The Crimean War answered the long-standing dream of Nicholas I to gain Russian possession of the Black Sea straits, which Catherine the Great had already dreamed of. This was contrary to the plans of the European Great Powers, who intended to counteract Russia and help the Ottomans in the coming war.
Main causes of the Crimean War
The history of the Russian-Turkish wars is incredibly long and contradictory, however, the Crimean War is perhaps the brightest page in this history. There were many reasons for the Crimean War of 1853-1856, but they all agreed on one thing: Russia sought to destroy the dying empire, and Turkey counteracted this and was going to use hostilities to suppress the liberation movement of the Balkan peoples. The plans of London and Paris did not include strengthening Russia, so they hoped to weaken it, at best, separating Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia. In addition, the French still remembered the humiliating loss of the war with the Russians during the reign of Napoleon.
Rice. 1. Map of the combat operations of the Crimean War.
When Emperor Napoleon III ascended the throne, Nicholas I did not consider him a legitimate ruler, since after the Patriotic War and the Foreign Campaign the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from possible contenders for the throne in France. The Russian Emperor, in his congratulatory letter, addressed Napoleon “my friend,” and not “my brother,” as etiquette required. It was a personal slap in the face from one emperor to another.
Rice. 2. Portrait of Nicholas I.
Briefly about the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, we will collect information in the table.
The immediate cause of hostilities was the issue of control of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem. The Turkish Sultan handed over the keys to the Catholics, which offended Nicholas I, which led to the start of hostilities through the entry of Russian troops into the territory of Moldova.
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Rice. 3. Portrait of Admiral Nakhimov, a participant in the Crimean War.
Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War
Russia accepted an unequal battle in the Crimean (or as it was printed in the Western press - Eastern) war. But this was not the only reason for the future defeat.
The Allied forces greatly outnumbered the Russian soldiers. Russia fought with dignity and was able to achieve the maximum during this war, although it lost it.
Another reason for the defeat was the diplomatic isolation of Nicholas I. He pursued a strong imperialist policy, which caused irritation and hatred from his neighbors.
Despite the heroism of the Russian soldier and some officers, theft occurred among the highest ranks. A striking example of this is A. S. Menshikov, who was nicknamed the “traitor.”
An important reason is the military-technical backwardness of Russia from European countries. Thus, when sailing ships were still in service in Russia, the French and English fleets already made full use of the steam fleet, which showed its best side during calm periods. Allied soldiers used rifled guns, which fired more accurately and farther than Russian smoothbore guns. The situation was similar in artillery.
The classic reason was the low level of infrastructure development. There were no railways yet leading to Crimea, and the spring thaws destroyed the road system, which reduced the supply of the army.
The result of the war was the Peace of Paris, according to which Russia did not have the right to have a navy in the Black Sea, and also lost its protectorate over the Danube principalities and returned Southern Bessarabia to Turkey.
What have we learned?
Although the Crimean War was lost, it showed Russia the paths of future development and pointed out weaknesses in the economy, military affairs, and social sphere. There was a patriotic upsurge throughout the country, and the heroes of Sevastopol were made national heroes.
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The Crimean War, or, as it is called in the West, the Eastern War, was one of the most important and decisive events of the mid-19th century. At this time, the lands of the western Ottoman Empire found themselves at the center of a conflict between the European powers and Russia, with each of the warring parties wanting to expand their territories by annexing foreign lands.
The war of 1853-1856 was called the Crimean War, since the most important and intense fighting took place in the Crimea, although military clashes went far beyond the peninsula and covered large areas of the Balkans, the Caucasus, as well as the Far East and Kamchatka. At the same time, Tsarist Russia had to fight not just with the Ottoman Empire, but with a coalition where Turkey was supported by Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Causes of the Crimean War
Each of the parties that took part in the military campaign had its own reasons and grievances that prompted them to enter into this conflict. But in general, they were united by one single goal - to take advantage of Turkey’s weakness and establish themselves in the Balkans and the Middle East. It was these colonial interests that led to the outbreak of the Crimean War. But all countries took different paths to achieve this goal.
Russia wanted to destroy the Ottoman Empire, and its territories to be mutually beneficially divided between the claiming countries. Russia would like to see Bulgaria, Moldova, Serbia and Wallachia under its protectorate. And at the same time, she was not against the fact that the territories of Egypt and the island of Crete would go to Great Britain. It was also important for Russia to establish control over the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, connecting two seas: the Black and Mediterranean.
