Peter's reforms, prerequisites, progress, results. Northern War and military reforms

Back forward

Attention! Slide previews are for informational purposes only and may not represent all the features of the presentation. If you are interested this work, please download the full version.

Lesson objectives:

• Characterize the state of Russia on the eve of Peter’s reforms.
• To prove and show that Russia needs reforms.
• Show that the origins of Peter's reforms are in the 17th century.
• Describe the activities of the following reformers:
  • Simeon of Polotsk
  • A.L. Ordina-Nashchokina
  • V.V.Golitsyna
• Develop in students:
  • speech (oral answers, messages)
  • logical thinking(questions for students, comparison of Russian history with foreign history of the 17th century)
  • ability to work independently using a textbook
  • ability to clearly formulate conclusions
• To instill in students an interest in Russian history through various shapes intensification of educational activities.

Literature:

1) “Lesson studies on the history of Russia” (from the 17th-18th centuries) Serov B.N., Garkusha L.M. 2003

2) “History of Russia in tables and diagrams” M.I. Ivashko 2006

3) Using sources from the Internet

Visibility: diagram "The main directions of transformations in Russia in the first quarter of the 17th century"

Equipment:

• multimedia installation
• workbooks 7th grade. "History of Russia in the 17th-17th centuries." Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G.
• presentation on the lesson "Prerequisites for Peter's reforms"

Lesson type: lesson explaining new material

Preliminary preparation: student messages on the topics "Simeon of Polotsk", "V.V. Golitsyn and his plans"

Basic concepts:

• Reform, regular army, regency
• Prominent figures: S. Polotsky, A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin, V. V. Golitsyn

Lesson Plan

1. Reasons and main directions of reforms.

2. Strengthening foreign influence.

3. Simeon of Polotsk.

4. Reforms A.L. Ordina-Nashchokina

5. V.V. Golitsyn and his plans.

I. Organizational moment

II. New material(using a PowerPoint presentation)

Today we begin to study one of the most important periods XVII-XVIII centuries "Russia under Peter I".

The topic of today's lesson is "Prerequisites for Peter's reforms"

In this lesson we will prove that Russia needs reforms and get acquainted with outstanding personalities who proposed reform along the European model. They gave an impetus to further reforms of Peter I.

Define the concept of reform?

(reform - transformation, change of any public life)

(students open their notebooks and write down the topic of the lesson)

1. Reasons and main directions of reforms.

Remember how Europe developed at the turn of the 17th century?

(an industrial revolution took place (remember the definition), bourgeois revolutions took place in many countries (remember the results of the English bourgeois revolution), the manufacturing industry successfully developed (manufacture definition), maritime trade developed on a global scale, the presence of a fleet and access to the seas was important in the development economy, the presence of a standing army, a perfect system of public administration).

Russia was significantly behind European countries, and the preconditions for decisive changes were ripe.

Let's highlight the main reasons for the reforms:

• In Russia in 1649 it was introduced serfdom(remember the definition - serfdom)
• There were no convenient ports for European trade
• Backward army and navy
• Ill-conceived state apparatus
• Underdeveloped economy
• Lack of an education system, dominance of church influence in culture.

(write in notebook)

Among the reasons, we highlight the areas of reform:

Try to identify the main areas of reform.

• Access to the sea
• Economic reform
• Army reform
• State reform
• Reform of culture and education

(write in notebook)

2. Strengthening foreign influence.

What contributed to the increase in foreign influence on Russia?

Russian wars in the 17th century. and trade with East and West led to increased foreign influence. Under the 1st Romanovs, doctors, pharmacists, and military personnel appeared at the court. The German Settlement appeared in Moscow. 1500 people lived in it.

Under Alexei Mikhailovich, regiments of a “foreign system” appeared, the 1st warship appeared, and military regulations were written according to Western models. Foreign influence especially increased after the reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1654.

In your workbook, complete task No. 2 (p. 36):

Strengthening Western influence on Russia in the 17th century. contributed to:

a) constant wars between Russia and Poland and Sweden;

b) the long stay of the Poles in Russia in 1605-1612.

c) invitation by the kings to serve foreign specialists

d) the desire of Western entrepreneurs to invest capital in the development of the Russian economy;

e) the rapid formation of an all-Russian market

e) Russia's removal of customs barriers

g) annexation of Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv to Russia

(a, b, c, d, e, g)

3. Simeon of Polotsk.

Let's move on to introducing the personalities who proposed carrying out reforms according to the European model.

Student's speech with the message "Simeon of Polotsk"

What do you see as the progressive role of S. Polotsky?

A Belarusian by nationality, Simeon of Polotsk graduated from the Kiev-Mohyla Academy and in 1656, at the age of 27, became a monk. The service took place at the Epiphany Monastery in Polotsk (hence his later nickname - Polotsk). Here he taught, having received wide recognition among the population due to his high professional and moral qualities. Simeon wrote poetry in Belarusian and Polish. He advocated the unification of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples within the framework of a single Russian state.

The fame of the enlightened monk quickly spread, and Simeon was invited to Moscow. Since 1664, he taught future employees of the Moscow orders at the school at the Zaikonospassky Monastery on Nikolskaya Street, near the Kremlin. Simeon became the first court poet to glorify the royal family and autocracy in his works.

Soon, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, having heard about Simeon’s wide education, entrusted him with the upbringing and education of his children. Two of them - Fedor and Sophia - were then rulers of Russia. These were the first leaders of the Russian state to receive a Western education, which included knowledge of European history, culture, and foreign languages.

It is not surprising that the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, Fyodor Alekseevich and the reign of Princess Sophia were marked by attempts to implement reforms along Western lines.

What role did Polotsk play in rapprochement with the West?

Conclusion:

S. Polotsky played a huge role in rapprochement with the West:

• advocated the unification of the Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian people
• trained clerks (servants) in orders.
• court poet

Raising and training the royal children: Fyodor and Sophia became the first rulers of Russia to receive elements European education.

4. Reforms A.L. Ordina-Nashchokina

Students work independently from the textbook (pp. 95-96).

Highlight the main directions of A.L.’s reforms. Ordin-Nashchokin and mark them in the workbook (task No. 3 p. 36).

Pskov nobleman Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nashchokin (1605-1680) was one of the most famous politicians Russia of the 17th century. Having entered military service at the age of 17, he eventually became not only a commander, but also a major diplomat. In 1656, Ordin-Nashchokin signed an alliance treaty with Courland, and in 1658, a much-needed truce with Sweden for Russia. For this, Alexey Mikhailovich awarded him the rank of Duma nobleman, and after he concluded the Andrusovo truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - boyar dignity. At the same time, Afanasy Lavrentievich headed the Ambassadorial Prikaz. At the head of the foreign policy department, he advocated expanding economic and cultural ties with countries like Western Europe, and the East. From rivalry with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, he proposed moving to an alliance with it aimed at combating the Turkish threat.

In the field of domestic policy, Ordin-Nashchokin was in many ways ahead of the reforms of Peter I. He proposed reducing the noble militia, increasing the number of rifle regiments, and introducing conscription in Russia. This meant a gradual transition to a standing army.

Ordin-Nashchokin tried to introduce elements of self-government on the European model, transferring some judicial and administrative functions to elected representatives of the townspeople.

In an effort to promote the prosperity of the Russian economy, he abolished the privileges of foreign companies and provided benefits to Russian merchants (these measures were enshrined in the New Trade Charter of 1667), and founded a number of new manufactories.

According to the Ordin-Nashchokin project, a postal connection was established between Moscow, Vilna and Riga.

However, much of what was planned was never realized. In 1671, Ordin-Nashchokin was disgraced, after which he became a monk.

Conclusion:

The main directions of the reforms of A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin were:

a) expansion of economic and cultural cooperation with the West;

b) concluding an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against Turkey;

c) reduction noble militia;

d) increase in rifle regiments;

e) Russia's transition to regular army;

f) introduction of privileges for foreign merchants;

g) creation of new manufactories;

h) abolition of benefits for Russian merchants;

i) transfer of some judicial and administrative functions to elected representatives of the townspeople.

(a,b,c,d,e.g,i)

Vocabulary work: regular army is an army created on a permanent basis.

