Catherine II Alekseevna - Empress of All Russia in 1762 - 1796 , born Sophia-Frederica-Amalia, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst. Born April 21, 1729. She was the daughter of the younger brother of a little German "fürst"; her mother came from the house of Holstein-Gottorp and was a cousin of the future Peter III.
Catherine grew up in a poor family and received a mediocre upbringing. Apart from later rumors, there are no definite facts indicating her premature development and early manifestation of talents. In 1743, Catherine’s mother and she herself received an invitation from Empress Elizabeth Petrovna to come to St. Petersburg. Elizabeth, for various reasons, chose Catherine as the bride for her heir Peter Feodorovich.
Arriving in Moscow, Catherine, despite her young years, quickly got used to the situation and understood her task: to adapt to the conditions, to Elizabeth, her court, to the whole of Russian life, to master the Russian language and the Orthodox faith. Possessing an attractive appearance, Catherine placed both Elizabeth and the court in her favor. On August 21, 1745, Catherine was married to Grand Duke Peter, but only on September 20, 1754, Catherine’s son Pavel was born. Catherine lived in unfavorable conditions. Gossip, intrigue, a licentious, idle life, in which unbridled fun, balls, hunts and masquerades were replaced by tides of hopeless boredom - such was the atmosphere of the Elizabethan court. Catherine felt embarrassed; she was kept under supervision, and even her great tact and intelligence did not save her from mistakes and major troubles. Even before the wedding, Catherine and Peter lost interest in each other. Disfigured by smallpox, physically frail, underdeveloped, eccentric, Peter did nothing to be loved; he upset and insulted Catherine with his tactlessness, red tape and strange antics. The birth of a son, taken from Catherine by Empress Elizabeth, did not bring any improvement to married life, which was then completely upset under the influence of outside hobbies (Elizabeth Vorontsova, Saltykov, Stanislav-August Poniatovsky).
Years, bitter trials, and harsh society taught Catherine to seek solace and joy in reading, to escape into the world of higher interests. Tacitus, Voltaire, Bayle, Montesquieu became her favorite authors. When she came to the throne, she was a highly educated woman. The compromised relations with Apraksin, Poniatovsky and the English Ambassador Williams were of great importance in Catherine’s life; Empress Elizabeth had reason to regard the latter as high treason. The existence of these relations is indisputably proven by recently opened and published correspondence. Two nightly meetings with Elizabeth led to Catherine’s forgiveness and, as some think (N.D. Chechulin), were the moment of a big turning point in Catherine’s life: her desire for power included moments of moral order.
Reign of Catherine II the Great
Peter and Catherine reacted differently to the death of Empress Elizabeth: the new emperor behaved strangely and shamelessly, the empress emphasized her respect for the memory of the deceased. The Emperor was clearly heading towards a break; Catherine was waiting for a divorce, a monastery, maybe death. Various circles cherished the idea of deposing Peter III. Catherine, who was popular among the people, had her own plans. The guards dreamed of seeing her on the throne; The dignitaries were thinking about replacing Peter with his son under Catherine's regency. The incident caused a premature explosion. At the center of the movement were the guards: the dignitaries had to recognize the accomplished fact of Catherine’s accession to the throne.
Peter III was deposed on June 28, 1762 by a military mutiny, without firing a shot, without shedding a drop of blood. In the subsequent death of Peter III (July 6, 1762), Catherine was innocent. Catherine's accession was a usurpation; it was impossible to find any legal grounds for it. It was necessary to give a moral and political motivation to the event; The manifestos of June 28 (short) and July 6 ( "thorough"). The latter, by order of Paul I (Monuments of the Code of Laws No. 17759) was declared destroyed and was not included in the Monuments of the Code of Laws. This is, in essence, a political pamphlet in which a devastating characterization of the personality and reign of Peter III is given. Catherine pointed out his contempt for Orthodoxy, putting this fact at the forefront, and the danger of rebellion and collapse of the empire. All this justified the deposition of Peter III, but did not justify the accession of Catherine; for this justification, in addition to the reference to the miraculous action of God's providence, a fiction was invented "people's election". Along with pointing out "general and unfeigned desire"(manifesto of June 28th), reference was made to "universal and unanimous... petition"(rescript to the ambassador in Berlin), to the rescue "dear fatherland through his chosen ones"(Manifesto July 6). It was stated even more clearly in one diplomatic act: “The people who occupy a third of the known world unanimously entrusted me with power over them.”, and in the manifesto of December 14, 1766, “There is one God and our dear Fatherland, through his chosen ones, has handed us the scepter.” The position of the chosen one obliged: "voters", that is, the participants in the conspiracy, were generously rewarded; "dear fatherland" was promised “ask God day and night to help us raise the Scepter in observance of our Orthodox law, in strengthening and protecting our dear fatherland, in preserving justice... And how Our sincere and unhypocritical desire is to directly prove how worthy We want to be of the love of Our people , for which we recognize Ourselves to be enthroned: then... here we most solemnly promise, with Our Imperial word, to legitimize such state institutions according to which the government of Our dear Fatherland, in its strength and within its borders, would have its course so that in the descendants of every state place had its limits and laws to maintain good order in everything..."(Manifesto July 6).
June 28, 1762. Oath of the Izmailovsky regiment to Catherine II. Engraving. Unknown artist. The end of the 18th - first third of the 19th century.
Domestic policy of Catherine II
The court situation was determined by the conditions of the accession; domestic policy flowed from them and was formed under the influence of ideas "educational" philosophies that Catherine absorbed and began to implement, and even more so, to loudly proclaim. She was "philosopher on the throne" school representative "enlightened despots", so numerous at that time in Europe. Catherine strengthened her position both by carefully carrying out her will (particularly tactful relations with the Senate, the predominant role of which in Elizabethan times Catherine considered unacceptable), and by gaining popularity among the population, especially among the class that nominated the conspirators, i.e., the nobility.
In the first months of his reign, Chancellor N.I. Panin developed a draft of the Institution "Imperial Council"; Although Catherine signed it, it was not published, probably because it could lead to a limitation of autocracy (later, under Catherine, there was a State Council, but it was a purely advisory institution, the composition of which depended on Catherine’s discretion). During the coronation celebrations, Guryev and Khrushchov thought about returning the throne to Ivan Antonovich: Khitrovo, Lasunsky and Roslavlev threatened to kill Grigory Orlov if Catherine married him, which was seriously discussed at the time. Both cases ended in the punishment of the perpetrators and had no significance. More serious was the case of Arseny Matseevich, Metropolitan of Rostov (see III, 725; a new book about him by priest M.S. Popov, "Arseniy Matseevich and his business" St. Petersburg, 1912). In February and March 1763, Arseny made a sharp protest against the solution to the issue of church estates that Catherine had outlined. Arseny was defrocked and imprisoned, and the issue of church estates was resolved in the sense of expropriation of most of them, with the establishment of staffs of monasteries and episcopal departments. This decision was carried out earlier by Peter III, and this was one of the reasons for his death; Catherine managed to cope with the task safely.