With the help of this war, Turkey hoped to suppress the national liberation movement that was sweeping the Balkans, as well as to take away the very important Russian territories of Crimea and the Caucasus.
England and France did not want to strengthen the position of Russian tsarism in the international arena, and sought to preserve the Ottoman Empire, since they saw it as a constant threat to Russia. Having weakened the enemy, the European powers wanted to separate the territories of Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia.
The French emperor pursued his ambitious goals and dreamed of revenge in a new war with Russia. Thus, he wanted to take revenge on his enemy for his defeat in the military campaign of 1812.
If you carefully consider the mutual claims of the parties, then, in essence, the Crimean War was absolutely predatory and aggressive. It’s not for nothing that the poet Fyodor Tyutchev described it as a war of cretins with scoundrels.
Progress of hostilities
The start of the Crimean War was preceded by several important events. In particular, it was the issue of control over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem, which was resolved in favor of the Catholics. This finally convinced Nicholas I of the need to begin military action against Turkey. Therefore, in June 1853, Russian troops invaded the territory of Moldova.
The response from the Turkish side was not long in coming: on October 12, 1853, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia.
First period of the Crimean War: October 1853 – April 1854
By the beginning of hostilities, there were about a million people in the Russian army. But as it turned out, its weapons were very outdated and significantly inferior to the equipment of Western European armies: smooth-bore guns against rifled weapons, a sailing fleet against ships with steam engines. But Russia hoped that it would have to fight with a Turkish army approximately equal in strength, as happened at the very beginning of the war, and could not imagine that it would be opposed by the forces of a united coalition of European countries.
During this period, military operations were carried out with varying degrees of success. And the most important battle of the first Russian-Turkish period of the war was the Battle of Sinop, which took place on November 18, 1853. The Russian flotilla under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov, heading to the Turkish coast, discovered large enemy naval forces in Sinop Bay. The commander decided to attack the Turkish fleet. The Russian squadron had an undeniable advantage - 76 guns firing explosive shells. This is what decided the outcome of the 4-hour battle - the Turkish squadron was completely destroyed, and the commander Osman Pasha was captured.
Second period of the Crimean War: April 1854 – February 1856
The victory of the Russian army in the Battle of Sinop greatly worried England and France. And in March 1854, these powers, together with Turkey, formed a coalition to fight a common enemy - the Russian Empire. Now a powerful military force, several times larger than her army, fought against her.
With the beginning of the second stage of the Crimean campaign, the territory of military operations expanded significantly and covered the Caucasus, the Balkans, the Baltic, the Far East and Kamchatka. But the main task of the coalition was intervention in Crimea and the capture of Sevastopol.
In the fall of 1854, a combined 60,000-strong corps of coalition forces landed in the Crimea near Evpatoria. And the Russian army lost the first battle on the Alma River, so it was forced to retreat to Bakhchisarai. The garrison of Sevastopol began to prepare for the defense and defense of the city. The valiant defenders were led by the famous admirals Nakhimov, Kornilov and Istomin. Sevastopol was turned into an impregnable fortress, which was defended by 8 bastions on land, and the entrance to the bay was blocked with the help of sunken ships.
The heroic defense of Sevastopol continued for 349 days, and only in September 1855 the enemy captured the Malakhov Kurgan and occupied the entire southern part of the city. The Russian garrison moved to the northern part, but Sevastopol never capitulated.
Results of the Crimean War
The military actions of 1855 weakened both the allied coalition and Russia. Therefore, there could no longer be any talk of continuing the war. And in March 1856, the opponents agreed to sign a peace treaty.
According to the Treaty of Paris, Russia, like the Ottoman Empire, was prohibited from having a navy, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea, which meant that the country's southern borders were in danger.
As a result of the war, Russia lost a small part of its territories in Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube, but lost its influence in the Balkans.