(write in notebook)

5. V.V. Golitsyn and his plans.

Speech by a student with the message “Golitsyn and his plans”

Prince Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn (1643-1714) was the de facto ruler of Russia during the regency of Princess Sophia (1682-1689). With his support, a Slavic-Greek-Latin school (later an academy) was opened in Moscow. The death penalty for “outrageous words” against the authorities was abolished. Decrees were adopted introducing European forms of life.

Golitsyn proposed to consider the correction of morals and the development of the initiative of his subjects as the main direction of domestic policy. He was a consistent supporter of the Ordin-Nashchokin course on the development and support of trade and crafts. He considered the newly established serfdom to be the main obstacle on this path and proposed freeing the peasants from the power of the landowners. He also expressed the idea of ​​​​introducing a “universal” tax on peasant farms. All this, in his opinion, should have contributed to the economic prosperity of the people, and therefore the state.

The Crimean campaigns organized and carried out under the leadership of Golitsyn convinced him of the need to abandon the noble militia and replace it with an army on the Western model. Unlike Ordin-Nashchokin, he believed that this should be a mercenary army. However, Golitsyn failed to implement many of his plans, since in 1689 Peter I came to power and sent him into exile.

While listening to the message, students complete the task in workbook No. 1 p. 35

Conclusion:

V. Golitsyn was the de facto ruler of the country in 1682 - 89. during the regency of Princess Sophia:

• opened the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy
• abolished the death penalty for “outrageous” words against the government
• began to introduce European forms of life
• proposed to free the peasants from the landowners
• enter "capital" tax
• failure in the Crimean campaigns forced him to begin reforming the army along Western lines, believing that it should be mercenary.

Vocabulary work:

Regency is the temporary exercise of the powers of the head of state due to the infancy or illness of the monarch.

(write in notebook)

III. Consolidation, results, homework.

1). Let's answer the question asked at the beginning of the lesson: prove that reforms in the 18th century were inevitable?

2). Which 17th century reformers did you meet? State their main ideas.

Thus, by the end of the 17th century, government officials in Russia not only realized the need for reforms using the best aspects of European experience, but also a program for these transformations was formed in general terms. It determined not only the direction of the activities of Peter I, but also the entire Russian history of the coming 18th century.

Homework: paragraph 12, questions p. 97 (orally), lesson notes, task No. 4 in the workbook.

Grading for work in class.

Convenient navigation through the article:

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

By the beginning of the reign of Peter the Great, Russia could be called a rather backward country. The developing industry was significantly inferior in quality and volume of goods produced to large European countries. At the same time, it used the labor of serfs, and not technology. Agriculture also rested solely on the forced labor of the impoverished and tormented serf peasants by the state.

Prerequisites for the military reforms of Peter I

The Russian army did not have a fleet to conduct combat operations at sea. Moreover, it is in to a greater extent consisted of poorly trained and poorly armed representatives of the nobility and archers. Not everything was in order at the managerial level either. The clumsy and complex former state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, although quite expensive, no longer met the needs of Russia.

Prerequisites for transformations in the field of culture

No less deplorable things were in the field of culture, science and social life in general. Education hardly penetrated into the robbed and downtrodden people. It is worth noting that in the ruling circles at that time it was not considered something negative to not know how to read and write. This is not surprising, since there were almost no schools in the country, and book culture and literacy were the property of a select rich class. Contemporaries note that even most of the clergy and boyars were afraid of science and books.

Economic prerequisites for Peter's reforms

At the same time, the economic backwardness of the Russian state was not due to the lack of a competent ruler and policy, but was a consequence of the difficult period that befell the country. The development of Russia has slowed down quite significantly Golden Horde. At that time, the rulers looked not at the rapidly developing West, but rather at the necessary East. Feudal-serf relations only worsened the situation.

The Northern War as one of the reasons for the reforms of Peter I

Researchers consider the Northern War, which lasted from 1700 to 1721, to be one of the most basic prerequisites for Peter’s reforms. To develop foreign trade, Russia needed access to the Baltic Sea. For this reason, Peter the Great enters into Northern Union, opposing Sweden. After the first defeat at Narva, the Russian Tsar decides to create a regular army and the first Russian fleet.

The local army recruitment system had outlived its usefulness by that time. Therefore, the king begins to take measures (introducing new reforms) to form a regular army. The main reason for this was the abolition of the Streltsy regiments after their rebellion in 1699.

According to Peter's original plan, to complete new army two methods were used:

• A set of so-called “dachas,” that is, peasants whom the landowner was obliged to supply in accordance with certain requirements.
• Recruitment of everyone, except those peasants who paid state taxes.

In 1705, Peter’s entourage canceled the last option and announced a set of “recruits” from peasants. This is how a more stable system began to take shape, which was able to exist until 1874.

However, during the rather long period of the Northern War, the state treasury could not provide for the created fleet and army. This became the prerequisite for a series of new tax reforms by Peter the Great, which caused negativity in Russian society.

And all because, in addition to basic taxes, indirect taxation was introduced, affecting most areas of life. The following were introduced:

• apply to oak coffins;
• apply to beard, etc.

It is worth noting that during this period Peter had a certain rank that was responsible for inventing new ways to enrich the state treasury.

To suppress any opinion and gain full power, the tsar deprives the Church of its autonomy, abolishing the patriarchate, and then replacing it with a new unified church governing body called the Holy Synod. At the same time, he issues the “Decree on Single Inheritance,” according to which from now on only the current ruler of Russia himself could choose a successor, without basing his choice on blood ties.

North War, taking away significant funds, continued and the tsar was forced to introduce new reforms to replenish the treasury. One of these transformations was the coinage reform. By reducing the share of silver in new coins, the ruler was able to improve the situation of the country.

After the end of hostilities and gaining access to the Baltic in 1721, Peter the Great began the process of Europeanization of the country. For example, his cultural and social reforms during this period were driven by the need to conform to the developed states of Europe.

Thus, as the main prerequisites for the reforms of Peter the Great, one can highlight his desire to put the state on the path of European development and the long Northern War, which required more and more funds.

Historical table: prerequisites for Peter's reforms

The main prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

The need to restructure the army and navy

The country's backwardness in the socio-economic sphere

Lack of own industry

Lack of a full-fledged judicial system

Flaws in the public administration system

The need to reform the system of taxes and fees

Lack of navy

Landlocked

“Ossidiousness” of the social system

Scheme: prerequisites for the transformations of Peter I

Scheme: features of the transformations of Peter I

Video lecture: prerequisites for Peter's reforms

Agrarian and land reforms as an integral part of economic reforms: concepts, historical, ideological and socio-economic prerequisites

The Russian Bar in the period before the Judicial Reform of 1864.

The main trend in the development of Russia, especially noticeable since the second half of the 17th century, is associated with the attempts of the authorities and the enlightened elite Russian society identify possible ways to modernize the country. In the sixteenth century. Western Europe entered an era of civilizational revolution, the essence of which was the transition from a traditional (feudal, agrarian) society to an industrial (bourgeois, capitalist) society with its corresponding economic, political and spiritual culture. The focus of modernization at that time was only a small group of countries - England, the Netherlands, France. The impulses of this region gradually spread to all larger number countries and eventually reached Russia. The process of modernization has not captured it earlier than the second half of the seventeenth century And it proceeded in a unique way, superimposed on the features of the “strong”, in the words of S.M. Solovyov, Russian autocracy, property relations, Russian national character, formed under the influence of Orthodoxy.

If in the West the progress of industry was accompanied by a continuous movement towards the rule of law, then in Russia economic development, scientific advances, and the secularization of spiritual life were carried out against the backdrop of increasing despotism supreme power and at further dissemination serf relations, practically eliminated in the West.

Began in the 17th century. The transformations were generated by the government’s desire to catch up with developed countries, primarily in military-technical terms. Taking into account this circumstance, it becomes clear why reforms could only be carried out in harsh forms with the growing despotism of power and serfdom. In spurring the country on, the government relied not on encouraging private initiative, which could lay the foundations for progress, but on strengthening state intervention in all spheres of economic and social life. A modernization breakthrough actually took place, but the overstrain of society’s forces soon gave rise to another crisis and stagnation, growth social tension and a new lag behind the advancing West.

