Soviet holidays did not become alcohol-free. People switched to moonshine, cologne, medical alcohol and other home-made booze.
In the Soviet assortment there was a clear shortage of products that could simply be pulled out of the refrigerator and eaten - sausages, cheeses, pates, not to mention some caviar or ham. Even sprats were a delicacy that was given in sets for the holiday. And only in Moscow, after standing in a long line, it was possible to buy sausages, salami or ham and not worry about tea and sandwiches for several days... In provincial cities it was practically impossible to get them. And this despite the fact that in many cities meat processing plants were operating at full capacity!
They brought good chocolates from Moscow - “Squirrel”, “Bear Bear”, “Little Red Riding Hood”. They brought instant coffee, oranges, lemons and even bananas. Moscow seemed fabulous place where extraordinary people live. We also went to Moscow to buy clothes and shoes. In Moscow they bought everything, from buckwheat to children's tights, because... all this was in short supply in the middle zone.
Grocery stores of that time had several departments. Each department sold its own product groups. It was worse if the department sold goods by weight. First, you had to stand in line to weigh the goods, then line up at the cash register, get a receipt, and then line up again at the department. There were also self-service supermarkets - like today's ones. There, goods were paid for at the checkout when leaving the hall. At that time, every schoolchild went to buy milk. Due to the scarcity of product range in stores at that time, milk and dairy products occupied a fairly significant place in the diet of Soviet people. Porridge was cooked in milk. Noodles and horns were cooked with milk. In the USSR, dairy products were packaged in glass containers, which were washed and handed over at special collection points for glass containers. As a rule, they were right next to the stores. There were no labels on the bottles. The label was on the lid. Milk bottles were closed with caps made of soft foil of different colors. The name of the product, date of manufacture, and cost were written on the lid.
Sour cream was sold on tap from large metal cans. There were several types of butter - butter and sandwich. Loose butter cost 3 rubles 40 kopecks per kilogram, and a pack of butter cost 72 kopecks. Milk in the Soviet Union was made from milk! There was sour cream in the sour cream, kefir in the kefir, and butter in the butter. At lunchtime, as a rule, fresh milk, bread and some other products were brought to each grocery store. Therefore, when the store opened after the lunch break, it was often possible to buy everything specified by the parents. You could also buy ice cream!
The iconic dairy product in the USSR was condensed milk. Children's favorite treat. Condensed milk produced in the USSR was packaged in tin cans with white and blue labels. They drank it straight from the can, punching two holes with a can opener. It was added to coffee. It was boiled directly in a closed jar to be eaten boiled or used for cake. During the time of food shortages at the end of the USSR, condensed milk, along with stewed meat, was included in holiday food packages distributed according to coupons and lists in individual organizations, as well as to certain categories of citizens who had benefits by law (participants and disabled people of the Great Patriotic War). Patriotic War and etc.).
It was difficult to buy a good outfit, so we looked for decent fabric in advance and went to an atelier or to a familiar dressmaker. If a man, in preparation for the holiday, only had to exchange his home workouts for a shirt, and, perhaps, as a sign of special affection, shave, then it was much more difficult for a woman. And she could only rely on her own ingenuity and skillful hands. They used: henna, hydrogen peroxide, curlers. “Leningrad” mascara was mixed with flour and applied to the eyelashes. Using various household dyes, flesh-colored nylon tights were dyed black. The height of fragrant chic was the Klima perfume, the bottom limit was the Perhaps perfume. A man was supposed to smell too, but the choice was even smaller: “Sasha”, “Russian Forest”, “Triple”.
There was very little cosmetics in the USSR, and if there was, they didn’t buy it, but “got it out.” Mascara was produced in pressed form and had to be diluted with water before use. However, water was not always at hand, so Soviet fashionistas simply spat into a box of mascara. The most desperate ones separated their eyelashes with needles or pins. Women in the 80s had a practice of using cosmetic products “inappropriately.” Many women already then figured out the current fashionable technique among makeup artists - using lipstick as blush. An even complexion was ensured by the legendary cosmetic product of those years - the Ballet foundation from the Svoboda factory. Instead of colorless lipstick, Vaseline was usually used, and instead of hand cream, glycerin was used, which could almost always be bought at the pharmacy.