The Crimean War, called the Eastern War in the West (1853-1856), was a military clash between Russia and a coalition of European states that came out in defense of Turkey. It had little impact on the external position of the Russian Empire, but significantly on its internal policy. The defeat forced the autocracy to begin reforms of the entire state administration, which ultimately led to the abolition of serfdom and the transformation of Russia into a powerful capitalist powerCauses of the Crimean War
Objective
***
Rivalry between European states and Russia in the matter of control over the numerous possessions of the weak, collapsing Ottoman Empire (Turkey)
On January 9, 14, February 20, 21, 1853, at meetings with the British Ambassador G. Seymour, Emperor Nicholas I proposed that England share the Turkish Empire together with Russia (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. Edited by V. P. Potemkin)
*** Russia's desire for primacy in managing the system of straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean
“If England is thinking of settling in Constantinople in the near future, then I will not allow it... For my part, I am equally disposed to accept the obligation not to settle there, of course, as an owner; as a temporary guardian is a different matter" (from the statement of Nicholas the First to the British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853)
*** Russia's desire to include in the sphere of its national interests affairs in the Balkans and among the southern Slavs
“Let Moldova, Wallachia, Serbia, Bulgaria come under Russian protectorate. As for Egypt, I fully understand the importance of this territory for England. Here I can only say that if, during the distribution of the Ottoman inheritance after the fall of the empire, you take possession of Egypt, then I will have no objection to this. I will say the same about Candia (the island of Crete). This island may suit you, and I don’t see why it shouldn’t become an English possession” (conversation between Nicholas I and British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853 at an evening with Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)
Subjective
*** Turkey's weakness
“Türkiye is a “sick man”. Nicholas did not change his terminology all his life when he spoke about the Turkish Empire" ((History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437)
*** Nicholas I's confidence in his impunity
“I want to speak to you as a gentleman, if we manage to come to an agreement - me and England - the rest doesn’t matter to me, I don’t care what others do or will do” (from a conversation between Nicholas the First and British Ambassador Hamilton Seymour on January 9, 1853 at the evening at Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)
***
Nicholas's suggestion that Europe is unable to present a united front
“the tsar was confident that Austria and France would not join England (in a possible confrontation with Russia), and England would not dare to fight him without allies” (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. OGIZ, Moscow, 1941)
*** Autocracy, the result of which was the wrong relationship between the emperor and his advisers
“... Russian ambassadors in Paris, London, Vienna, Berlin, ... Chancellor Nesselrode ... in their reports distorted the state of affairs before the Tsar. They almost always wrote not about what they saw, but about what the king would like to know from them. When one day Andrei Rosen convinced Prince Lieven to finally open the Tsar’s eyes, Lieven answered literally: “So that I would say this to the Emperor?!” But I'm not a fool! If I wanted to tell him the truth, he would throw me out the door, and nothing else would come of it" (History of Diplomacy, Volume One)
*** The problem of "Palestinian shrines":
It became apparent back in 1850, continued and intensified in 1851, weakened in the beginning and middle of 1852, and again unusually worsened just at the very end of 1852 - beginning of 1853. Louis Napoleon, while still president, told the Turkish government that he wanted to preserve and restore all the rights and benefits of the Catholic Church confirmed by Turkey back in 1740 in the so-called holy places, that is, in the churches of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Sultan agreed; but a sharp protest followed from Russian diplomacy in Constantinople, pointing out the advantages of the Orthodox Church over the Catholic Church based on the conditions of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace. After all, Nicholas I considered himself the patron saint of the Orthodox
*** France's desire to split the continental union of Austria, England, Prussia and Russia, which arose during the Napoleonic wars n
“Subsequently, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Napoleon III, Drouey de Luis, very frankly stated: “The question of holy places and everything that relates to it has no real significance for France. This whole eastern question, which is causing so much noise, served the imperial government only as a means of disrupting the continental union, which had paralyzed France for almost half a century. Finally, the opportunity presented itself to sow discord in a powerful coalition, and Emperor Napoleon grabbed it with both hands" (History of Diplomacy)
Events preceding the Crimean War of 1853-1856
During his short stay in London, the Emperor charmed everyone with his chivalrous courtesy and royal grandeur, charmed with his cordial courtesy Queen Victoria, her husband and the most prominent statesmen of the then Great Britain, with whom he tried to get closer and enter into an exchange of thoughts.