On July 5, 1764, Mirovich made a romantic attempt to free Ivan Antonovich from the Shlisselburg fortress. The latter died in this case, and Mirovich was executed (for details, see John VI). From the very beginning of the reign, the peasants were worried, waiting for liberation from serfdom. Peasant riots were pacified by military teams.
In 1765, a manifesto was published about "general survey". Measures to return fugitives from Poland with the promise of amnesties, calling colonists to Russia to settle the southern outskirts stemmed from fashionable in the 18th century. ideas about the need to multiply the population. Improved administrative technology brought order to affairs; measures to completely eradicate feeding provided more effective means to combat bribery. To speed up the proceedings in the Senate, the number of its departments was increased. By inoculating herself and the heir to the throne with smallpox (1768), Catherine created an impressive demonstration of royal care for her subjects.
Photo. Cabinet of Catherine the Great
In disagreement with her inner conviction, Catherine prohibited peasants from complaining about their masters. This prohibition was in connection with Catherine’s obligation to the class from which the conspirators came. Of particular importance in the first years of Catherine’s reign was the convening of a commission to draft a new code, the last and most outstanding among the legislative commissions of the 18th century. It had two main features: voters were asked to draw up and hand over orders to deputies about local benefits and burdens and about national needs, and Catherine herself prepared an order for the leadership of the commission, which contained a statement of her views on a number of issues of a state and legal nature. By way of the Order, which was based on "spirit of the Laws" Montesquieu, "On Crime and Punishment" Beccaria, "Institutions politiques" Bielfeld and some other works, Catherine introduced advanced political ideas into the consciousness of the government and society. The theory of class monarchy, natural monarchy, the theory of separation of powers, the doctrine of the repository of laws - all this is contained in "Nakaze", which proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance, condemnation of torture and other progressive ideas of criminology. The least developed and rather vague is the chapter on peasants; in the official publication, Catherine did not dare to come out as a supporter of emancipation, and this chapter was most influenced by those persons to whom Catherine gave the Order to read and criticize. The effect produced by the Order in the commission and society was enormous, its influence is undeniable. The commission elections were a lively affair. Orders to deputies and debates in the commission were given to Catherine, as she put it, "light", influenced social development, but the commission did not directly produce positive legislative results; inaugurated on July 30, 1767, it was temporarily dissolved on December 18, 1768, due to the outbreak of the Turkish War, and its general meeting was no longer convened; Only her private commissions (preparatory, numbering 19) worked until October 25, 1773, when they were dissolved, leaving large works that served as a source for Catherine’s later legislation. All these works rest unpublished and little-known in the archives of the State Council. The commission itself was not officially abolished, but existed in the form of a bureaucratic office without much significance until the end of Catherine’s reign. Thus ended this idea of Catherine, which brought her great fame.
Foreign policy of Catherine II
The foreign policy of Catherine the Great was of great importance in the first years of her reign. Maintaining peace with Prussia, Catherine began to intensively intervene in Polish affairs and installed her candidate, Stanislaw-August Poniatowski, on the Polish throne. She clearly sought to destroy the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and for this purpose renewed the dissident issue with particular force. Poland refused to acknowledge Catherine's advances and began to fight her. At the same time, Türkiye declared war on Russia (1768). The war, after its first sluggish months and partial small setbacks, was successful. Poland was occupied by Russian troops, the Bar Confederation (1769 - 1771) was pacified, and in 1772 - 1773 the first partition of Poland took place.
Russia received Belarus and gave its "guarantee" Polish device - more precisely, "lack of equipment"- thus gaining the right to interfere in Polish internal affairs. In the war with Turkey, the Battle of Cahul (Rumyantsev) was of greatest importance on land, and on the sea - the burning of the Turkish fleet in Chesme Bay (Alexey Orlov, Spiridov). According to the peace deal in Kuchuk-Kainardzhi (1774), Russia received Azov, Kinburi, the southern steppes, the right to patronize Turkish Christians, trade benefits and indemnities. During the war, considerable internal complications occurred. The plague brought from the army made a strong nest for itself in Moscow (1770).
Commander-in-Chief Saltykov fled; the people blamed the doctors for the trouble, and Archbishop Ambrose, who ordered the removal of the miraculous icon, to which crowds of people flocked, causing the infection to develop greatly, was killed. Only the energy of General Eropkin put an end to the rebellion, and emergency measures (the sending of Grigory Orlov to Moscow) stopped the disease. Even more dangerous was the Pugachev rebellion, which grew out of the social and living conditions of the southeastern outskirts; it was an acute manifestation of the socio-political protest of the Cossacks, peasants and foreigners against the St. Petersburg absolute monarchy and serfdom. Having begun in Yaik (Ural), among the local Cossacks, the movement found favorable soil in rumors and rumors generated by the freedom of the nobility, the deposition of Peter III and the commission of 1767. Cossack Emelyan Pugachev took the name of Peter III. The movement acquired a formidable character; the beginning of its suppression was interrupted by the death of A.I. Bibikov, but then the energetic measures of P.I. Panin, Mikhelson, Suvorov put an end to the movement, and on January 10, 1775 Pugachev was executed. The year of the end of the Pugachev region coincided with the year of publication of the institution on the provinces. This act was a response to the statements of the orders.
Catherine's provincial institutions provided some decentralization, introduced the principles of election and class into local government, gave predominance to the nobility in it, carried out, although not entirely consistent, the principle of separation of judicial, administrative and financial powers, and introduced a certain order and harmony into local government. Under Catherine "Establishment" was gradually extended to most of Russia. Catherine was especially proud of the order of public charity and the conscientious court, elective and well-conceived institutions, but which did not live up to the hopes placed on them. In connection with the provincial reform, Catherine’s measures regarding central administration stood: a number of colleges were abolished as unnecessary, others were inclined to decline; the Prosecutor General received special importance; The celebration of the ministerial beginning was being prepared. The educational measures in which Catherine wanted to be at the level of the century include the establishment of educational homes and women's institutes, which aimed to create "a new breed of people" as well as the development by a special commission of a broad but poorly implemented plan for public education.
Of great importance were the decree on free printing houses, the charter of the deanery (1782), which contained many humane ideas and moral maxims, and finally, the charters granted to the nobility and cities (1785), which formalized the position of the noble class and urban societies, gave both self-government, and assigned them to the nobility, along with the estate-based corporate organization, predominant in the state. Contrary to the demands of many nobles during the commission era, the beginning of the length of service of the nobility was preserved, that is, its non-caste character was preserved. The situation with the peasant question was much worse. Catherine did not take significant measures to improve peasant life; she secured for the nobility the right to own inhabited estates, although she did not give a clear definition of serfdom; in rare cases, she punished the torturer landowners and charged the governors with the duty to stop "tyranny and torture" but, on the other hand, she increased the number of serfs by generous grants of populated estates to her employees and favorites and by the extension of serfdom to Little Russia, in general more and more, after the destruction of the hetmanate, which had lost its originality and freedom.