The object of particular desire was the Este Lauder Blush from the company store, which could only be accessed by special invitation. All women of that time dreamed of Lancôme “golden roses” and Dior powders and lipsticks packaged in blue boxes. If you ask ladies whose youth occurred during these years, they will remember the perfume “Climat” and the legendary fragrance “Magie Noire” from Lancôme, as well as “Opium” from YSL and “Fidji” from Guy Laroche. Most Soviet women knew about the famous “Chanel No. 5” only by hearsay, and a very small number of ladies used them in real life.
Traditional dishes on holidays were Olivier salads, Herring under a fur coat, Mimosa, fried homemade cutlets, made sandwiches with sprats, cooked jellied meat, baked chicken, and homemade marinades. One of the most important dishes on the festive table was cake, which was very difficult to buy. Most often they baked homemade Napoleon. The drinks were not particularly varied: “Soviet champagne”, “Stolichnaya” vodka, “Buratino” lemonade, fruit juice and compote. In the late 80s, Pepsi-Cola and Fanta began to appear on tables. Festive table They always cooked thoroughly, even if no guests were expected, and the celebration took place in the family circle!
For the New Year, a Christmas tree was installed in every house. A garland of multi-colored lights was straightened out on the Christmas tree and hung Christmas decorations- glass shiny balls of different colors, satellites, icicles, bears and bunnies made of cardboard, coated with varnish and glitter, snowflakes, beads and crackers. Below, under the tree, Santa Claus made of papier-mâché was installed on pre-laid gauze or cotton wool! A star was placed on the top of the tree.
The choice of gifts for the holidays was very limited. In the absence of normal gifts, when going on a visit, they carried with them whatever delicacies they could get, jars of canned exotic fruits, black or red caviar, and chocolates. You could buy a book, a bottle of perfume, an electric razor, etc. Parents brought children's New Year's gifts from work. The trade union committee consistently provided parents with children's gifts - one for each child under 14 years of age. For holiday parties, firecrackers and sparklers were purchased - at that time this was the only “pyrotechnics” with the help of which they kept the fun going. Only rocket launchers, which not everyone had, could add variety to such fun.
Almost every New Year, films were shown on television: “An Ordinary Miracle” and “Sorcerers.” The main New Year's film is “The Irony of Fate or Enjoy Your Bath.” Many already knew these films by heart, but nevertheless enjoyed watching them again. On New Year's Eve, everyone traditionally gathered around a festively laid table and said goodbye old year and met the New one. We watched TV, listened to music. And in the morning, after the “Blue Light,” “Melodies and Rhythms of Foreign Pop” was shown on TV for the only time a year! Boney M, Abba, Smokie, Africe Simone.…
In the 80s there was no entertainment other than the cinema, bar or dancing. Bars and cafes were not open at night. Soviet or Indian films were shown in cinemas. The main activity for young people, besides drinking port wine at the entrance, studying well and joining the Komsomol, was dancing, and they called it a disco. The music at the discos was collected from everything that came to us “from there” mixed with the best that we had. Alla Pugacheva tried to stand out from the crowd with her airy, vast robes, and Valery Leontyev scared elderly grandmothers with his terribly tight trousers. The discos featured: Forum, Mirage, KarMan, Laskovyi Mai, Na-Na and a performer parodying Western musical performers, Sergei Minaev. In addition to dance groups, the groups “Sunday” and “Time Machine” were popular. Hits of famous foreign musical groups and performers were heard more and more often: Modern Talking, Madonna, Michael Jackson, Scorpions and others.
How old were you in the 80s? 10? 15? 20? Do you remember the atmosphere of general goodwill and mutual respect that reigned in Soviet times? Inner peace, awareness of life goals and ways to achieve them. Confidence in everything for decades to come. An opportunity to take a worthy place in life. Do you remember how in May everyone went to demonstrations? Everyone took to the streets with balloons and flags, congratulated each other and shouted “HURRAY!” And the children were placed on the shoulders. Rubber bands in the yard.... Collecting scrap metal and waste paper at school.... Community work days.... Subscription to the magazines "Funny Pictures", "Pioneer", "Crocodile", "Science and Life".... Do you remember school “dance evenings”, discos in pioneer camps, in cultural centers? Songs that were carefully copied from cassette to cassette and listened to “to the holes.” Songs that we went to listen to at each other’s houses...
In general, music in the USSR was considered something optional for Everyday life citizen, a kind of permissible surplus (except, of course, for songs performed by the choir - at the Pioneer line, in military formation and so on.). Therefore, devices for playing and recording music were treated more like things closer to luxury items than everyday items. Most houses had record players. Musical recordings in the USSR were sold on Melodiya records. Records with fairy tales for children were also produced. Entire generations grew up in the USSR listening to fairy tales recorded on records. It was quite difficult to “get” records with recordings of popular pop performers at that time.