Concerned about the lag in the military field, Russian statesmen of the pre-Petrine era did not limit their reform plans only to military and fiscal issues. Their transformative projects were based on the conviction that a certain turn had taken place in the consciousness of part of society: in foreign lands many things are done better, Western peoples are stronger in their knowledge, skill, art, we must learn from them.

Already during the reign of the first Romanov, a tendency to borrow some Western achievements appeared. Western customs and household items gradually became part of the life of the upper classes of Russian society. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who himself was not a consistent supporter of innovation, at the same time favored domestic reformers: A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin, F.M. Rtishchev, A.S. Matveev and others. A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin, whom V.O. Klyuchevsky calls “the most remarkable of the Moscow statesmen of the 17th century,” proposed an extensive plan of reforms aimed at improving the central and local government, taxation systems, development of industry and trade, strengthening the army and building a navy. In foreign policy, A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin defended the need to fight with Sweden for Russia’s access to the Baltic Sea. Most of the reformer's projects were not destined to come true during this period.

At this time, two social trends were already quite clearly visible in Russia. One of them, which would later be called “Western,” united “theorists and practitioners who, through science and experience, knew the sweetness and superiority of European civilization"(S.F. Platonov). The other, national-conservative, was directed against reforms in both the civil and church spheres.

During the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682), the activity of the talented Western reformer V.V. Golitsyn began. One of the main reforms carried out during this period was the abolition of localism (1682). The sovereign finally received the opportunity to decide for himself “where to be,” taking into account the talents and merits of the applicant when appointing him to government and military positions, and not the ancient order of the bureaucratic hierarchy.

Numerous reform projects that Golitsyn developed (plans for the liberation of peasants from the power of landowners, the creation of a mercenary army, the spread of religious tolerance) basically remained as such. One can only point to laws that softened morals, such as, for example, easing the conditions of servitude for debts, the abolition of executions for “outrageous” words and the most severe punishments for criminals, as well as a number of innovations related mainly to everyday life and education.

At the end of the seventeenth century. the country was on the verge of decisive changes, already prepared by previous developments. The overdue reforms could be carried out by reducing state pressure on society while simultaneously encouraging private initiative and gradually weakening class unfreedom. This path would be a continuation reform activities A.L.Ordin-Nashchokina and V.V.Golitsyna. The other path assumed an even greater tightening of the regime, an extreme degree of concentration of power, strengthening of serfdom and - as a result of an excessive strain of forces - a reformation breakthrough. Traditions despotic state power in Russia and the nature of the reformism that appeared at the end of the century made the second option more likely.

The turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. in the history of Russia is associated with the name of Peter I, the great reformer, whose transformations covered the most diverse spheres of life in the country. Peter was the first person who understood the depth of Russia's backwardness from advanced European countries and realized the need for reform.

What was Russia like during this period? Several ironworks, several manufactories (20-30 throughout the country). There was essentially no army. It consisted of several regiments, and poorly armed ones. Between the wars, this army was sent home so as not to spend money on it. public funds. Schools were attached to churches, where they taught literacy and holy scripture. And even those were few. Secular education did not exist, there was no national medicine, there was not a single Russian doctor, except for rare foreigners. Stagnation reigned in state affairs, trade and industry were in decline, factories were destroyed, and the army was in a deplorable state. At the same time, the country stood on the eve of great transformations, which were demanded by National economy Russia, and public administration, and the army. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms? Let us note the most important of them:

1) intensification of foreign policy and diplomatic activities of the Russian state;

2) intensive development of domestic and foreign trade;

3) reform and improvement of financial and tax systems;

4) the transition from craft production to manufacturing using elements of hired labor and simple mechanisms;

5) the tendency towards the absolutization of supreme power (elimination of activities Zemsky Sobors as class-representative bodies), inclusion of the word “autocrat” in the royal title;

6) registration of national legislation (Conciliar Code of 1649), taking into account European legislation;

7) reorganization and improvement of the armed forces (creation of foreign regiments, changes in the order of recruitment and recruitment into regiments, distribution of military corps among districts);

8) the demarcation of society under the influence of Western European culture and Nikon’s church reform; the emergence of national-conservative and Westernizing movements.

Despite the emerging trend of Europeanization of Russia in the 17th century, in general it lagged significantly behind the level of development of the Western world. European countries. The country needed a strong personality who would have not only supreme power, but also an understanding of the need for change, courage and determination, intelligence, energy and talent as a transformer. Such a figure appeared on the historical arena in the person of Peter I. Figuratively speaking, Peter I, having curbed Russian society, forced it to close the gap from Europe and overcome the path from patriarchal Muscovy to the European power of St. Petersburg.

All government activities Peter can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1695 – 1715. and 1715 - 1725

Important feature The transformative activity of the first period is determined primarily by the tasks of internal reconstruction caused by the needs of waging the Northern War. The reforms were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active government intervention in economic affairs (regulation of trade, industry, tax, financial and labor activities). Many reforms were ill-conceived and hasty, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power.

In the second period, when military operations had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. The apparatus of power was further improved; manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, government regulation The economy weakened somewhat, traders and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action.

Analyzing Peter's transformations in general (goals, character, pace, methods of implementation, significance), it should be emphasized that the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The entire domestic and foreign policy of the emperor was based on this.

With the existing type of organization of labor and economy, Russian society had a very low amount of funds and resources to create the necessary level of government, organize the court, financial system, maintain sufficient defense capability and develop the army, to finally satisfy the minimum demands of society in the field of culture, art, development of religious institutions.

Russia's economic and, consequently, military lag behind European countries was growing, which posed a serious threat to the national sovereignty.

The reason for this was the extremely unfavorable natural and climatic conditions in most of the East European Plain: the abundance of infertile, or even simply barren, lands, and a greatly shortened period of agricultural work compared to the rest of Europe.

In such conditions, the main producer material goods society - the Russian peasant - plowed a much smaller area and ultimately received a much smaller harvest than was required by the objective process of not only the development of society, but also its self-preservation in the cruel regime of international relations of that time. The ominous experience of the recent Mongol-Tatar yoke was a vivid edification of the futility of previous traditions and a powerful stimulus for new transformations, the most important of which was the unification of the Russian lands into a single state.

The brutal Troubles of the early 17th century. brought the Russian state to the brink of destruction. The instant weakening of power in Russia inevitably whetted the political appetites of its closest neighbors. Fortunately for Russia, in that distant era the bloodless country achieved peace and was left to its own devices. Because of this, the process of restoration of both life on earth and the economy became real prospect. Constant risk to be without a harvest in the eyes of many, many farmers made it hopeless hard work restoration of former arable lands. In addition, the lack of feed for normal cattle breeding deprived peasants of the most radical means of increasing fertility by applying manure fertilizer. As before, the most important role in maintaining fertility was played by the release of lands into long-term fallow, fallow, etc. This type of economy supported the constant desire of people to change their place of residence and move to new lands. The weakening of serfdom legislation during the Time of Troubles, and quite for a long time after it, favored such migration. It continued in the second half of the 17th century. If the pioneers from Russia reached Kamchatka, the Amur region and Primorye over the course of a century, then mass migration developed the lands of the Middle Volga region, the southern counties of Russia (Voronezh, Penza, Tambov, etc.), as well as the regions of the Urals and Siberia.

Finally, Russian Troubles was not just a period of brutal warfare. This was a “civil” war, and the material and human losses of this war were immeasurably more severe than in the normal course of medieval military operations. The Troubles brought enormous economic ruin to Russia, the desolation of almost all arable land, and most importantly, a sharp decrease in the population of the main territory of the state.

To overcome backwardness and cultural isolation, it was necessary to make a breakthrough to ice-free seas, which required the mobilization of all the material and human resources of the country. Overland trade was extremely sluggish, predominantly seasonal due to unfavorable natural and climatic conditions. Russia XVII V. had the only port on the harsh northern coast White Sea- Arkhangelsk. At the same time, the objective needs of the country’s economy with the exclusive dominance of agricultural production required the involvement in export trade of not only furs (and sable reserves in Siberia were noticeably depleted by the end of the century) and other unique products, but also mass agricultural products (grain, hemp, oil, lard, etc.). However, this is a large-sized product, and its transportation was profitable only in large quantities. And this is neither economically nor technologically possible for overland trade with its horse-drawn transport. The only optimal development prospect was objectively related to the acquisition of seaports and waterways leading to such ports.