After the grant of letters of 1785, Catherine’s reform activities came to a standstill. The very implementation of reforms and monitoring of the application of laws was not carried out energetically, systematically and deliberately enough; control in general was the weakest point in Catherine’s management. The financial policy was clearly wrong; enormous expenses led to treasury crises and a doubling of the tax burden; the establishment of an assignation bank (1786) turned out to be a well-conceived measure, but poorly executed, disrupting monetary circulation. Catherine entered the path of reaction and stagnation. The French Revolution remained incomprehensible to her and caused her lively indignation. She began to see conspirators, Jacobins, and assassins sent everywhere; her reactionary mood was nourished by emigrants, foreign courts, close associates, especially Zubov, her last favorite.
Persecution of the press and intelligentsia (Novikov and the Martinists, Radishchev, Derzhavin, Knyazhnin) marked the last years of Catherine's reign. She considered harmful nonsense those ideas that were once not alien to her. She stopped satirical magazines, which she had nurtured and which had as their prototype "All sorts of stuff", in which she participated. With money and diplomacy, Catherine supported the fight against the revolution. In the last year of her reign, she plotted armed intervention.
The foreign policy of Catherine II after 1774 was, despite partial failures, brilliant in results. Having successfully acted as a mediator in the struggle for the Bavarian inheritance (1778 - 79), Catherine further raised the prestige of Russia by implementing, during the struggle of England with its North American colonies, "armed neutrality", i.e. international protection of merchant shipping (1780). In the same year, Catherine did not renew her alliance with Prussia and moved closer to Austria; Joseph II had two dates with Catherine (1782 and 1787). The last of them coincided with Catherine’s famous journey along the Dnieper to Novorossiya and Crimea. The rapprochement with Austria not only gave rise to an unrealistic, fantastic "Greek project", i.e., the idea of restoring the Byzantine Empire under the power of Catherine’s grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, but also gave Russia the opportunity to annex Crimea, Taman and the Kuban region (1783) and wage the second Turkish War (1787 - 1791).
This war was difficult for Russia; at the same time, it was necessary to fight with Sweden (1788 - 90) and endure the strengthening of the resurgent Poland, which in the era "four-year-old" The Sejm (1788 - 92) did not take into account the Russian “guarantee”. A number of failures in the war with Turkey, which led Potemkin to despair, were redeemed by the capture of Ochakov, the victories of Suvorov at Focsani and Rymnik, the capture of Izmail, and the victory at Machina. According to the Peace of Yassy, concluded by Bezborodko (chancellor after Panin), Russia received confirmation of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi peace, Ochakov and recognition of the annexation of Crimea and Kuban; this result did not correspond to the severity of the costs; the difficult war with Sweden, which ended with the Peace of Werel, was also ineffective. Not wanting to allow the strengthening of Poland and seeing in the Polish reforms a manifestation "Jacobin infection".
Catherine created the Targowitz Confederation as a counterbalance to the reforms and sent her troops into Poland. The divisions of 1793 (between Russia and Prussia) and 1795 (between them and Austria) put an end to the state existence of Poland and gave Russia Lithuania, Volyn, Podolia and part of the present Vistula region. In 1795, the Courland nobility decided to annex the Duchy of Courland, a fief of Poland that had long been part of the Russian sphere of influence, to the Russian Empire. The war with Persia, undertaken by Catherine, did not matter. Catherine died of a stroke on November 6, 1796.
Personality of Catherine II
“Catherine had a mind that was not particularly subtle and deep, but flexible and careful, quick-witted. She did not have any outstanding ability, one dominant talent that would crush all other forces, disturbing the balance of the spirit. But she had one lucky gift that made the most powerful impression: memory, observation, insight, sense of situation, the ability to quickly grasp and summarize all available data in order to choose the tone in time.”(Klyuchevsky). She had an amazing ability to adapt to circumstances. She had a strong character, knew how to understand people and influence them; brave and courageous, she never lost her presence of mind. She was very hardworking and led a measured life, going to bed early and rising early; she loved to get involved in everything herself and loved to have people know about it. Love of fame was the main trait of her character and the stimulus for her activities, although she really valued the greatness and splendor of Russia, and her dream that after the end of legislation the Russian people would be the most just and prosperous on earth, perhaps smacked of more than just sentimentality. Catherine corresponded with Voltaire, d'Alembert, Buffon, hosted Grimm and Diderot in St. Petersburg. Not alien to abstract speculation, she was a realist politician, well versed in economic and psychological factors, aware of the fact that she had to deal with living people who "more sensitive and ticklish than paper, which endures everything"(words spoken to her by Diderot). She was convinced that the mob needed religion and the church.
The position of the Orthodox Empress was obligatory, and no matter how Catherine personally felt about religion, she was outwardly very devout (long pilgrimages), and over the years, perhaps, she actually became a believing daughter of the church. Catherine was charming in her manner; she charmed people and knew how to create an atmosphere of a certain freedom at court. She loved criticism if it was decent in form and limited to certain limits. Over the years, these limits narrowed: Catherine became more and more imbued with the conviction that she was an exceptional and brilliant nature, her decisions were unmistakable; the flattery that she loved (she was flattered by Russians and foreigners, monarchs and philosophers) had a harmful effect on her. Catherine's range of interests was wide and varied, her education was extensive; she worked as a diplomat, lawyer, writer, teacher, art lover (only music was alien and incomprehensible to her); she founded an art academy and collected a significant part of the Hermitage's artistic treasures. Catherine's appearance was attractive and majestic. She had iron health and was slowly becoming decrepit. There was no sincerity and love between her and her son; their relationship was not only cold, but downright hostile (see Paul I); Catherine transferred all the strength of her maternal feelings to her grandchildren, especially to Alexander.
Catherine's personal intimate life was stormy, full of impressions; Possessing a passionate temperament and enduring a lot of grief in her marriage, Catherine had quite a few hobbies of her heart; judging them, we must not forget about individual conditions and the general moral level of the 18th century. - The significance of Catherine's reign is great. Its external results had a great influence on the fate of Russia as a political body; inside, the major facts were some laws and institutions, for example, the institution on provinces. Humane ideas and events introduced culture and citizenship into society, and the commission of 1767 taught society to think about forbidden political topics.
When assessing the reign of Catherine, one should, however, carefully separate the beautiful facade and enchanting decorations from the inside of the building, brilliant words from the darkness, poverty and savagery of noble-serf Russia.
V. Eriksen "Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great"
“Catherine made a double takeover: she took away power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father” (V.O. Klyuchevsky).