In the eighties, most residents of the USSR acquired tape recorders. There were queues for especially fashionable ones, like Vega and Radiotekhnika. Domestic reel-to-reel film and cassettes were also everywhere. The tape recorders were extremely expensive. By the mid-80s, the USSR had learned to produce pretty good reel-to-reel tape recorders. They didn't break down often and didn't produce the worst sound. However, who in those years wanted a reel-to-reel tape recorder? They were bulky, non-transportable, and even the process of loading the film itself required a certain skill. But most importantly, by that time reels were already rapidly being replaced by cassettes. Soon, among youth and teenagers, the reel-to-reel tape recorder was considered a hopeless archaism.
Soviet tape recorders, accessible to most, like Soviet cassettes, were simply terrible. The film in Soviet cassettes was comparable to a tape recorder. It could provide only very modest recording quality, and if you tried to re-record frequently, it quickly broke down. But the tape recorders really liked this film! They chewed it with great pleasure at every opportunity. This case was shrewdly provided for by cassette manufacturers, and therefore there were often no screws on their casing.
The height of desire for music lovers, of course, were Japanese tape recorders - Sharp, Sony, Panasonic. They stood proudly on the shelves of thrift stores, flaunting breathtaking price tags. Imported goods (in small quantities entering the USSR market) were perceived by the population as “prestigious” and of high quality. There were virtually no cheap imports, including “Chinese” ones, at that time. Tape recordings were re-recorded from cassette to cassette, and therefore double-cassette tape recorders were especially valued.
In stores, along with Soviet ones, imported cassettes were also sold, and of a variety of brands. They all cost exactly the same - nine rubles for a 90-minute cassette. Imported cassettes were called by sonorous names of manufacturers - Basf, Denon, Sony, Toshiba, TDK, Agfa. The masterpiece of the domestic manufacturer was named without the slightest glimmer of imagination - MK, which meant nothing more than a tape cassette.
For certain categories of consumers (the so-called “nomenklatura” - party, Soviet and economic officials) privileges were introduced in the supply, including goods in short supply (order tables, “200th section of GUM”, a special service store on Kutuzovsky Prospekt, etc. ). Personal pensioners (a privileged category of pensioners), depending on the category of their personal pension, received “grocery orders” constantly or for holidays, and could buy goods inaccessible to the rest of the population in closed distributors. Existed whole line parallel trade systems (distribution of goods) with privileged supplies and limited access: for example, WWII veterans and those equivalent to them; Doctors of Science, Corresponding Members and Academicians.
GUM had closed sections for high-ranking officials and other privileged categories of the nomenklatura, party leaders, and generals. The Beryozka currency stores traded scarce goods for “checks” (certificates), for which it was necessary to exchange the foreign currency in hand. It should be noted that the quality of goods in these stores was excellent: they did not sell rubbish. In addition to the assortment of food and consumer goods, there were other “departments” in this network - in which you could purchase furniture, appliances, furs, and even cars. In 1988, a decree of the USSR Council of Ministers was published stating that from July 1, the circulation of Vneshposyltorg checks would cease and the Beryozka stores would be closed forever. Monstrous queues lined up at “Berezok”; literally everything was frantically swept off the shelves! The owners of the checks tried by any means to get rid of them before the announced closure date. Citizens of the USSR received the right to legally own foreign currency and, accordingly, spend it only in 1991.
There were also “speculators” (farmers) in the USSR. “Farza” is a synonym for the word “speculation” (purchase and sale for the purpose of profit), and “fartsovschiki” are, accordingly, speculators who bought “branded” (foreign) goods cheaper in order to later sell them at a higher price. Various segments of the population of the USSR were engaged in the craft of “fartsovka”: foreign sailors and flight attendants, military personnel of foreign contingents of the SA and students, taxi drivers and prostitutes, athletes and artists, party officials and ordinary people. soviet engineers. In general, everyone who had at least the slightest possibility purchase scarce imported goods for subsequent resale. But the biggest money was in circulation with the “currency traders” (currency traders). Special attention“currency traders” paid specifically to the Berezka chain of stores. For some currency traders, games with the state ended sadly.