Nicholas’s aggressive policy in 1853 was due, among other things, to Victoria’s friendly attitude towards him and the fact that the head of the cabinet in England at that moment was the same Lord Aberdeen, who listened to him so kindly at Windsor in 1844
Menshikov was greeted with extraordinary honor. The Turkish police did not even dare to disperse the crowd of Greeks, who gave the prince an enthusiastic meeting. Menshikov behaved with defiant arrogance. In Europe, they paid a lot of attention even to Menshikov’s purely external provocative antics: they wrote about how he paid a visit to the Grand Vizier without taking off his coat, how he spoke sharply to Sultan Abdul-Mecid. From Menshikov’s very first steps, it became clear that he would never give in on two central points: first, he wants to achieve recognition of Russia’s right to patronage not only of the Orthodox Church, but also of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects; secondly, he demands that Turkey’s consent be approved by the Sultan’s Sened, and not by a firman, i.e., that it be in the nature of a foreign policy agreement with the king, and not be a simple decree
However, Nicholas issued a manifesto that he, like his ancestors, must defend the Orthodox Church in Turkey, and that in order to ensure that the Turks fulfill previous treaties with Russia, which were violated by the Sultan, the Tsar was forced to occupy the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia)
The 4th and 5th infantry corps, numbering 81,541 people, were prepared to occupy Moldova and Wallachia. On May 24, the 4th Corps moved from Podolsk and Volyn provinces to Leovo. The 15th Division of the 5th Infantry Corps arrived there at the beginning of June and merged with the 4th Corps. The command was entrusted to Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov
But Stratford-Radcliffe forced Sultan Abdul-Mecid to reject the Vienna Note, and even before that he hastened to draw up, ostensibly on behalf of Turkey, another note, with some reservations against the Vienna Note. The king, in turn, rejected her. At this time, Nicholas received news from the ambassador in France about the impossibility of a joint military action by England and France.
The course of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Briefly
headed by admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin, who died during the siege
Peace terms
The return of Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, the transformation of the Black Sea into neutral: Russia and Turkey are deprived of the opportunity to have a navy and coastal fortifications here, the concession of Bessarabia (the abolition of the exclusive Russian protectorate over Wallachia, Moldova and Serbia)
Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War
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Russia's military-technical lag behind leading European powers
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Underdevelopment of communications
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Embezzlement, corruption in the rear of the army
“Due to the nature of his activity, Golitsyn had to learn the war as if from scratch. Then he will see heroism, holy self-sacrifice, selfless courage and patience of the defenders of Sevastopol, but, hanging around in the rear on militia affairs, at every step he was faced with God knows what: collapse, indifference, cold-blooded mediocrity and monstrous theft. They stole everything that other - higher - thieves did not have time to steal on the way to Crimea: bread, hay, oats, horses, ammunition. The mechanics of the robbery were simple: suppliers provided rotten goods, which were accepted (as a bribe, of course) by the main commissariat in St. Petersburg. Then - also for a bribe - the army commissariat, then the regimental commissariat, and so on until the last spoke in the chariot. And the soldiers ate rotten stuff, wore rotten stuff, slept on rotten stuff, shot rotten stuff. Military units themselves had to purchase fodder from the local population with money issued by a special financial department. Golitsyn once went there and witnessed such a scene. An officer arrived from the front line in a faded, shabby uniform. The feed has run out, hungry horses are eating sawdust and shavings. An elderly quartermaster with major's shoulder straps adjusted his glasses on his nose and said in a casual voice:
- We'll give you money, eight percent is okay.
- Why on earth? — the officer was indignant. - We are shedding blood!..
“They sent a newbie again,” the quartermaster sighed. - Just small children! I remember that Captain Onishchenko came from your brigade. Why wasn't he sent?
- Onishchenko died...
- May the kingdom of heaven be upon him! - The quartermaster crossed himself. - It's a pity. The man was understanding. We respected him, and he respected us. We won't ask for too much.
The quartermaster was not embarrassed even by the presence of an outsider. Prince Golitsyn approached him, grabbed him by the soul, pulled him out from behind the table and lifted him into the air.
- I’ll kill you, you bastard!..
“Kill,” the quartermaster wheezed, “I still won’t give it without interest.”
“Do you think I’m joking?” The prince squeezed him with his paw.
“I can’t... the chain will break...” the quartermaster croaked with his last strength. - Then I won’t live anyway... The Petersburgers will strangle me...
“People are dying there, you son of a bitch!” - the prince cried out in tears and disgustedly threw away the half-strangled military official.
He touched his wrinkled throat, like a condor’s, and croaked with unexpected dignity:
“If we had been there... we would have died no worse... And please, please,” he turned to the officer, “comply with the rules: for artillerymen - six percent, for all other branches of the military - eight.”