Having thus ascended to the Russian throne, Catherine II began her reign by formulating the primary tasks for her activities:
- The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
- It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
- It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
- It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
- It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.
Let us now consider how Catherine II implemented these tasks.
The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine II. Yes, under her rule the autocracy strengthened and the bureaucratic apparatus became stronger. But the ideas of Diderot and Voltaire that every person is born free, that all people are equal, that despotic forms of government should be destroyed - this did not correspond to its internal policy. Under Catherine, the situation of the peasants worsened, and the nobles received more and more privileges.
Domestic policy
Senate Conversion and Stalled Commission
According to the project of statesman N.I. Panin in 1763 the Senate was transformed. It was divided into six departments: the first was headed by the Prosecutor General, who was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, sciences, education, art, the fourth - military-land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow judicial department.
As for the Statutory Commission, it was created to systematize laws. But the meetings were held for only six months, after which the commission was dissolved. The main result of her activities was the approval of the title “Great” for the empress (others were also proposed: “The Wise One,” “Mother of the Fatherland” and others). Thus, she did not receive such a title as a result of merit - it was ordinary court flattery.
D. Levitsky "Portrait of Catherine II"
Provincial reform
In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Its essence was that three levels of administrative division were eliminated: province, province, district, and two were introduced: province and district. 50 provinces were formed (instead of 23). The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts. Governor General(governor) were subordinate to 2-3 provinces. He had administrative, financial and judicial powers. Governor ruled the province and reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. Treasury Chamber headed by the vice-governor, she dealt with finances in the province. Land management - provincial land surveyor. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. Order of public charity supervised schools, hospitals and shelters, as well as class judicial institutions: Upper Zemsky Court for nobles, Provincial magistrate, who considered litigation between townspeople, and Upper reprisal for the trial of state peasants. Criminal and Civil Chamber judged all classes; they were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.
The head of the county was captain police officer, leader of the nobility, elected for three years.
Was created Conscientious court, called upon to reconcile those who argue and quarrel, he was classless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.
216 new cities were formed (mostly large rural settlements renamed cities). The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants. The city became the main administrative unit. It was headed by mayor, he was endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under supervision private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled quarterly supervisor.
According to historians, provincial reform led to a significant increase in the cost of maintaining the bureaucratic apparatus.
Founding of Kuban and annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate
In 1771, Catherine II issued a decree liquidating the Kalmyk Khanate and annexing the Kalmyk state to Russia. At the office of the Astrakhan governor, a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs was established, which began to manage the affairs of the Kalmyks. But this annexation did not happen immediately: Catherine, from the 60s, consistently limited the khan’s power, until a conspiracy matured within the khanate to leave for their historical homeland - Dzungaria (a region of Central Asia in northwestern China. A region with a semi-desert and steppe landscape) . This turned out to be a great disaster for the people, who lost about 100 thousand people.
Other provincial reforms
The territory of Estonia and Livonia was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel. Three provinces were created in Siberia: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.
Economy
A state bank was established and the issuance of paper money - banknotes - was established.
State regulation of prices for salt was introduced - it was one of the most valuable goods. But a state monopoly was not introduced, so the price of salt increased.
Exports have increased: sailing cloth, cast iron, iron, timber, hemp, bristles, bread - mainly raw materials and semi-finished products. And industrial products accounted for 80% of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail into the Mediterranean Sea.
Catherine II did not understand the importance of industrial development, because believed that this would reduce the number of employees.
Industry and agriculture developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land). During her reign, there were frequent cases of famine in the countryside, which was explained by crop failures, but some historians believe that this was the result of massive grain exports.
During the reign of Catherine II, bribery and other forms of arbitrariness by officials flourished (what we now call corruption), she knew about it herself and tried to fight, but to no avail. As the historian V. Bilbasov writes, “Catherine soon became convinced for herself that “bribery in state affairs” was not eradicated by decrees and manifestos, that this required a radical reform of the entire political system - a task... that turned out to be beyond the capabilities of either that time or the later.”
Historians note the exorbitant growth of favoritism under Catherine II, which did not contribute to the well-being of the state, but increased costs. They also received rewards without any measure. For example, her favorite Platon Zubov had so many awards that he looked like “a seller of ribbons and hardware.” During her reign, she gave gifts to a total of more than 800 thousand peasants. She gave out about 100 thousand rubles annually for the maintenance of Grigory Potemkin’s niece, and gave her and her fiancé 1 million rubles for their wedding. Near her was a crowd of French courtiers, whom she generously presented with gifts. Large sums were paid to representatives of the Polish aristocracy, including King Stanislaw Poniatowski (formerly her favorite).
Education and science
Catherine II paid special attention to women's education. In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was opened.
Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens
Hood. Galaktionov "Smolny Institute"
This is the first women's educational institution in Russia. It was founded on the initiative of I. I. Betsky and in accordance with the decree of Catherine the Second in 1764 and was originally called the “Imperial Educational Society of Noble Maidens.” It was created to "provide the state with educated women, good mothers, useful members of the family and society."
Catherine, a fan of the progressive ideas of the French Enlightenment, wanted to establish an educational institution that had no equal in Europe at that time. According to the charter, children entered the institution no older than six years of age and remained there for 12 years. Parents had to give a signature that before the expiration of this period they would not take their children out of the educational institution. The Empress hoped that the children would be removed from an ignorant environment and molded into educated people, thus further creating a “new breed of people.” The decree provided for the education of two hundred noble maidens in the newly built Novodevichy Convent. At first it was a closed institution for noble children, and in 1765 a department “for bourgeois girls” (non-noble classes, except serfs) was opened at the institute. The building for the Bourgeois School was erected by the architect J. Felten.
K.D. Ushinsky
In 1859-1862. The institute’s class inspector was K.D. Ushinsky, who carried out a number of progressive reforms in it (a new seven-year curriculum with a large number of hours devoted to the Russian language, geography, history, natural science, etc.). After Ushinsky's forced departure from the institute, all of his major reforms were eliminated.
The students of the institute wore uniform dresses of a certain color: at a younger age - coffee, at a second age - dark blue, at a third age - light blue and at an older age - white. Lighter colors symbolized increasing education and neatness.
The program included training in Russian literature, geography, arithmetic, history, foreign languages, music, dancing, drawing, social manners, various types of home economics, etc.
The final public examination was attended by the emperor and members of his family. At the end of the institute, the six best graduates received a “cipher” - a gold monogram in the form of the initial of Empress Catherine II, which was worn on a white bow with gold stripes.
Some students of the institute became ladies-in-waiting at the court (maids-in-waiting formed the retinue of empresses and grand duchesses).
The institute's training course was equivalent to that of women's gymnasiums.
In October 1917, the institute, headed by Princess V.V. Golitsyna, moved to Novocherkassk.