The lack of direct economic and political ties with Western Europe restrained the growth of Russia's productive forces and slowed down the process primitive accumulation was one of the reasons for its economic, political and military-technical backwardness, which ultimately could threaten its national independence.

The service class in terms of socio-political and cultural development did not meet the requirements of the social development of the country, and remained a patriarchal social community of the medieval era, which had a vague idea even of its class interests. The restless character of the 17th century, social instability gave rise to the need to strengthen the positions of the ruling class, its mobilization and renewal, as well as the improvement of the state administrative apparatus and the army. Spiritual crisis society, caused by the secularization of consciousness and strengthened by the schism of the church, gave rise to the need for qualitative transformations in the sphere of culture, designed, on the one hand, to return Russia to the fold of European civilization, and on the other, to strengthen power with a new rationalistic ideology, replacing the religious justification of its omnipotence.

Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

The opportunity for transformation was created as a result of the changes that took place in the country during the 17th century.

In the economic sphere, this is the development of crafts, the emergence of the first manufactories, the development of foreign trade and the policy of protectionism.

IN social sphere- the rapprochement of local and patrimonial land ownership, the abolition of localism, an increase in the number of service people, which occurs due to the strengthening of the serfdom system.

IN political sphere- manifestation of the features of an absolutist monarchy.

In foreign policy - the annexation of Left Bank Ukraine and overcoming diplomatic isolation (Russia's entry into the Holy League).

In the spiritual sphere - the beginning of the secularization of culture; the first experience of transformation, moreover, in the most conservative area of ​​​​life - religious and church; changes in the life of part of the upper crust of society associated with its Europeanization.

In agriculture - specialization of regions for the production of certain goods:

- central and middle Volga region - bread;

- Pomorie – flax, hemp;

- Siberia - furs.

Having been abroad as part of the “Great Embassy,” Peter realized the real difference between Russia and the European powers and the need to reform his country.

The discovery by the tsar of a new world, previously unknown to him, made a significant revolution in his worldview, deepened and concretized his vision and understanding of those tasks, the solution of which would bring Russia into the European world.

2. Peter's reforms

All of Peter’s state activities can be divided into two periods: - years and -.

The peculiarity of the first stage was haste and not always thoughtful character, which was explained by the management. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to desired result. In addition to government reforms, at the first stage extensive reforms were carried out to change the cultural way of life.

In the second period, reforms were more systematic and aimed at the internal development of the state.

the main objective Peter's reforms - ensuring the receipt of taxes, the collection of which was transferred to the competence of the Town Hall and zemstvo huts, strengthening the Russian state and introducing the ruling stratum to European culture with simultaneous amplification. By the end of the reign of Peter the Great, a powerful one was created, headed by someone who had absolute power. In the course of the reforms, the technical and economic lag of Russia from European countries was overcome, access was won, and transformations were carried out in all spheres of life of Russian society. At the same time, the popular forces were extremely exhausted, the bureaucratic apparatus grew, and the preconditions were created (Decree on Succession to the Throne) for a crisis of supreme power, which led to the era of “palace coups.”

To develop success and achieve a breakthrough into the Black Sea, Peter decided to create powerful fleet. In addition, he organized the Great Embassy to Europe in 1697. The goals of the embassy were: - strengthening and expanding the anti-Turkish alliance; - invitation to Russian service of specialists, purchase and order of weapons; Peter failed to solve the main diplomatic problem. But during the trip he was inclined to the idea of ​​​​reorientation foreign policy Russia and the creation of an anti-Swedish coalition; managed to invite foreign specialists into the Russian service, leave Russian nobles to study abroad, and purchase weapons; enriched with new impressions, that upon returning to 1698 after the news of the new Streltsy riot and pushed him to begin the transformation.

Public Administration Reforms:

The emergence of a new government institution or a change in the administrative-territorial management of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and mobilization of the population. The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow raising enough funds to reorganize and increase the army, build a fleet, build fortresses and St. Petersburg.

As a result of public administration reforms, the formalization, as well as the bureaucratic system on which it relied, ended. From the first years of Peter's reign, there was a tendency to reduce the role of the ineffective in government. Even in the year under the king it was organized. It was a prototype of the future, formed year. Created by Peter for the ongoing administration of the state during the absence of the Tsar (at that time the Tsar was traveling to), the Senate, consisting of 9 people, soon turned from a temporary institution into a permanent higher government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of the year. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, monitored the orderly performance of military service by the nobles, functions and etc. were transferred to him.

Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, on general meeting and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest government body. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.

To better monitor the work of the government, it was created new position. Since the year he has been following the work of the Senate, since it was renamed. Since the year, control over the Senate has been exercised by the prosecutors of all other institutions. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General. The Prosecutor General and his deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In - years, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which the system with their vague functions was replaced by 11 - predecessors of future ministries. The functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. introduced a unified system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country. According to the regulations, the board consisted of a president and 4-5 advisers.

To monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption, a position was established from year to year that was supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals. and 4. The collegiums were subordinate, and local institutions were subordinate to them.

In - years it was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power at the local level and better providing the army with supplies and recruits. In - years the second regional reform was carried out, eliminating. The provinces began to be divided into 50, headed by, and the provinces into, headed by, appointed. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.

Army and Navy reforms

Upon his accession to the kingdom, Peter received at his disposal a permanent Streltsy army that was not capable of fighting the Western armies. and became the first regiments of the new Russian army, built with the help of foreigners according to the European model. Reforming the army and creating a navy became necessary conditions for victory in - years.

In preparation for the war, Peter ordered a general recruitment to be carried out and the training of soldiers to begin according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. In every 20 households, one single guy between the ages of 15 and 20 was to be put up for lifelong service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number male souls among the peasants. Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.

If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of the work of the navigation, artillery, and engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the class. It was open. B was published, strictly defining the service, rights and responsibilities of the military.

As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army and a powerful Navy, which Russia simply did not have before.

Military industry. In preparation for the war with Sweden, which supplied Russia with metal and weapons, Peter began the accelerated creation of his own industrial base. At the expense of the treasury, iron factories and weapons workshops were built in Karelia and the Urals.

City government. In order to prepare for war, the first urban reform. The decree of 1699 on the creation of the Burmister Board (Town Hall) introduced self-government there. However, the urban population who agreed to the creation of new institutions had to pay double taxes.

Church reform

The era of Peter was marked by a trend towards greater religious tolerance. The reform of church government was aimed at eliminating the ecclesiastical jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian hierarchy to the Emperor. It was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon taking office.

The most important measure during the financial reform was the introduction of a poll tax instead of the previously existing household taxation. A population census was conducted, which showed a sharp decrease in the population in the country due to the flight of peasants from burdensome taxes. Landowners were also interested in understating the number of payers. In - years, a repeat population census was carried out in parallel with the population audit (revision of the census), which began in. According to this audit, there were 5,967,313 people in taxable status.

Based on the data obtained, the government divided the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy by the population.

Economic development of Russia:

a) Agriculture. New lands of the southern districts, the Volga region, and Siberia were introduced into economic circulation. Thanks to government intervention, the acreage of industrial crops (flax, hemp, hemp, tobacco) expanded, new breeds of Merino sheep were planted (for the production of high-quality cloth), and horse breeding developed (for the needs of the cavalry). However, the innovations did not affect peasant farming. Its feudal, subsistence nature hampered the expansion of production and productivity growth.

b) Industry in the first quarter of the 18th century. experienced the most significant changes in connection with the military needs of Russia and the active policy of the state, which managed to mobilize natural and human resources countries. Having realized the technical lag at the time, Peter could not ignore the problem of reforming Russian industry. One of the main problems was the lack of qualified craftsmen. The Tsar solved this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service for favorable conditions, sending Russian nobles to study in.

Significant measures have been taken for geological exploration of mineral resources in Russia. The development of a new industrial region began - the Urals, which soon became the center of domestic metallurgy. cement, sugar factory and trellis factory.