The officer twitched his cold nose pathetically, as if he was sobbing:
“They’re eating sawdust... shavings... to hell with you!.. I can’t come back without hay.”
- Poor troop control
“Golitsyn was amazed by the commander-in-chief himself, to whom he introduced himself. Gorchakov was not that old, a little over sixty, but he gave the impression of some kind of rottenness, it seemed that if you poked a finger at him, he would crumble like a completely rotten mushroom. The wandering gaze could not concentrate on anything, and when the old man released Golitsyn with a weak wave of his hand, he heard him humming in French:
I'm poor, poor poilu,
And I'm not in a hurry...
- What else is that! - the colonel of the quartermaster service said to Golitsyn when they left the commander-in-chief. “At least he goes to the position, but Prince Menshikov didn’t remember at all that the war was going on.” He just made it all witty, and I must admit, it was caustic. He spoke about the Minister of War as follows: “Prince Dolgorukov has a threefold relationship with gunpowder - he did not invent it, did not smell it and does not send it to Sevastopol.” About commander Dmitry Erofeevich Osten-Sacken: “Erofeich has not become strong. I'm exhausted." Sarcasm at least! - the colonel added thoughtfully. “But he allowed a psalmist to be appointed over the great Nakhimov.” For some reason, Prince Golitsyn did not find it funny. In general, he was unpleasantly surprised by the tone of cynical mockery that reigned at headquarters. It seemed that these people had lost all self-respect, and with it any respect for anything. They didn’t talk about the tragic situation of Sevastopol, but they relished ridiculing the commander of the Sevastopol garrison, Count Osten-Sacken, who only knows what to do with priests, read akathists and argue about divine scripture. “He has one good quality,” the colonel added. “He doesn’t interfere in anything” (Yu. Nagibin “Stronger than all other commands”)
Results of the Crimean War
The Crimean War showed
Military conflicts are not uncommon for imperialist states, especially when their interests are affected. The Crimean War of 1853, or the Eastern War, was the decisive event of the mid-19th century. Let us briefly consider its causes, participants, course and consequences of the bloody confrontation.
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Background and participants in the war
Among the many factors that led to the escalation of the conflict, competent historians highlight the main list.
Ottoman Empire – the power and greatness of the Ottomans wavered in the New Age. 1820-1830 became decisive for a multinational country. Defeats from the Russian Empire, France and the suppression of internal manifestations of patriotism led to an unstable situation. Greece, like the kingdom of Egypt, raised an uprising and achieved independence. The Ottoman Porte was saved from actual collapse by foreign aid. In return, a huge state lost the opportunity to independently conduct foreign policy.
Great Britain b was a trading empire, its interests extended to every corner of the world, Turkey was no exception. The events of the Crimean War were ahead of the signed analogue of the “free trade zone,” which made it possible to import and sell British goods without duties or customs duties.
This situation destroyed Turkish industry, the government became a puppet. The situation was so favorable that the English Parliament did not want the collapse of the empire and in every possible way prevented Russian reinforcement in the Black Sea and in the Balkans. Anti-Russian information propaganda was carried out.
French society of that time burned with revenge for the defeats of Napoleonic times. In addition to economic decline, under the rule of King Napoleon III, the state lost some of its colonial influence. To distract people from their problems, the press actively voiced calls for a military conflict in alliance with England.
The Sardinian kingdom had no political or territorial claims to Russia. However, the difficult situation in the foreign policy arena required a search for allies. Victor Emmanuel II responded to France's offer to join the Crimean War; upon completion, the French side pledged to help unify the Italian lands.
Austria: dictated some obligations for the Russian Empire. However the Austrian government was not satisfied with the growth of the Orthodox movement on the Balkan Peninsula. The national liberation movement would lead to the collapse of the Austrian Empire. The reasons for the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War will be discussed below.
Why did the Crimean War start?
Historians identify several objective and subjective reasons:
- Rivalry between European countries and Russia for control of Turkey.
- The desire of the Russian side to receive access to the Dardanelles and Bosphorus Straits.
- The policy of unification of the Balkan Slavs.
- The decline of the Oman Empire in domestic and foreign policy.
- Self-confidence when dealing with complex issues.
- The Crimean War of 1853 as a refutation that Europe is not capable of presenting a united front.
- An autocratic form of government that led to a series of bad decisions.