The last Russian graduation took place in February 1919 in Novocherkassk. Already in the summer of 1919, the institute left Russia and continued work in Serbia.
"Code" of the best graduates of the Smolny Institute
Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences became one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. In 1783 the Russian Academy was founded. Russian Academy(Also Imperial Russian Academy, Russian Academy) was created by Catherine II and Princess E. R. Dashkova on the model of the French Academy for the Study of Russian Language and Literature in St. Petersburg. The main result of the activities of this product of the Russian Enlightenment was the publication of the Russian Academic Dictionary. In 1841, the academy was transformed into the 2nd Branch of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
But historians do not rate successes in the field of education and science under Catherine II highly: educational institutions always experienced a shortage of students, many students could not pass exams, and studies were not organized well enough.
Under Catherine, educational homes for street children were organized, where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created. During her reign, the fight against epidemics began to take on the character of state events.
National politics
Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement for Jews: in the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. The Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.
In 1762, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in the provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them.” There was a list of benefits for immigrants. This is how they arose German settlements in the Volga region, reserved for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was very large; already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. During the reign of Catherine, Russia included Northern Black Sea region, Azov region, Crimea, Right Bank Ukraine, lands between the Dniester and Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.
Monument to Catherine II in the city of Marks, Saratov region
But this seemingly positive phenomenon turned out to be incidental - the “discord of interests” intensified when the indigenous population found themselves in a worse position and when some Russian nobles at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to “register as Germans” so that they could enjoy the corresponding privileges.
Under Catherine, the privileges of the nobles were further strengthened. Peasants made up about 95% of the population, and serfs made up more than 50% of the population. According to the general opinion of historians, the situation of this largest group of the population in the era of Catherine was the worst in the entire history of Russia. Trade by peasants reached wide proportions: they were sold in markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given as gifts, and forced into marriage. She adopted a number of laws that worsened the situation of the peasants. During her reign, she gave away more than 800 thousand peasants to landowners and nobles. The result of this policy was the Peasants' War of 1773-1775.
Catherine pursued a policy of religious tolerance; in the first years of her reign, the persecution of Old Believers ceased. She even supported the initiative of Peter III to return Old Believers from abroad. But the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) increased due to the massive resettlement of Germans to Russia.
Pretenders to the throne
Catherine's rise to power through illegal means gave birth to a series of pretenders to the Russian throne: from 1764 to 1773. Seven False Peters III appeared in the country (claiming that they were the “resurrected Peter”), the eighth was Emelyan Pugachev. And in 1774-1775. the “case of Princess Tarakanova” was added, posing as the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna.
During her reign, 3 conspiracies against her were uncovered, two of them were associated with the name of Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI), who at the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.
Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. Catherine II tried to control Freemasonry and allow only such activities that did not contradict her interests.
Literature
Russian literature in the era of Catherine, as in general in the 18th century, according to a number of historians, was mainly engaged in the “processing of foreign elements.” The “official” literature of the era of Catherine is represented by several famous names: Fonvizin (read about him on our website:, Sumarokov, Derzhavin (read about him on our website:). There was also “unofficial” literature: Radishchev, Novikov, Krechetov - which was was subjected to a ban, and the authors were subjected to severe repression. For example, Knyazhnin, whose historical drama (“Vadim Novgorodsky”) was banned, and the entire print run was burned.
Novikov’s journal “Truten” was closed by the authorities in 1770 due to the fact that it raised sensitive social issues - the arbitrariness of landowners against peasants, corruption among officials, etc. The “St. Petersburg Bulletin” suffered the same fate, which only existed a little over two years, and other magazines. In A. Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” there are no calls for the overthrow of the existing system and for the abolition of serfdom. But the author was sentenced to death by quartering (after pardon, it was replaced by a 10-year exile to Tobolsk) because his book was “filled with harmful speculations that destroy public peace and detract from the respect due to authority...”. Catherine loved flattery and could not stand people who dared to express their critical judgments that ran counter to her own.
Culture and art under Catherine
Foundation of the Hermitage
Hermitage Hall
State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg - the largest art, cultural and historical museum in Russia and one of the largest in the world. The history of the museum begins in 1764, with collections of works of art that Catherine II began to acquire privately. Initially, this collection was housed in a special palace wing - the Small Hermitage (from the French. ermitage- a place of solitude), hence the general name of the future museum. In 1852, the greatly expanded collection was formed and opened to the public. Imperial Hermitage.
Today, the museum's collection includes about three million works of art and monuments of world culture, from the Stone Age to the present day.
Founding of the Public Library
Old library building, early 19th century.
In 1795, by the highest order of Empress Catherine II, it was founded Imperial Public Library. The basis of the Imperial Public Library is the Zaluski Library (400,000 volumes), which was declared the property of the Russian government as a war booty after the suppression of the uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko in 1794 and the capture of Warsaw by A. Suvorov. Currently, it is a particularly valuable object of national heritage and constitutes the historical and cultural heritage of the peoples of the Russian Federation. One of the largest libraries in the world.
Catherine II patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.
The palaces of the era of Catherine II (Winter, Bolshoi Catherine, Catherine in Moscow) and the parks around them in their luxury and splendor were not inferior to the palaces and parks of the French kings and had no other equals in Europe. Everyone competes in the luxury of carriages, the thoroughbred horses, the brilliance of the teams, the main goal is to appear no worse than others.
Catherine's foreign policyII
V. Borovikovsky "Catherine on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo Park"
Foreign policy under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “ You need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”
Under Catherine, the growth of Russia was as follows: after the first Turkish war in 1744, Russia acquired Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale. Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Russia is already firmly on the Black Sea.
At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia: in 1773, Russia receives part of Belarus (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces); in 1793 - Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; in 1795-1797 - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.
An important direction of Catherine II’s foreign policy was also the annexation of the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule, as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars. The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov.
The Werel Peace Treaty with Sweden was signed in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.
Relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries.
After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." But in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France.
During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status great power. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. During Catherine's reign, Russian colonization of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska began.
During the long reign of Catherine II (34 years), there was a lot of good and bad. But we agree with the words of Catherine’s contemporary, Russian historian and publicist Prince M.M. Shcherbatov, who wrote that the favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline of the morals of the nobility of that era.
Introduction
1. Domestic policy of Catherine II
1.1 Power reform
1.2 Economic, social and religious policies
2. Foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The reign of Catherine II left a noticeable mark on the history of Russia. The policy of the Russian Empress was quite versatile and sometimes even contradictory. For example, her policy of enlightened absolutism, characteristic of many European states of that era and involving patronage of art, did not, however, prevent Catherine II from strengthening serfdom.
Catherine II, born Sophia Frederika Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from a poor German princely family. Catherine was a rather complex, extraordinary person. From early childhood, she learned an everyday lesson - in order to have power, you need to be able to be cunning and pretend.