In the year, the “Berg Privilege” was published, according to which everyone was given the right to search, melt, cook and clean metals and minerals everywhere, subject to payment of the “mining tax”.

By the end of the reign of Peter the Great, Russia fully satisfied its needs for metal and, occupying 3rd place in the world in terms of its production, began selling abroad, where Russian iron was valued higher in quality than Swedish iron. Light industry developed through the construction of manufactories that produced products for military needs and, to a much lesser extent, for the domestic market. The Khamovny yard in Moscow was turned into a large enterprise that produced canvas for the fleet. The Cloth Yard was also founded there. By 1718, Russia was freed from the need to import textile products. In total, about 200 manufactories were founded in the country.

The main feature of Russian industry was that it was created primarily at the expense of the treasury and for a long time was under direct state control, the forms and methods of which changed. In the first decade of the 18th century. the state created and directly supervised manufactories. From the middle of the second decade, state-owned enterprises, primarily unprofitable ones, were transferred into private hands. Private enterprise was encouraged. The creation of merchant companies, providing them with loans and benefits strengthened the position of leading manufacturers, but did not mean the state’s self-removal from the industrial sphere.

Another feature of Russian industry was the use of serf labor in factories. With the growth of industry, factories experienced an acute shortage of workers. The solution to the problem was possible only through the use of forced labor. State peasants were recruited for auxiliary work; entire villages were assigned to one plant or another and were required to perform their duties there for 2-3 months. And in 1721, Peter allowed manufacturers to buy serf peasants for factories, who later became known as possessions. They became the property not of the breeder, but of the enterprise. In 1736, all free people working in factories were enslaved, forming the so-called category. forever dedicated people.

c) Trade:

The development of trade, as well as industry, was largely stimulated by the state, which was trying to increase revenues to the treasury. In domestic trade, fairs (Makaryevskaya, Svenskaya, Irbitskaya) continued to play a leading role in trade wholesale operations. The importance of foreign trade has increased. By force The tsar began to transfer trade from Arkhangelsk (its turnover fell 12 times) to the Baltic Sea, which caused the ruin of many merchant families. In addition, the development of foreign trade was hampered by the lack of its own merchant fleet, which brought a loss of 10 million rubles. in year.

In 1724, a customs protectionist tariff was introduced in Russia, designed to protect Russian industry from foreign competition and promote the establishment of an active trade balance. Low duties were introduced on exports to stimulate the sale of Russian goods on foreign markets. A high import duty was established if these products were produced in Russia, and a low one if they were not produced and were necessary for domestic industry (paints, wool, raw sugar, etc.). The protectionist nature of the foreign trade policy of the government of Peter I ensured a positive trade balance for Russia - export of goods in 1726 exceeded import by 2 times.

Changes in the social sphere:

State policy towards the nobility. During the reign of Peter I, the number of nobility increased sharply - 5 times. The government's policy was aimed at strengthening the ranks and uniting the Russian nobility. The decree of 1714 on single inheritance acquired special significance in this regard. He legally equalized estates and fiefdoms, declaring all estates belonging to nobles their hereditary property. The law, at the same time, allowed its inheritance only by one of the sons, which was supposed to prevent the fragmentation of estates and the dispersion of the noble class. However, the main meaning of the law was to create among the bulk of the nobility a material interest in serving the state.

Table of ranks. A special role in the organization and consolidation of the noble class was played by the adoption on January 24, 1722 of the Table of Ranks - a state law that determined the order of service and established the hierarchy service ranks. Now the principle of occupying a particular government position based on nobility was replaced by a bureaucratic one. Advancement up the career ladder depended on length of service, education, and, ultimately, on the personal abilities of the nobleman. In three categories of service - civil, military and palace - all positions were divided into 14 ranks - from the 1st highest to the 14th lowest. The table of ranks separated the official class from the lower bureaucracy. Under Peter, an official already from the 14th rank received personal, and from the 8th - hereditary nobility. For the military, hereditary nobility was granted already from the 14th rank - the lowest officer rank ensign. This made it possible for the most capable representatives of the vile classes to make their way up the social ladder, which strengthened the ranks of the nobility. Thus, the government's policy, while somewhat infringing on the material rights of the nobility, mobilized it to serve the state and social class interests.

Peasant policy of the state:

The situation of the peasantry The main burden of modernization of the country, which was also taking place under extreme conditions of war, was borne by the peasantry, who made up 92% of the Russian population. Tens of thousands of peasants, forcibly mobilized by the state, built shipyards, fortresses, factories, and erected a new capital in the swamps - St. Petersburg. Peasants also formed the main backbone of the Russian army. They were pressured by ever-increasing taxes, as well as state and lordly duties.

Tax reform. Since taxes were collected from each household, peasants and townspeople, in an effort to reduce the payment of taxes, often united and several families lived in one household. The state, having conducted a population census since 1718, switched to per capita taxation. Since 1724, various taxes were replaced by a single poll tax. (74 kopecks per landowner peasant male and 1 rub. 14 kopecks from a townsman or state peasant)2. Reforms of Peter I: goals, content.

Transformations in the sphere of culture

Special meaning there was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part, and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar. They created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, lifestyle, food composition, etc. have changed.

The first step was a kind of laughter reform in the early 1690s. While having fun, Peter organized a most humorous council, whose members spent their time worshiping Bacchus, that is, in drunkenness and outrages that offended the church. But thanks to these amusements, the tsar, willingly or unwillingly, prepared personnel for future reforms directed against established norms and traditions.

Peter, under pain of fines and flogging, ordered the serving people to wear European clothes and shave their beards, which were considered a symbol of the Christian faith of a person created in the image and likeness of God, and, therefore, with a beard. For Peter, the beard became a symbol of hated antiquity, which, for example, in the person of the Streltsy, threatened him and his plans. These measures undermined the foundations (it was no coincidence that the church declared barbering a mortal sin) and were also intended to speed up the formation of a cadre of reformers.

By a special decree of the Tsar, they were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, unlike previous feasts and feasts. Thus, noble women were able to join cultural leisure and public life for the first time.

Education

Peter clearly recognized the need for enlightenment, and took a number of decisive measures to this end. On January 14, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721 artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, engineering school and in St. Petersburg, mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. The goals of mass education were to be served by digital schools created by decree of 1714 in provincial cities, designed to “teach children of all ranks literacy, numbers and geometry.” It was planned to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created to train priests.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter the Great, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-class primary school failed, but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

3. Consequences of Peter's reforms. Different points of view on this problem V historical literature

The end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century. - a turning point in the history of our Motherland, marked by significant changes in the economy, state building...

Russia's victory in the Northern War became an event of world-historical significance. The conclusion of the Peace of Nystadt meant a decision the most important tasks Russian foreign policy that has faced our Motherland for two centuries.

The establishment of Russia on the shores of the Baltic Sea created favorable preconditions for the development and unimpeded economic, cultural and political ties with the advanced countries of Western Europe at that time, which led to a significant shift in the socio-economic development of Russia and a direct connection with the growth of the country’s productive forces, the strengthening elements of bourgeois relations, which by the end of the 18th century. developed into a capitalist structure.

Russia's acquisition of rank great power was reflected in the official recognition by the leading powers of Europe of the imperial title for Russian sovereigns. Recognition of Russia as an empire, inseparable, in essence, from the recognition of its new borders, defined Peace of Nystadt, testified to her increased international authority.

Speaking about the significance of the reforms of Peter I, in conclusion, it should be noted, first of all, that they meant the beginning of the process of modernization and Europeanization on a global scale.

Some historians believe that Peter’s activities led to a complete and irrevocable break with the past, breaking a line that had come from the depths of centuries historical continuity, and thus violated organic development Russia. Others, on the contrary, argued that Peter I realized the trends that had already been laid down in Russia in the 18th century and brought them to their logical conclusion. For some, he is a worker on the throne, for others, he is a villain, like Ivan the Terrible... According to the methods of implementation. An urgent need transformations with insufficient maturity of their prerequisites, society’s unpreparedness for qualitative changes, gave rise to the violent nature of the reforms, which gave some researchers reason to call them a revolution from above.