- Confrontation between Catholic and Orthodox dioceses on the issue of “Palestinian shrines”.
- France's desire to destroy the established alliance of the Napoleonic conquests.
The reason for the Crimean War
Nicholas I did not recognize the legitimacy of the French monarch; official correspondence took unacceptable liberties. She became offensive to Napoleon III. He took steps to return Christian shrines to the Catholic Church, which Russia did not like.
In response to notes of protest being ignored The Russian army sent troops into the territory of Moldova and Wallachia. The subsequent Vienna Note was intended to calm the raging monarchs, but the causes of the Crimean War were too serious.
With the support of the British side, the Turkish Sultan demands the withdrawal of troops, which is refused. In response, the Ottoman Empire declares war on Russia, which takes similar steps.
Attention! Many consider the religious reason for the start of the Crimean War to be only a formal pretext for escalation conflict situation in the center of Europe.
Crimean War campaigns
October 1853 – April 1854
The outdated weapons of the Russian Empire were compensated by the number of personnel. Tactical maneuvers were based on confrontation with numerically equal Turkish troops.
The course of hostilities took place with varying degrees of success, but fortune smiled on the Russian squadron of Admiral Nakhimov. In Sinop Bay, he discovered a significant concentration of enemy ships and decided to attack. Firepower advantage made it possible to disperse enemy forces and capture the enemy commander.
April 1854 – February 1856
The conflict has ceased to be local; it has spread to the Caucasus, the Balkans, the Baltic and even Kamchatka. Russia was deprived of access to the sea, which led to the Crimean War of 1853–1856. The defense of Sevastopol became the culmination of the confrontation.
In the fall of 1854, coalition forces landed in the Evpatoria region. The Battle of the Alma River was won, and the Russian army retreated to Bakhchisarai. At this stage, not a single soldier voiced the reasons for the Crimean War, everyone hoped for an easy victory.
The garrison of the Sevastopol fortress under the command of General Nakhimov, Kornilov and Istomin turned into a formidable force. The city was defended by 8 bastions on land and a bay blocked by sunken ships. For almost a whole year (1856), the proud defenders of the Black Sea port held the defense; Malakhov Kurgan was abandoned under enemy pressure. However, the northern part remained Russian.
Many local confrontations are combined into one name: the Crimean War. The collision map will be presented below.
Danube Campaign
The first move in the Crimean War was made by the Russian corps under the command of Prince Gorchakov. He crossed the Danube to quickly occupy Bucharest. The population welcomed the liberators; the received note about the withdrawal of troops was ignored.
Turkish troops began shelling of Russian positions, Having broken through the enemy's defenses, the siege of Silistria began in March 1854. However, due to the danger of Austria entering the war, the withdrawal of troops from the liberated principalities began.
Participants in the Crimean War launched a landing in the Varna area with the aim of capturing Dobruja. However, cholera that raged during the campaign prevented the implementation of the plan.
Caucasian Theater
A series of defeats for the Turkish troops forced them to moderate their warlike ardor, but the Crimean Defensive War of 1853–1856. quickly flowed into the sea plane.
On November 5, 1854, an important battle of steam ships took place, the Vladimir captured the Pervaz-Bahri. This event foreshadowed the bloodless capture of the Ottoman steamer Mejari Tejat.
In 1855 it became a success capture of Kars fortress, General Muravyov continued the siege until the enemy surrendered; the reasons for the defeat were obvious. As a result, the Russian army gained control over a vast area, including Ardahan, Kazyman, Olty.
Important! The defense of Sevastopol consisted of continuous defensive battles by Russian troops. As a result of six allied bombings, the city's infrastructure was destroyed. Daily losses from enemy fire amounted to 900-1000 people per day.
The French lost 53 transport ships and several battleships.
Signing of the peace treaty
The results of the Crimean War were documented within the framework of the Paris Agreement, which prescribed:
- Remove Navy, fortifications and arsenals from the Black Sea. This applied to Turkey and Russia.
- The Russian side renounced part of its possessions in Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube, i.e., it lost secret control over the Balkans.
- The protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia was annulled.
The consequences of Russia's defeat in the Crimean War are the suspension of its expansionary policy and the development of the Black Sea Fleet.