Fartsellers were divided into professionals who were constantly engaged in this business (being listed as some kind of watchman somewhere), and amateurs who occasionally sold foreign items that they accidentally got, which they “pushed” (sold) among friends or handed over to “komki” (commission the shops). But there were always Soviet citizens who wanted to wear a foreign item and were willing to pay exorbitant prices for it.
A separate supply system for military personnel and their families was carried out through Voentorg. There were also so-called “Salons for newlyweds” - coupons were issued for the purchase of goods of the appropriate range (rings, dresses and suits, etc.) in them, according to a certificate from the registry office. Sometimes, young people registered at the registry office as newlyweds, only for the purpose of purchasing scarce goods. But by the end of the 80s, these salons began to be filled with consumer goods and ceased to justify their purpose due to the lack of scarce goods in them. On industrial enterprises at that time there was also a system of supplying workers with scarce goods - “food rations”.
Soviet trade workers, by virtue of their profession, received privileged access to scarce goods. Scarce goods were hidden for “the right people”, or under the guise of benefit they were sold at exorbitant prices. A whole set of terms for such trade has appeared: “trading from the back door”, “from under the counter”, “under the counter”, “through connections”. The resale of scarce goods at free prices in the USSR was classified as a criminal offense (“speculation”).
To purchase a scarce product, which was often put on the counter suddenly, as they said, “thrown away,” it was necessary to stand in line, or even several lines, for each type of product separately. Many people always carried a special string bag with them for such an occasion (“just in case”), since there were no plastic bags for sale in grocery stores and these bags themselves were a scarce commodity. People invented many ways to avoid days of exhausting standing in lines, which also did not guarantee the purchase of goods. For example, it was possible to break into a store using brute physical force.
Places in the queue were sold (the price depended on how close to the head of the queue the place was, how scarce the goods were) - there was even a saying “If you stand in line well, you don’t have to work,” you could hire a “waiter” who I would stand in line for you. Durable goods were also “signed up on a waiting list.” There were certain days for registration, and in order to get on the list, people lined up in the evening, working shifts with relatives overnight, so that in the morning, by the time the registration began, they would be as close as possible to the top of the list. Moreover, the entry was of an incomprehensible nature: in addition to checking in at the store, you also had to come and check in with strange, enterprising people on certain days, so as not to be crossed off the list. In order not to forget the three-four-digit number during roll call, it was written down with a pen on the palm of the hand.
Nowadays, the Soviet Union is either idolized or fiercely hated, and debates about where life was better - in the USSR, or in present-day Russia - have not subsided to this day. The USSR had its advantages in the form of free housing, education and healthcare, very low prices for food, medicine and transport.
The student's scholarship in 1983 was 40-55 rubles. Increased scholarships- 75 rubles, really big, five rubles more than the salary of a cleaner or technician. The minimum wage was 70 rubles. Salaries, as a rule, were paid 2 times a month: advance and pay. The advance was usually made on the 20th of each month; it was a fixed amount. And for settlement they gave out what was left after the advance was deducted. The salaries of teachers and doctors in the USSR were low. Nurses received 70 rubles, head nurse 90. Doctors received 115-120 rubles, they were allowed to work at one and a half, two “rates”. At a defense enterprise, at so-called “secret” facilities, a salary of 140 rubles could be given to a young specialist immediately after graduation.
Many of us were born in the era of a powerful state - Soviet Union. Some earlier, some later. This time can be remembered in different ways - positively, neutrally or negatively. But the following facts remain indisputable. In the 80s, you could live on three rubles for a week. Butter cost 62 kopecks per 200 grams, bread 16 kopecks. The most expensive sausage is 3 rubles and kopecks. Ticket for a trolleybus, bus, tram - 5 kopecks. For one ruble you could buy a full lunch in the canteen (borscht, goulash with mashed potatoes, a glass of sour cream, compote, cheesecake); 33 glasses of lemonade with syrup; 100 boxes of matches; 5 cups of “Ice cream” or 10 cups of milk ice cream; 5 liters of bottled milk. And, most importantly, prices did not rise every day, but were stable! This is probably where the majority of the population has nostalgia for those times. Confidence in today and tomorrow is a great thing!
They say that Soviet man is a utopia, that he did not exist, no, and cannot exist. But there are our memories of Soviet times. About ordinary Soviet people. About what surrounded ordinary Soviet people... In general, in recent years it has begun to seem to many that there was more hope before, more expectations something bright and wonderful. Somehow people treated each other warmer. Either we've gotten older, or times have changed...