Outwardly, a sharp break with Moscow Russia and the Orthodox tradition, with a very low level of funds and resources accumulated by society in the previous time, led to paradoxical results: renewal and Europeanization were combined with the strengthening of the essential foundations of Russian civilization - autocracy and serfdom. This gave grounds for some historians to classify the transformations of Peter I as counter-reforms and even as a counter-revolution.

Thus, in the first quarter of the 18th century. The policy of the Russian state was aimed at transforming the country into a great European power in order to respond to the historical challenge of a modernizing Europe. Having created strong army and providing it military-industrial complex By introducing organizational and technical forms and the foundations of European education, Peter made Russia great in terms of military power. However, this power was not based on the liberalization of society and the creation of new free social groups of the population, but on the tightening of serfdom and the nationalization of the entire life of its subjects.

Peter's reforms led to the formation of a military-bureaucratic state with a strong centralized autocratic power, based on a feudal economy and a strong army.

Related information.

Historical conditions and prerequisites for Peter's reforms.

The country was on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness posed a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people. Industry was feudal in structure, and in terms of production volume it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.

The Russian army largely consisted of backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country. Rus' also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Education hardly penetrated the masses, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.

Russia in the 17th century, by the very course of historical development, was faced with the need for radical reforms, since only in this way could it secure its worthy place among the states of the West and the East.

Peter's reforms were prepared by the entire previous history of the people. Already before Peter, a fairly integral reform program had been outlined, which largely coincided with Peter’s reforms. The reforms affected literally all aspects of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people, but the main ones include the following reforms: military, government and administration, class structure of Russian society, taxation, church, as well as in the field of culture and everyday life. It should be noted that the main driving force behind Peter's reforms was war.

Military reforms of Peter I.

Military reforms occupy a special place among Peter's reforms. They had the most pronounced class character. The essence of the military reform was the elimination of noble militias and the organization of a permanent combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline, and regulations.

In 1689, Peter built several small ships under the guidance of Dutch craftsmen on Lake Pleshcheyevo, near Pereslavl-Zalessky. In the spring of 1690, the famous “amusing regiments” - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky - were created. Peter begins to conduct real military maneuvers, the “capital city of Preshburg” is built on the Yauza. The Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments became the core of the future standing (regular) army and proved themselves during Azov campaigns 1695-1696 Much attention Peter I gives the fleet the first baptism of fire which also falls at this time. With the outbreak of the Northern War, the focus shifts to the Baltic, and with the founding of St. Petersburg, shipbuilding is carried out almost exclusively there. By the end of Peter's reign, Russia became one of the strongest sea ​​powers world, having 48 linear and 788 galley and other ships. The beginning of the Northern War was the impetus for the final creation of a regular army. Before Peter, the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations (streltsy, Cossacks, foreign regiments). The revolutionary change was that Peter introduced a new principle of recruiting the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic conscription. The recruitment system was based on the class-serf principle. Recruitment sets extended to the population who paid taxes and carried out state duties. In 1699, the first recruitment was carried out; from 1705, recruitment was legalized by a corresponding decree and became annual. From 20 households they took one single person between the ages of 15 and 20 (however, during the Northern War, these periods were constantly changing due to a shortage of soldiers and sailors). The Russian village suffered the most from the recruitment drives. The recruit's service life was practically unlimited. Officers The Russian army was replenished by nobles who studied in the guards noble regiments or in specially organized schools (pushkar, artillery, navigation, fortification, Naval Academy, etc.). In 1716, the Military Charter was adopted, and in 1720, the Naval Charter, and large-scale rearmament of the army was carried out. By the end of the Northern War, Peter had a huge, strong army - 200 thousand people (not counting 100 thousand Cossacks), which allowed Russia to win a grueling war that lasted almost a quarter of a century.

The main results of Peter the Great's military reforms are as follows:

The creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight its main opponents and defeat them;

The emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fyodor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.)

Creation of a powerful navy;

A gigantic increase in military spending and covering it through the most brutal squeezing of funds from the people.

Administrative changes.

The transformation of management is perhaps the most ostentatious, façade side of Peter’s transformative activities; Because of her, all this activity was especially readily appreciated. Management reforms were carried out hastily and illiterately. Certain changes in government administration and the administrative-territorial division of Russia were dictated by military necessity, and their main task was to extract funds from the people as efficiently as possible to cover the ever-growing military expenses. For Peter the reformer sought to transfer military principles to the sphere of civil life and government. Very indicative in this regard is the Decree of April 10, 1716. Peter belonged to government agency as to a military unit, to regulations - as to military regulations, and to an official - as to a military man.

Unsystematicity and haste often led to confusion: regulations and orders were replaced by one another, often directly opposite, or were nullified by endless changes in government institutions, sometimes institutions duplicated each other in their functions. Many positions, military and civilian, only changed their old Russian names to European ones, essentially remaining the same.

The first administrative reform was the creation in 1699 of a special department of cities. Decrees introduced self-government for the city merchants, as well as for the population of Pomeranian cities. The power of the governor was abolished; from now on, elected mayors were in charge of the courts and collection of taxes. The Town Hall was in charge of the main state revenues from cities, as well as general supervision of the actions of self-government bodies. At the head of the Town Hall was the Chief Inspector of the Town Hall Board.

But with the growth of government spending, Peter gradually loses confidence in the financial capabilities of the Town Hall. The king comes to the decision to transfer the bulk of government to the localities. This management organization ensured a higher degree of satisfaction of the financial needs of the state, and after the end of the Northern War it was supposed to simplify the process of deploying and providing regular troops.

At the end of 1707, the implementation of a new reform began, and in 1708 the creation of eight provinces was proclaimed, which in turn were divided into provinces: Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. The border provinces were headed by governors-general, the rest by governors. The provinces were governed by governors, under the governors and governors there was a zemstvo office as a body that carried out orders and orders; from 1710, voivodes began to be called district commandants. Subordinate to the governor were the vice-governor (deputy), the Landrichter, who was in charge of the court, the provisions master and other officials. Thus, the provincial reform actually abolished the transformations of 1699, and the Moscow City Hall turned from a national institution into a provincial institution.

In 1710, a household census was carried out and a special payment unit of 5,536 households was established, which was supposed to provide one “share” of the funds necessary to cover military expenses. Commandantships were abolished, and instead of them, new “shares” were created, headed by Landrats - in large provinces 12, in medium-sized ones - 10, in smaller ones - 8. It was stipulated that, in accordance with the number of “shares”, each province would contain a certain number regiments However, this reform did not give the desired effect, the Northern War dragged on, and it was not possible to place the regiments assigned to them in the provinces. There was still not enough money, which created fertile ground for various frauds.

These two reforms caused a complete breakdown of public administration. As a result of the provincial reform, the system of orders was destroyed at the beginning of the 18th century. Russia was actually left without a capital, since Moscow ceased to be one, and St. Petersburg has not yet become one. All power remained concentrated in the hands of the “team,” which was called either the “near office” or the “consultation of ministers.”

The turning point was the Decree of March 2, 1711, which proclaimed the creation of a new body of state power - the Senate. The formal reason was Peter's departure to war with Turkey. The decree read: At first, the Senate consisted of nine of the tsar's closest employees, and Peter insisted on recognizing the Senate as the highest state body, which all persons and institutions must obey, like the tsar himself.

To establish strict control over management, Peter in 1711 created a system of fiscals, which were subordinate to the chief fiscal. They were charged with reporting to the Senate and the Tsar about all abuses and unseemly acts of officials.

In 1712, Peter came up with the idea to create colleges based on the Swedish model. The tsar's first note about the number of boards dates back to March 23, 1715 - only six boards without deciphering their responsibilities: Justice, Foreign Affairs, Admiralty, Military, Chambers and Commerce Boards. The reform began at the end of 1717 - beginning of 1718, when Peter drew up a unique program for the upcoming reforms: he determined the number and competence of the boards, and also staffed them with leadership. By decree of December 15, 1717, presidents and vice-presidents of the colleges were appointed:

In 1721, the Spiritual College - the Synod, which was removed from the subordination of the Senate, was formed, in 1722 the Berg and Manufactory College was divided into the Berg College and the Manufactory College, the Little Russian College was formed to improve the management of Ukraine, and the Patrimonial Office The Justice Collegium received the status of a collegium.

