S.B. Nazhnova, Russian language teacher
Additional materials and exercises on the website "Innovative computer didactics".
1.1.Introduction
The branch of linguistics in which the rules of writing words are studied is called spelling. Significant parts of words (roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings) are called morphemes. Russian spelling is studied writing morphemes: merged, separate, semi-merged (hyphen), as well as the use of capital letters and the rules for hyphenating words. The rules of spelling reflect the history of Russian written culture. Therefore, the spelling of many Russian words is based on traditional principle.
The rule for writing some words is: as we hear, so we write. This is phonetic principle writing words. The spelling of such words corresponds to their pronunciation.
However, in Russian orthography, traditional and phonetic spellings are not widespread. The spellings of most words follow a morphological principle. According to it, morphemes are always written the same way, regardless of pronunciation. For example, the roots of words in related words have the same spelling.
1.2. Vocabulary words
There are many words in the Russian language whose spelling is not regulated by spelling rules. Such words are called dictionary words. Their spelling cannot be checked by selecting related words or other dictionary forms. It is based on tradition or borrowed from European languages. Dictionary words are written according to the spelling norm, which is established not according to any rule, but specifically for a given word. This norm is recorded in spelling dictionaries.
Spelling vowels in the root
1.3. Tested unstressed vowels in the root
The spelling of unstressed vowels can often be checked by changing the word or selecting words of the same root so that the questionable sound is stressed, for example: leg - legs, run - run. In this case, the same vowel is written in the unstressed syllable of the root as in the corresponding stressed syllable in another word form or in related words: water - water - underwater. In order not to make a mistake in writing vowels at the root, You can check unstressed vowels by changing words. For example, so that the emphasis falls on a dubious sound, you can put nouns in a different case: head - head - heads. In other cases, it is possible to select related words with emphasis on a dubious sound: talk - talk, talkative; hurry - hurry.
Correct spelling of the tested unstressed vowels is necessary to distinguish between words that sound the same in oral speech.
Often, the incorrect choice of a test word leads to a distortion of both the spelling of the word being tested and its interpretation (meaning). For example, the word valley has a common root with the word dol, and not with the word dal; The verb to bless is formed from the combination good word, and not good glory.
1.4. Vowel alternation in the root
In some roots there is an alternation of vowels: dawn - dawn (alternating a - o); die - die (alternating e - i). In such roots, the unstressed vowel is checked not by stress, but by special rules. The main ones are given below.
1. In the roots gar - mountains under stress it is written A , without accent - O (tan - tanned).
2. At the root zar - zor the vowel that is heard is written under stress; it is written without stress A (glow, lightning, illuminate - dawn).
3. In the roots clan - clone, creature - creation under the stress, the vowel that is heard is written, without stress - O (bend - bow, bow - bend; creature - creativity, create).
4. At the root lag - lie written before r A, before w is written O(offer - suggest).
5. Root poppy written in verbs meaning “immerse in liquid” (dip a brush into paint). Root mock written in verbs with the meaning “to let liquid through” (wet, wet, waterproof).
6. At the root float vowel and can be stressed or unstressed (float, buoyancy). Root pilaf written in the words swimmer, swimmer.
7. Root equals written in words with the meaning “equal, identical, on a par” (to compare, to become equal). Root exactly written in words with the meaning “even, straight, smooth” (to equalize, same age). Exception: plain.
8. At the root growing up - growing up it is written a before the combination st and the letter u, in other cases it is written O(grow, growth - grown, thickets, shoots). Exception: industry, Rostov, Rostok, Rostislav.
9. At the root skak - skoch written before k A, before h is written O(jump - jump).
10. When forming aspect pairs of some verbs (perfective and imperfective) there is an alternation of sounds in the root o - a: to be late - to be late, to prick - to prick, to assimilate - to assimilate.
11. For some words in which the vowel sound is stressed, the following spelling options are possible: stipulate - stipulate, concentrate - concentrate, empower - authorize, challenge (obsolete) - challenge.
1.5. Vowels o - e after sibilants at the root of the word
After the sizzling f, h, w, sch under the stress, e or е is written in the root (although the sound o is pronounced), if e is written in related words or in another form of the same word (yellow - to turn yellow, silk - silk).
In words of foreign language origin after hissing words, it is possible to write about in an unstressed syllable: jockey, juggler, shock, chocolate, highway, driver, Scottish. In proper names, the spelling about after hissing is found both under stress and in an unstressed syllable: Georges, Pechora, Sholokhov, Shchors, Shostakovich, Chopin, Giordano. It is necessary to distinguish between the spelling of the nouns burn, arson and the verbs burn, set fire (The fireman received a burn. The fireman burned your hand.)
1.6. Vowels after the letter c
1. Consonant sound ts in Russian it is always hard. Therefore, after it it is written a (not ya), y (not yu). Deviations from this rule are found in geographical names and foreign-language surnames (Zurich, Kotsyubinsky). However, according to tradition, after c it is customary to write e (not e), although after a hard consonant one hears [e]: goal.
2. Vowels o - e after c they can alternate. Then, in accordance with the pronunciation, o is written under stress, and e is written in an unstressed syllable: dance - dancer, tsk - tsk. However, in some borrowed words, under the influence of the source language and in an unstressed syllable, o is written: duke, mezzo, scherzo.