The reasons for the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War are as follows:
- moral and technical Russia's lag behind Western powers;
- undeveloped infrastructure, which led to disruption of logistics and troop replenishment;
- rear corruption, embezzlement as an endemic phenomenon in the state apparatus of power;
- the defense of Sevastopol became tragic due to the shortcomings of the commander-in-chief;
Results of the Crimean War
Top 7 interesting facts about the Crimean War
Among the incredible kaleidoscope of events, the following stand out:
- The first use of propaganda as a tool to influence public opinion. The occasion came after the Battle of Sinop, when English newspapers vividly described Russian atrocities.
- Appeared profession of war photographer, Roger Fenton took 363 photographs of the everyday life of Allied soldiers.
- The defense of the Solovetsky Monastery did not lead to casualties, “domestic” seagulls also did not suffer from the term “Crimean War”. An interesting fact: out of 1,800 cannonballs and bombs of the Anglo-French squadron, only a few damaged buildings.
- The “foggy” bell of Chersonesus was taken to France as a war trophy. He was held captive for more than 60 years, until the causes of the Crimean War were forgotten in 1913.
- Russian sailors came up with new sign, according to which the third person to smoke will be seriously injured. This is due to the shooting characteristics of the first rifled rifles in the Allied army.
- Interesting facts indicate the global scale of military operations. The abundance of conflict theaters is striking in terms of geography and mass scale.
- The Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire was deprived of protection from the Russian Empire.
Causes and results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856
Crimean War (1853 - 1856)
Conclusion
The results of the Crimean War showed the strength of spirit of the Russian people, their desire to defend the interests of the country. On the other hand, every citizen became convinced of the insolvency of the government, the weakness and expressiveness of the autocrat.
In the spring of 1854, Britain and France declared war on the Russian Empire. This was the beginning of a radical change in the Crimean War. It was from this moment that the account of the end and decline of the once powerful Russian Empire began
Overestimation of power
Nicholas I was convinced of the invincibility of the Russian Empire. Successful military operations in the Caucasus, Turkey and Central Asia gave rise to the Russian emperor's ambitions to secede the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, as well as faith in the power of Russia and its ability to claim hegemony in Europe. Baron Stockmar, friend and educator of Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria, wrote in 1851: “When I was young, Napoleon ruled over the continent of Europe. Now it looks like the Russian Emperor has taken Napoleon’s place and that, at least for several years, he, with other intentions and other means, will also dictate laws to the continent.” Nikolai himself thought something like this. The situation was aggravated by the fact that he was always surrounded by flatterers. The historian Tarle wrote that at the beginning of 1854 in the Baltic states, a poem in German was distributed in numerous copies in noble circles, in the first stanza of which the author addressed the king with the words: “You, from whom not a single mortal disputes the right to be called the greatest man , which the earth has only seen. The vain Frenchman, the proud Briton bow before you, burning with envy - the whole world lies in prostration at your feet.” It is not surprising, therefore, that Nicholas I was burning with ambition and eager to implement his plans, which cost Russia thousands of lives.
Rampant embezzlement
A common story has become about how Karamzin was asked in Europe to tell in a nutshell about the situation in Russia, but he didn’t even need two words, he answered with one: “They are stealing.” By the middle of the 19th century, the situation had not changed for the better. Embezzlement in Russia has acquired total proportions. Tarle quotes a contemporary of the events of the Crimean War: “In the Russian army, which was stationed in Estland in 1854–1855 and was not in contact with the enemy, great devastation was caused by starvation typhus that appeared among the soldiers, since the commanding staff stole and left the rank and file to starve to death.” In no other European army was the situation so dire. Nicholas I knew about the scale of this disaster, but could not do anything about the situation. Thus, he was stunned by the case of the director of the office of the disabled fund, Politkovsky, who stole more than a million rubles from the budget. The scale of corruption during the Crimean War was such that Russia was able to restore the treasury deficit only 14 years after the signing of the Treaty of Paris.
Backwardness of the army
One of the fatal factors in the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Crimean War was the backwardness of the weapons of our army. It appeared back on September 8, 1854, during the battle on the Alma River: the Russian infantry was armed with smooth-bore rifles with a firing range of 120 meters, while the British and French had rifled rifles with a firing range of up to 400 meters. In addition, the Russian army was armed with guns of various calibers: 6-12-pound field guns, 12-24-pound and pound siege unicorns, 6, 12, 18, 24 and 36-pound bomb guns. Such a number of calibers significantly complicated the supply of ammunition to the army. Finally, Russia had practically no steam ships, and sailing ships had to be sunk at the entrance to Sevastopol Bay, which was obviously a last resort measure to deter the enemy.