In 1720 it was adopted General Regulations- a document defining the staff of the boards, definitively delimiting their functions and competence. The formation of the collegial system was completed. It functioned for almost a century - from 1717 to 1802.

After the establishment of the collegiums, Peter decided to reform local government according to the Swedish model. Another reform of the local administrative-territorial structure has begun. In 1719-1720, the “shares” and positions of Landrat were abolished, the provinces were now divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into districts, headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium.

City administration was transferred to the hands of the city leaders. The position of mayors was abolished. The entire townsfolk population was divided into three parts: the 1st guild (rich merchants and owners of craft workshops), the 2nd guild (small traders, wealthy artisans) and the “mean people”, who made up the vast majority of the urban population. Only representatives of the “regular” population - members of guilds - were given the right to elect members of the new bodies of city government - magistrates; only members of the 1st guild could be elected. The activities of all city magistrates were controlled by the Chief Magistrate, created in 1720.

Along with the division of the urban population, transformations were also carried out in relation to the large class of non-serf population - it was united into the class of state peasants with a significant narrowing of rights and opportunities. Census of 1719-1724 servitude was eliminated by merging it with serfs.

The new system of governing bodies created a powerful layer of bureaucratic nobility in Russia, and an extensive noble-bureaucratic apparatus was formed. After the complete equalization of the land holdings of the nobles (estates) and boyars (patrimonial estates), noble land ownership finally became dominant, and the decree on the primogeniture of 1714 prevented the fragmentation of holdings. But this measure was not fully implemented.

A unique result of the administrative reforms of Peter I was the Table of Ranks adopted in 1722 - a set of laws on the procedure for public service. The report card obliged all nobles to serve and declared service to be the only way to obtain any government rank, and opportunities for promotion also opened up for people from the “vile people,” and achieving the eighth rank meant conferring nobility, which included a certain democratization of the management system. According to the Table, all positions were divided into six parts - military (land, guard, artillery, naval), civil and court, and into 14 classes or ranks.

Many historians consider administrative changes to be the weakest point of Peter's reforms.

Church reform.

The church reform of Peter played an important role in the establishment of absolutism. In the second half of the 17th century. The position of the Russian Orthodox Church was very strong; it retained administrative, financial and judicial autonomy in relation to the tsarist government. The last patriarchs were Joachim (1675-1690) and Adrian (1690-1700). pursued policies aimed at strengthening these positions.

Peter's church policy, like his policy in other spheres of public life, was aimed primarily at using the church as efficiently as possible for the needs of the state, and more specifically, at squeezing money out of the church for government programs, primarily for the construction of the fleet ("campanships") "). After Peter’s journey as part of the Great Embassy, ​​he was also occupied with the problem of the complete subordination of the church to its power.

In 1701, the Monastic Prikaz was formed - a secular institution - to manage the affairs of the church. The Church begins to lose its independence from the state, the right to dispose of its property.

In 1701, the royal decree limited the number of monks: for permission to take monastic vows, one now had to apply to the Monastic Prikaz. Subsequently, the king had the idea to use the monasteries as shelters for retired soldiers and beggars. In a decree of 1724, the number of monks in the monastery was directly dependent on the number of people they cared for.

The existing relationship between the church and the authorities required new legal registration. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were drawn up, which provided for the destruction of the institution of the patriarchate and the formation of a new body - the Spiritual College, which was soon renamed the "Holy Government Synod", officially equal in rights with the Senate. The creation of the Synod was the beginning of the absolutist period of Russian history, since now all power, including church power, was concentrated in the hands of Peter.

The adoption of the Spiritual Regulations actually turned Russian clergy into government officials, especially since a secular person, the chief prosecutor, was appointed to supervise the Synod.

The church reform was carried out in parallel with the tax reform; priests were registered and classified, and their lower strata were transferred to a per capita salary. A violent reaction among priests was caused by the Resolution of the Synod of May 17, 1722, in which clergy were obliged to violate the secret of confession if they had the opportunity to communicate any information important to the state.

As a result of church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and became part of the state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular authorities.

Economic transformations.

During the Petrine era, the Russian economy, and above all industry, made a giant leap. At the same time, the development of the economy in the first quarter of the 18th century. followed the paths outlined by the previous period. In the Moscow state of the 16th-17th centuries. there were large industrial enterprises - the Cannon Yard, the Printing Yard, arms factories in Tula, a shipyard in Dedinovo, etc. Peter's policy regarding economic life was characterized by a high degree of use of command and protectionist methods.

In agriculture, opportunities for improvement were drawn from the further development of fertile lands, the cultivation of industrial crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of livestock farming, the advancement of agriculture to the east and south, as well as more intensive exploitation of peasants. The state's increased needs for raw materials for Russian industry led to the widespread spread of crops such as flax and hemp. A decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and hemp, as well as tobacco and mulberry trees for silkworms. The decree of 1712 ordered the creation of horse breeding farms in the Kazan, Azov and Kyiv provinces, and sheep breeding was also encouraged.

During the Petrine era, the country sharply divided into two zones of feudal farming - the barren North, where the feudal lords transferred their peasants to cash rent, often releasing them to the city and other agricultural areas to earn money, and the fertile South, where noble landowners sought to expand the corvée system. .

State duties for peasants also increased. With their efforts, cities were built (40 thousand peasants worked on the construction of St. Petersburg), manufactories, bridges, roads; annual recruitment drives were carried out, old levies were increased and new ones were introduced. The main goal of Peter's policy was always to obtain as much monetary and human resources as possible for state needs.

Two censuses were carried out - in 1710 and 1718. According to the census of 1718, the unit of taxation became the male “soul,” regardless of age, from which a poll tax of 70 kopecks per year was levied (from state peasants - 1 ruble 10 kopecks per year). This streamlined the tax policy and sharply increased state revenues (about 4 times; by the end of Peter’s reign they amounted to 12 million rubles per year).

In industry there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories. Under Peter, at least 200 new manufactories were founded, and he encouraged their creation in every possible way. State policy was also aimed at protecting the young Russian industry from competition from Western European industry by introducing very high customs duties (Customs Charter of 1724)

Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use of predominantly peasant labor - sessional, assigned, quitrent, etc. - made it a feudal enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state-owned, merchant and landowner. In 1721, industrialists were given the right to buy peasants to assign them to the enterprise (possession peasants).

State-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, assigned peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which produced mainly consumer goods, employed both sessional and quitrent peasants, as well as civilian labor. Landowner enterprises were fully supported by the serfs of the landowner-owners.

Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in a wide variety of industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those that worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc. Entrepreneurial activity was encouraged, preferential conditions were created for people who created new manufactories or leased state ones. In 1711, in a decree on the transfer of linen manufactory to Moscow merchants A. Turchaninov and S. Tsynbalshchikov, Peter wrote: “And if they multiply this plant with their zeal and make a profit in it, and for that they ... will receive mercy.”

Manufactories appeared in many industries - glass, gunpowder, papermaking, canvas, linen, silk weaving, cloth, leather, rope, hatting, paint, sawmills and many others. Nikita Demidov, who enjoyed the special favor of the Tsar, made a huge contribution to the development of the metallurgical industry of the Urals. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of Ural ores and the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk canal contributed to the development of metallurgy in new areas and brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry. At the beginning of the 18th century. In Russia, about 150 thousand pounds of cast iron were smelted, in 1725 - more than 800 thousand pounds (since 1722, Russia exported cast iron), and by the end of the 18th century. - more than 2 million poods.

By the end of Peter's reign, Russia had a developed diversified industry with centers in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Urals. The largest enterprises were the Admiralty Shipyard, Arsenal, St. Petersburg gunpowder factories, metallurgical plants in the Urals, and Khamovny Dvor in Moscow. The all-Russian market was being strengthened and capital was being accumulated thanks to the mercantilist policy of the state. Russia supplied competitive goods to world markets: iron, linen, yuft, potash, furs, caviar.

Thousands of Russians were trained in various specialties in Europe, and in turn, foreigners - weapons engineers, metallurgists, and locksmiths - were hired into Russian service. Thanks to this, Russia enriched itself with the most advanced technologies Europe.