In 1745, Catherine II converted to the Orthodox faith and was married to the heir to the Russian throne, the future Peter III. Having arrived in Russia as a fifteen-year-old girl, Catherine perfectly mastered the Russian language, studied many Russian customs, and, of course, thereby achieved the ability to please the Russian people. The future Russian empress read a lot. She read a lot of books by French educators, ancient authors, special works on history and philosophy, and works by Russian writers. From them, Catherine II adopted the ideas of the enlighteners about the public good as the highest goal of a statesman, about the need to educate and educate his subjects, about the primacy of laws in society.
Soon after the accession of Peter III, unpopular among the nobility, Catherine overthrew her husband from the throne, relying on the guards regiments. In the first years of her reign, Catherine II intensely searched for ways to establish herself on the throne, while showing extreme caution. When deciding the fate of the favorites and mistresses of the previous reign, Catherine II showed generosity and condescension. As a result, many talented and useful people remained in their previous positions.
At the beginning of her reign, Catherine II continued to implement the policies outlined in the previous time. Some of the empress's innovations were of a private nature and did not give grounds to classify the reign of Catherine II as an outstanding phenomenon in Russian history.
It must be admitted that the circumstances under which Catherine began to reign were very difficult: finances were depleted, the army did not receive salaries, trade was in decline, because many of its industries were given over to a monopoly, the military department was plunged into debt, the clergy was dissatisfied with the taking away he has land.
1. Catherine's domestic policy II
1.1 Power reform
Catherine II declared herself the successor of Peter I. The main features of Catherine II's domestic policy were the strengthening of the autocracy, the strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus, the centralization of the country and the unification of the management system.
On December 15, 1763, according to Panin’s project, the Senate was transformed. The Senate was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, and headed by the prosecutor general. Each department had certain powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.
During the reign of the Empress, an attempt was made to convene the Statutory Commission. The main goal of the commission's work was to clarify the people's needs in order to carry out comprehensive reforms.
More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod. The first meeting of the Statutory Commission was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow, but due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be dissolved.
On November 7, 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - province, province, district, a two-tier administrative division began to operate - province, district (which was based on the principle of the size of the tax-paying population).
The governor-general (viceroy) kept order in local centers; 2-3 provinces were subordinate to him. Each province was headed by a governor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. Finances in the province were handled by the Treasury Chamber, headed by the vice-governor. The provincial land surveyor was in charge of land management. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. The Order of Public Charity was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters, as well as class judicial institutions: the Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigation between townspeople, and the Upper Justice for the trial of state peasants. The highest judicial bodies in the provinces were the criminal chamber and the civil chamber. The chambers judged all classes. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.
At the head of the district was a captain-mentor - the leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government.
Since there were clearly not enough cities that were the centers of counties, Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants.
Instead of a governor, a mayor was appointed at the head of the city, endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by a quarterly overseer.
Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea. Thus, there was no longer a need to maintain the special rights and management system of the Zaporozhye Cossacks, who served to protect the southern borders of Russia. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.
In 1787, the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 they were granted Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.
As a result of general administrative reforms aimed at strengthening the state, a decision was made to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire. By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, beginning the process of annexing the Kalmyk state, which previously had vassalage relations with the Russian state, to Russia. The affairs of the Kalmyks began to be supervised by a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established under the office of the Astrakhan governor. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among Russian officials. In 1772, during the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court was established - Zargo, consisting of three members (one representative each from the three main uluses: Torgouts, Derbets and Khoshouts).
The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. The special Baltic order, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners, was also eliminated.
Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.
In an effort to create the most real guarantees of an “enlightened monarchy,” Catherine II began to work on granting letters to the nobility, cities, and state peasants. Charters to the nobility and cities received legal force in 1785. The charter to the nobility secured for each hereditary nobleman freedom from compulsory service. They were also exempt from state taxes and corporal punishment. They retained the right of ownership of movable and immovable property, as well as the right to sue only by equals (i.e. nobles) and to conduct trade.
1.2 Economic, social and religious policies
The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established for the first time.
Of great importance was the state regulation of prices for salt introduced by the empress, which was one of the most vital goods in the country. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product.
Russia's role in the global economy has increased - Russian sailing fabric began to be exported in large quantities to England, and the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly).
Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced inside Russia was completely prohibited. Duties of 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, and toys. Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the cost of exported goods.
In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.
At the same time, Russia under Catherine experienced a series of financial crises and was forced to make external loans, the size of which by the end of the Empress’s reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.
In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. On October 11, 1783, the Russian Academy was founded.
In Moscow and St. Petersburg, educational homes were created for street children, where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created.
Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.
New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.
In general, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued in Russia under Catherine II. Representatives of all traditional religions did not experience pressure or oppression. Thus, in 1773, a law on tolerance of all religions was issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other faiths. The secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of churches of any faith.
Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands from the church. But already in February 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. The monastic peasants, numbering about 2 million people of both sexes, were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economy. The state came under the jurisdiction of the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops. In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic properties was carried out in 1786. Thus, the clergy became dependent on secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.
Catherine obtained from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth government equalization of the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.
Under Catherine II, the persecution of Old Believers ceased. The Empress initiated the return of Old Believers, an economically active population, from abroad. They were specially allocated a place in Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions) and were allowed to have priests.
The free migration of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform religious services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.
The Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice its faith. Religious matters and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the appropriate class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.
By decree of Catherine II, in 1787, in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, the complete Arabic text of the Islamic holy book of the Koran was printed for free distribution to the “Kyrgyz”. The publication differed significantly from European ones, primarily in that it was Muslim in nature: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. Thus, Catherine began to integrate the Muslim community into the system of government of the empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.
Buddhism also received government support in regions where it was traditionally practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of Hambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, the Buryat lamas recognized Catherine as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and her humane rule.
2. Foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II
The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “you need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”
After the first Turkish war, Russia acquired in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.
The reason for intervention in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they were equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine put strong pressure on the gentry to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to carry out a division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia sent in their troops. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.
In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov.
On October 13, 1795, a conference of three powers took place on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.
An important area of Catherine II’s foreign policy also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.
When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian troops, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of Ryabaya Mogila, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Larga, the Battle of Chesme), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but in fact became dependent from Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.
The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here the Russians also won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Fokshani, and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), the Kerch naval battle (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakra (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.
The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, Russia’s political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.
Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered into a war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, England and Holland, started a war with it for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered Russian territory were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish battle fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but due to a storm, it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Treaty of Verel in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.
In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the Northern System - an alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.
In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the USA. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality”, supported by the majority of European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by the fleet of a warring country).
In European affairs, Russia's role increased during the Austro-Prussian War of 1778-1779, when it acted as a mediator between the warring parties at the Congress of Teschen, where Catherine essentially dictated her terms of reconciliation, restoring balance in Europe. After this, Russia often acted as an arbiter in disputes between German states, which turned directly to Catherine for mediation.