Negative image of Russia
During the reign of Nicholas I, the Russian Empire began to claim the title of “gendarme of Europe.” In 1826-1828, the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates were annexed to Russia; the next year, after the war with Turkey, the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the mouth of the Danube were annexed to Russia. Russia's advance in Central Asia also continued. By 1853, the Russians came close to the Syr Darya.
Russia also showed serious ambitions in Europe, which could not but irritate the European powers. In April 1848, Russia and Türkiye abolished the autonomy of the Danube principalities with the Baltiliman Act. In June 1849, with the help of a 150,000-strong Russian expeditionary army, the Hungarian revolution in the Austrian Empire was suppressed. Nicholas I believed in his power. His imperial ambitions turned Russia into a bogeyman for advanced European powers. The image of aggressive Russia became one of the reasons for the unity of Britain and France in the Crimean War. Russia began to lay claim to hegemony in Europe, which could not help but unite the European powers. The Crimean War is considered to be “pre-world war”.
Russia defended itself on several fronts - in Crimea, Georgia, the Caucasus, Sveaborg, Kronstadt, Solovki and the Kamchatka front. In fact, Russia fought alone, with insignificant Bulgarian forces (3,000 soldiers) and the Greek legion (800 people) on our side. Having turned everyone against itself, showing insatiable ambitions, in fact Russia did not have the reserve power to resist England and France. During the Crimean War, Russia did not yet have the concept of propaganda, while the British made full use of their propaganda machine to whip up a negative image of the Russian army.
Diplomacy failure
The Crimean War showed not only the weakness of the Russian army, but also the weakness of diplomacy. The peace treaty was signed on March 30, 1856 in Paris at an international congress with the participation of all the warring powers, as well as Austria and Prussia. The peace conditions were frankly unfavorable for Russia. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia returned Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, Balaklava and other cities in Crimea captured by the Allies; ceded to the Moldavian principality the mouth of the Danube and part of southern Bessarabia. The Black Sea was declared neutral, but Russia and Turkey could not maintain a navy there. Russia and Turkey could only maintain 6 steam ships of 800 tons each and 4 ships of 200 tons each for patrol duty.
The autonomy of Serbia and the Danube principalities was confirmed, but the supreme power of the Turkish Sultan over them was preserved. The previously adopted provisions of the London Convention of 1841 on the closure of the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits to military vessels of all countries except Turkey were confirmed. Russia pledged not to build military fortifications on the Åland Islands and in the Baltic Sea. The patronage of Turkish Christians was transferred to the hands of the “concern” of all the great powers, that is, England, France, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Finally, the treaty deprived our country of the right to protect the interests of the Orthodox population on the territory of the Ottoman Empire.
Ignorance of Nicholas I
Many historians associate the main reason for the defeat in the Crimean War with the figure of Emperor Nicholas I. Thus, the Russian historian Tarle wrote: “As for his weaknesses as the leader of the foreign policy of the empire, one of the main ones was his deep, truly impenetrable, comprehensive, if possible so to speak, ignorance.” The Russian emperor did not know life in Russia at all, he valued discipline with a stick, and he suppressed any manifestation of independent thinking. Fyodor Tyutchev wrote about Nicholas I: “In order to create such a hopeless situation, the monstrous stupidity of this unfortunate man was needed, who during his thirty-year reign, constantly in the most favorable conditions, did not take advantage of anything and missed everything, managing to start a fight under the most impossible circumstances." Thus, we can say that the Crimean War, which turned into a disaster for Russia, was caused by the personal ambitions of the emperor, prone to adventure and seeking to maximally expand the boundaries of his power.
Shepherd's Ambition
One of the main reasons for the Crimean War was the conflict between the Orthodox and Catholic churches in resolving the issue of “Palestinian shrines.” Here the interests of Russia and France collided. Nicholas I, who did not recognize Napoleon III as a legitimate emperor, was confident that Russia would only have to fight a “sick man,” as he called the Ottoman Empire. The Russian emperor hoped to reach an agreement with England, and also counted on the support of Austria. These calculations of the “shepherd” Nicholas I turned out to be erroneous, and the “crusade” turned into a real disaster for Russia.