As a result of Peter’s policy in the economic field, a powerful industry was created in an extremely short period of time, capable of fully meeting military and government needs and not depending on imports in any way.

Changes in the field of science, culture and everyday life.

The process of Europeanization of Russia in the era of Peter the Great is the most controversial part of Peter's reforms. Even before Peter, the preconditions for widespread Europeanization had been created, ties with foreign countries had noticeably strengthened, Western European cultural traditions were gradually penetrating into Russia, even barber shaving had its roots in the pre-Petrine era. In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened - the first higher educational institution in Russia. And yet Peter’s activities were revolutionary. V.Ya. Ulanov wrote: “What was new in the formulation of the cultural question under Peter the Great was that now culture was recognized as a creative force not only in the field of special technology, but also in its broad cultural and everyday manifestations, and not only in application to the chosen society... but also in relation to the broad masses of the people."

The most important stage in the implementation of reforms was Peter’s visit to a number of European countries as part of the Grand Embassy. Upon his return, Peter sent many young nobles to Europe to study various specialties, mainly to master marine sciences. The Tsar also cared about the development of education in Russia. In 1701, in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened, headed by the Scotsman Forvarson, a professor at the University of Aberdeen. One of the teachers of this school was Leonty Magnitsky, the author of “Arithmetic...”. In 1711, an engineering school appeared in Moscow.

Peter strove to overcome as soon as possible the disunity between Russia and Europe that had arisen since the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. One of its manifestations was different chronology, and in 1700 Peter transferred Russia to a new calendar - the year 7208 became 1700, and the New Year celebration was moved from September 1 to January 1.

In 1703, the first issue of the Vedomosti newspaper, the first Russian newspaper, was published in Moscow, and in 1702 the Kunsht troupe was invited to Moscow to create a theater.

Important changes took place in the life of the Russian nobles, remaking the Russian nobility “in the image and likeness” of the European one. In 1717 the book "Youth" was published honest mirror" is a kind of etiquette textbook, and since 1718 there have been Assemblies - noble meetings modeled on European ones.

However, we must not forget that all these transformations came exclusively from above, and therefore were quite painful for both the upper and lower strata of society. The violent nature of some of these transformations inspired disgust towards them and led to a sharp rejection of other, even the most progressive, initiatives. Peter strove to make Russia a European country in every sense of the word and attached great importance to even the smallest details of the process.

The world in which we live today has largely deprived us of the illusion of “full knowledge” of our history. And yet it seems that we feel the Petrine era, sometimes even “see” it deeper and better than more later periods of his historical movement We understand the very personality of Peter I, with his dissimilarity from the scions of European imperial families, with his fundamentally unconventional attitudes of behavior and thinking. What is the secret of this “understanding effect”? Perhaps it’s because I read with interest the famous novel by A.N. Tolstoy's "Peter the Great"? Or is it that we watched television series that conveyed the charm of the era in visible images (remember the movie “Young Russia”!)? Or is it that we often counted our statehood not from its ancient times, but from Peter’s reforms?

In Peter's era, the purpose of the voyage was clear: Peter was obsessed with the idea of ​​Europeanizing Russia, its rapprochement with its more economically and politically developed western neighbors. What were the attributes of European life for Peter, from the structure of the army to the fashion for “drinking coffee” or smoking tobacco? It seems that the wonderful Russian historian V.O. was right. Klyuchevsky, when he wrote that ““ rapprochement with Europe was in the eyes of Peter only a means to achieve an end, and not the end itself.” Fixing a certain entourage of European life in Russian life, Peter tried to change not only the external (shave his beards, wear a European camisole), but also the internal appearance of the Russian about the extra-class value of a person, about civic honor and personal dignity. Blind servility to foreigners was generally alien to both Peter himself and his “eagles.” Evidence of this is the brilliant victories of Russian weapons, which forced the amazed Europe to re-plan its relations with the unexpectedly awakened “Russian bear”. Russia strengthened its borders, expanded its borders, and became an equal partner in all European affairs - military, trade, government, and later cultural.

Cultural contacts with Europe in conditions of vast Russian distances and poor roads were carried out mainly in two ways. First of all, the trips of Russian people abroad have become more frequent, not only on business or diplomatic missions, but also for the purpose of study. It is hardly possible to list all those “pensioners” (i.e. those sent to study abroad at public expense) who received their education in the best European educational institutions. Some Russians, for example M.V. Lomonosov, lived in Europe for years. According to the custom of that time, many kept diaries, which to this day serve as an excellent source of knowledge about the “eighteenth century.” Each diary is a living communication with the distant past, the breath of a bygone era that has reached us.

The first thing that is impressive in these entries is the lack of surprise at foreign “miracles”, so characteristic of the diary notes of Russian travelers of the 17th century. What is especially valuable is that almost all the authors left memories of the cultural appearance of Europe. Through the prism of these memories, one can still look at the life of that time in Western cities, take part in entertainment and carnivals, and stand in front of the masterpieces of the Renaissance. European architecture, painting, and music gradually entered the cultural consciousness of Russians.

Before us is the diary of steward P.A. Tolstoy, a representative of an old noble family, sent to Italy in 1697 to study navigation. The steward writes... about opera! Of course, it is difficult to imagine the life of an Italian city without opera. Born at the end of the 16th century under the influence of the humanistic ideas of the Renaissance, the opera genre became a symbol of the Italian national vocal genius, the personification of Italian music. At the beginning of the 18th century, many enlightened peoples of Europe paid tribute to opera. For Russia, this type of art was still a “closed book”

So, let’s imagine Venice, the famous carnival with its many colors and abundance of performances, among which opera performances occupy a worthy place. How did P.A. perceive this holiday? Tolstoy? Unlike his predecessors, he not only described in sufficient detail the production of the opera, the scenery, the number of performers on stage and in the orchestra, but also carefully calculated how much such a production would cost in monetary terms (in rubles) in Russia.

As a result of visiting foreign countries, deeper conclusions were drawn. Thus, an ardent admirer of European culture, Fyodor Saltykov, spent many years in England and there outlined a wide range of reforms that would contribute to the Europeanization of the Russian economy, education, science, and culture. It is curious that he included “music, pictura, sculpture, miniature” among the compulsory disciplines in men's educational institutions. In an effort to equate “our women’s people… with European states”, he proposed studying “instrumental and vocal music” in educational institutions, that is, playing all sorts of instruments and singing. Dance"

Another way of “acquaintance” of Russian culture with the culture of European countries is due to the activities and creativity of foreigners in Russia. Their contribution to development is due to the activities and creativity of foreigners in Russia. Their contribution to the development of Russian art can hardly be overestimated. Is it really that, for example, the architect Rastrelli was born under the skies of Italy? It is much more important that in Russia he found a second home and created masterpieces that we rightfully consider our national treasure. Or the German Jakob von Steyli, who left us a work on the history of Russian music, which is still almost the only trustworthy document for modern historians? Or the Italian conductor Francesco Araya, who created the first opera based on Russian text? All these are touches to the overall picture of the rapprochement of Russian and European cultures.

Does this mean that Russian art was ready to adopt European traditions and engage in mutually enriching dialogue? That it, having parted with “ancient piety”, connected its future with a new secular cultural practice? How did this new relate to the old, firmly rooted in society and having centuries-old traditions?

The combination of old and new in the era of Peter gives a surprisingly motley, ambiguous and aesthetically unequal picture of the development of the arts. Masterpieces of national artistic culture have not yet been created. But this does not make the general panorama of the construction of a new building - secular art - lose its attractiveness. Quite the contrary. Works of music, literature, painting, architecture give rise to the feeling of this movement, convey the pulse of fast-paced life, the hot breath of history...

Now, it seems, we have come to the main thing that makes us see in the monuments of art of the Peter the Great era an amazing historical document that speaks better than all other sources about a turbulent, bright, contradictory time.

Russia...

Reforms Petra (15)

Abstract >> History

16 I. Historical conditions And preconditions Peter's reforms The reign of Peter I began in an atmosphere of cruel... great transformations. What were they preconditions Peter's reforms? Russia was a backward country. This...