One of Catherine’s grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel the Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine’s grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as its emperor. According to the plans, a buffer state of Dacia is created in place of Bessarabia, Moldova and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and Russia’s independent conquest of significant Turkish territories.
In October 1782, a Treaty of Friendship and Trade with Denmark was signed.
After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.
During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a “great power”. As a result of two Russian-Turkish wars that were successful for Russia, the Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. During Catherine's reign, Russian colonization of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska began.
Conclusion
Estimates of the reign of Empress Catherine II in historical science are ambiguous. Many of her outwardly spectacular undertakings, conceived on a large scale, led to modest results or gave unexpected and often erroneous results.
Some historians are of the opinion that Catherine II simply implemented the changes dictated by the times and continued the policies outlined in her previous reign. Other historians recognize the empress as a major historical figure who took the second, after Peter I, step along the path of Europeanization of the country, and the first along the path of reforming it in a liberal-educational spirit.
In internal affairs, the legislation of Catherine II completed the historical process that began under the temporary workers. Under Catherine, the nobility became not only a privileged class with a proper internal organization, but also a class ruling in the district (as a landowning class) and in general administration (as a bureaucracy). Parallel to the growth of noble rights and depending on it, the civil rights of landowner peasants are falling. The rise of noble privileges in the 18th century. necessarily connected with the rise of serfdom. Therefore, the time of Catherine II was the historical moment when serfdom reached its full and greatest development. Thus, the activities of Catherine II in relation to the estates were a direct continuation and completion of those deviations from the Old Russian system that developed in the 18th century.
In foreign policy, the Empress refused to follow her predecessors, Elizabeth and Peter III. She consciously deviated from the traditions that had developed at the St. Petersburg court, and yet the results of her activities were essentially such that they completed the traditional aspirations of the Russian people and government.
List of used literature
1. Berdyshev S.N. Catherine the Great. - M.: World of Books, 2007;
2. History of diplomacy - M., 1959;
3. History of Imperial Russia from Peter I to Catherine II. – M.: Priora, 1998;
4. History of Russia: In 2 vols. T. 1: From ancient times to the end of the 18th century. / A. N. Sakharov, L. E. Morozova, M. A. Rakhmatullin, etc. - M.: Astrel, 2007;
5. Manfred A. Z. The Great French Revolution. - M, 1983;
6. Tomsinov V.A. Empress Catherine II (1729-1796) / Russian jurists of the 18th-20th centuries: Essays on life and work. In 2 volumes. T.1 - M.: Mirror, 2007
7. Catherine and the development of the Russian military fleet // Questions of history, 2005, No. 4
8. http://www.history-gatchina.ru
Tomsinov V.A. Empress Catherine II (1729-1796) // Russian jurists of the 18th-20th centuries: Essays on life and creativity. In 2 volumes. - M.: Mirror, 2007. - T. 1., P. 63
Berdyshev S.N. Catherine the Great. - M.: World of Books, 2007. P.198-203
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Catherine and the development of the Russian military fleet // Questions of history, 2005, No. 4
Manfred A. Z. The Great French Revolution. - M, 1983. - P.111
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal Agency for Education
Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Siberian Federal University"
Humanitarian Institute
Faculty of History and Philosophy
Department of Philosophy
History summary:
Foreign and domestic policy of CatherineII
Completed:
1st year student, Department of Philosophy
Kirienko Pavel Andreevich
Checked:
M.G. Tarasov
Krasnoyarsk 2010
1. Introduction
2.1 South direction
2.2 Western direction
2.3 Other directions
3.1 Enlightened absolutism
3.2 Protective absolutism
3.3 Enlightened despotism
Conclusion
Bibliography
1. Introduction
Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent judge of people; she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine’s time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists and musicians. In dealing with her subjects, Catherine II was, as a rule, restrained, patient, and tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist and knew how to listen carefully to everyone.
During the entire reign of Catherine II, there were practically no noisy resignations; none of the nobles were disgraced, exiled, much less executed. Therefore, there was an idea of Catherine’s reign as the “golden age” of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything else in the world.
The method of her reign can be characterized in one expression: Catherine ruled “with carrots and sticks.”
For myself, in my work, I set the following tasks:
ü Study and demonstrate the foreign policy of Catherine II;
ü Study and demonstrate the internal policies of Catherine II.
2. Foreign policy of Catherine II
Following Peter I, Catherine believed that Russia should take an active position on the world stage and pursue an offensive policy.
Catherine II began her foreign policy activities by returning home the Russian troops stationed abroad, confirming peace with Prussia, but rejecting the military alliance concluded with her by Peter III.
Catherine II successfully continued and triumphantly completed the creation of the Russian Empire as a great world power, begun by Peter I. The foreign policy results of Catherine's 34-year stay on the throne were significant territorial acquisitions and the final consolidation of Russia's status as a great power.
The country began to play one of the leading roles in world politics, allowing it to influence the resolution of almost any international issue in its own interests.
2.1 South direction
In the southern direction, for a long time, the dream of the rulers of Russia was access to the shores of the warm Black Sea.
For such a dream, the first war was the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774.
In 1768, Türkiye declared war on Russia; the campaign of 1769 did not bring success to Russia. However, in 1770 Rumyantsev launched an offensive towards the Danube. In the battle on the Largi River, the Russian army put Turkish troops to flight. On the Katu River, Rumyantsev, with only 27 thousand soldiers, defeated the 150 thousand strong Turkish army. And the Baltic fleet under the command of Admiral Sviridov defeated the superior forces of the Turks in Chesme Bay. In 1774, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was signed, according to which Russia received access to the Black Sea and the right to have a Black Sea fleet. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Russia also received lands between the Dnieper and the Bug, and from the North Caucasus to the Kuban. However, in 1783 Crimea was included in Russia, and fortress cities began to be built there. In the same year, the Treaty of Georgievsk was signed, according to which Georgia came under the protectorate (patronage) of Russia. Therefore, the second Russian-Turkish war begins.
The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), Kerch naval battle (1790), Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.
The Russian Empire, in need of access to the Black Sea, solved this problem through two Russian-Turkish wars.
2.2 Western direction
Here we observe Russia’s desire to unite, into the Empire, all lands inhabited by closely related Russian peoples - Ukrainians and Belarusians. In the second half of the 18th century. Poland is a weak state, with many internal problems, which experienced approximately the same difficult times as the Ottoman Empire. Catherine II wanted to have a weak state in Poland with her protege. However, Russia's allies, Austria and Prussia, were in favor of the division of Poland. As a result, three divisions of Poland occur:
1) 1772 - Russia received eastern Belarus and Latvian lands.
2) 1793 - Russia receives the center of Belarus, with Minsk and right-bank Ukraine.
3) 1795 - Russia receives western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland, Volyn.
On October 13, 1795, a conference of three powers was held on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.
2.3 Other directions
In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia normalized, as a result of which an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the “Northern System” - an alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-English cooperation continued further.
One of Catherine’s grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel the Turks from Europe, revive the Byzantine Empire and proclaim Catherine’s grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, as its emperor. According to the plans, a buffer state of Dacia is created in place of Bessarabia, Moldova and Wallachia, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula is transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and Russia’s independent conquest of significant Turkish territories.
In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the USA. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality”, supported by the majority of European countries (ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by the fleet of a warring country).
After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." However, in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine abandoned all treaties concluded with France, ordered the expulsion of all those suspected of sympathizing with the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 she issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.
3. Domestic policy of Catherine II
Catherine II ascended the throne with a well-defined political program, based, on the one hand, on the ideas of the Enlightenment and, on the other, taking into account the peculiarities of the historical development of Russia. The most important principles of the implementation of this program were gradualism, consistency, and consideration of public sentiment.
Under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. Their main idea was a critique of the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and oppressive forms of government.
In the domestic policy of Catherine II, the following three periods can be distinguished: enlightened absolutism, protective absolutism, enlightened despotism.
3.1 Enlightened absolutism
Enlightened absolutism is the period of Catherine II’s passion for the ideas of enlightenment (all people are naturally free and equal). This is a period of reforms driven by concern for the “public good” and attempts to improve legislation. At this time, in order to improve central government, in 1763 the Senate was divided into 6 departments. Each of them had a strictly defined range of responsibilities and powers. In 1764, Catherine II appointed a governor general (Rumyantsev) to Ukraine instead of the hetman, finally destroying Ukrainian autonomy. 1763-1764 - secularization was carried out. Catherine II considered herself a student of European enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot) and was in correspondence with them. Catherine II dreamed of a state capable of ensuring the well-being of its subjects. In Russia, the “Conciliar Code” adopted in 1649 continues to operate.
Then Catherine II decided to convene elections, representatives from each class and instruct them to develop a new position, taking into account the interests of the population. The empress drew up an order for the deputies (to condemn the cruelty of punishments; to proclaim responsibility for subjects and non-subjects; to condemn excessive taxes from peasants, etc.). In 1767, the “Laid Commission” was convened. The Statutory Commission included more than 500 deputies. However, the Commission did not live up to Catherine’s hopes, because each class thought only of its own interests, and as a result the commission was dissolved.
3.2 Protective absolutism
Protective absolutism is a period of prolonged internal reforms, but in a different way. At this time, state control over order and “maintenance of silence” in the state were strengthened (from the Pugachev era to the French Revolution).
After Pugachev's uprising, Catherine II came to the idea that it was necessary to strengthen local government. In 1775, there was a provincial reform, according to which the number of provinces increased from 8 to 50. The provinces were divided into districts. Under the governor, there was a provincial department that supervised activities and officials.
And the treasury chamber was in charge of finances and economic affairs. Judicial institutions were separated from administrative ones.
Thus, there is an official separation of the judicial and financial areas.
In 1785, the “Charter of Nobility” appeared - it finally consolidated the rights of the nobility (exemption from compulsory service; exemption from corporal punishment; exemption from poll tax; the right to property over peasants; the right to own land; to engage in business and trade). In 1785, the “Charter of Grant to Cities” also appeared (divided all citizens into 6 categories, their rights and privileges depended on belonging to the category and on their property status).
3.3 Enlightened despotism
Enlightened despotism is a period of strict censorship. Punitive measures against freethinking. Confiscation of French literature (after the French Revolution). The 1783 decree on free printing houses was, without a doubt, a progressive document for those times. In Russia there were different conditions compared to England, France, and the American states. The decree provided society with new opportunities that were immediately used: a large number of new printing houses and publications appeared. Events in France significantly influenced Catherine II. She was frightened by the possible spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in the Russian state. May 20, 1792 Prince A.A. Prozorovsky wrote to her about the need to “put limits on booksellers of foreign books and take away the ability to import similar books at the borders and ports, and even more so from the now disorganized France, which only serve to mislead and debauch people who are not based on the rules of honesty.”
To limit the import of foreign literature from abroad, Catherine II issues a decree on the creation of “censorship... in each place of three persons: spiritual, civil and scholarly.” We can say that from this time on the official “formalization” of censorship began.
Conclusion
In my opinion, the reign of Catherine II in the 18th century is the brightest for the Russian Empire. Even before ascending the throne, being the wife of Emperor Peter III, Catherine had already become interested in the writings of the French enlightenment philosopher Voltaire, which in the future, in my opinion, greatly influenced her way of ruling. Her reign cannot be underestimated. The expansion of borders begun by Peter I and securing the title of “Great Power” for Russia was completed brilliantly by Catherine II. It was during her reign that the much-needed access to the Black Sea was obtained as a result of two Russian-Turkish wars. As a result of the division of Poland, Russia regains the territories of Ukraine and Belarus. With such a foreign policy, as it would seem at first glance, lawlessness and devastation should reign in the state. But even here the merits of Catherine II do not end. She carried out many reforms in the state, such as a charter to nobles and cities, a decree on free printing houses and the introduction of censorship, etc. She was able to systematize the authorities, dividing the Senate into 6 departments, and perfectly differentiate the territory of the Russian Empire, as a result of the provincial reform. In my opinion, Catherine II is the most outstanding empress in the history of our state. At least, history does not know the name of the woman who did just as much and necessary things during her reign.
indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.The history of the Russian Empire during the era of Catherine II is replete with military conflicts, secret conspiracies and coalitions. The success of wars, intrigues and diplomacy, through which the Empress managed to significantly expand the western and southern borders of the Russian Empire, is often called one of her most significant achievements. The brilliant Russian commander A.V. Suvorov played a huge role in this regard.
Internal
During her reign, Catherine II combined aspirations for the ideals of enlightened absolutism, contradictoryly adjacent to the outright oppression of the peasants. The growth of social tension in the war-drained country resulted in the Pugachev uprising, after which the empress began reforms aimed at increasing tax revenues, strengthening the vertical of power and police supervision.
Other policy areas of Catherine II
Attitude to the church
Economic transformation
Attempts to reform the economic system were also made - issuing the first paper money (assignats), permission to open your own enterprise without additional documents, and increasing the export of resources. The Free Economic Society was founded to promote innovations in land use and industry. However, the Russian Empire remained predominantly a resource-exporting power - most of all wood was sold, and grain sales were organized (prohibited under Empress Elizabeth). Of the value-added products, only canvas could be named. The development of production technologies was hampered by the orientation of the economy towards the slave labor of serfs. At the end of the reign of Catherine II, paper money depreciated by a third, the state accumulated debts of more than 200 million, and income did not cover expenses.