3. Vowel spellings i-s after ts based on different spelling rules. Contrary to the pronunciation in the roots of some words, u is written after c: quote, figure. These are words borrowed from Russian, and their spellings are influenced by their source languages. Some native Russian words also do not obey the general rule: chick, gypsy, chick, on tiptoe.
Spelling letters e, y
2. Letters at the beginning of words uh And e written according to pronunciation: this, echo, eat, go, food.
3. In the middle of words after consonants it is written e :adequate, dandy, lady, stand. Exceptions to this rule: mayor, peer, sir(as well as derivatives from these words: city hall, peerage) and some proper names: Bela, Bacon, Ulan-Ude and etc.
4.Vowel uh preserved after a consonant: in a prefix (save, unexamine), in complex, compound words and abbreviations (three-story, quintessence, political economy, NEP).
5. As a rule, after the vowel it is written e : diet, sharp, requiem. Writing uh after and occurs only in complex foreign words ( polyester), as well as after prefixes on and ( anti-aesthetic).
6.After the remaining vowels it is usually written uh according to pronunciation: duel, duet, canoe, maestro, poetry, silhouette. Exceptions to this rule: project, projection, registry and etc.
7.Letter th at the beginning of the word it is written if it is a borrowed word or a proper name: yogurt, iodine, New York.
1. The unstressed vowel of the root is checked by stress, i.e. in the unstressed syllable the same vowel is written as in the corresponding stressed syllable of the same root word:
try on (cf. m e rit ) a suit - try and try (cf. m i r ) neighbors;
flutters (cf. é yat) flag - flutters (cf. development) industry.
Wed. Different spellings of unstressed vowels in the roots of words that sound similar:
hall e put it in your pocket - hall and heal the wounds;
answer to cut potatoes - answer about breaking the door;
gender a roll the cat - floor o open your mouth;
Priest e soft lining - attached I am a gentle horse;
raz e to sprout - raz I'm shooting a gun;
mind give meaning - mind o lie about mercy, etc.
2. Unstressed vowels o—a in the roots of perfective verbs cannot be checked with the forms of imperfective verbs na -yat/-ivat: op about late (late, but not late), cut out (cut, but not cut out).
3. In some words of foreign language origin with a suffix that is distinguished only etymologically, the spelling of an unstressed vowel cannot be checked with a single-root word if the checked and verified vowels are included in suffixes of different origins: abon e ment (-ement goes back to the French suffix), although abon and rovat (- ate goes back to the German suffix); accompaniment, although to accompany; engagement e ment, although engagement and rovat.
Wed. a similar discrepancy between vowels in the composition of a foreign root: appertz and feast, although appertz e option; disinfect, although disinfection.
In some words, the vowel of the root is preserved: injection - to inject, projection - to project, etc.
§ 2. Unverifiable unstressed vowels in the root
The spelling of an unstressed vowel at the root, which cannot be verified by stress, is determined by the spelling dictionary of the Russian language. This applies to many words, regardless of their origin:
badminton
concrete
twine
can
tramp
Grease
validol
cheesecake
ventilation
lobby
ham
the vinaigrette
dysentery
jerked off
intelligentsia
kalach
closet
loaf
cuttlefish
holster
layout
burner ‘
head of cabbage
Koschey
amulet
Magarych
madapolam
obsession
front garden
ferry
periphery
gudgeon
pigalitsa
plasticine
privilege
rump steak
rotaprint
bullfinch
smelt
scholarship
brake
generous
elixir
overpass, etc.
§ 3. Alternating vowels in the root
1. At the root gar- // gor- the letter a is written under the accent, without the accent - the letter o: zagar a r, ug a r; tanned, tanned.
Exceptions: vyg a rki, izg a r, prig a r (special and dialect words), etc.
2. At the root zar- // zor- under the stress a vowel is written in accordance with the pronunciation, without stress - the letter a: z a revo, z o rka; brightness, brightness.
Exception: cry.
3. In the root kas-//kos(n) - the letter o is written, if followed by n, in other cases the letter a is written: to dream, to touch; pang, pang.
4. In the root clan-//clone-, a vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation, without stress - the letter o: bow, bow; bow down, bow down.
5. In the root lag-//lozh- without emphasis, the letter a is written before g, and the letter o is written before g: offer a gát, adj a adjective; proposal about living, region.
Exception: pol o g (this word is no longer associated with the root lag-//false-).
6. The root mak- is contained in verbs meaning ‘Immerse in liquid’ and derivative words: m a roll crackers into tea; exchange A dip the pen into the ink; m and chanting.
The root mok- is contained in verbs meaning ‘to let liquid through’ and derivative words: vym o whip in the rain; prom O whip what is written, prom O rolling paper, non-industrial Oh damn cloak.
7. The root is floating - the words have the following words: plavat, plavat vuchet, plavat vok, etc.
Root pilaf - have words swimmer, sneeze swimmer.
The root is ply- - in the terminological word ply vuny.
8. The root is equal - words with the meaning ‘equal, identical, on a par’: level, compare, time to take heed (‘become equal’).
Root even - have words meaning ‘even, straight, smooth’: zar about heed, age, s about heed, level.
Wed: pod and heed (‘make equal’) - pod about heed (‘make equal’); vyr a vnen (‘made equal’) - vyr o vnen (‘made equal’).
9. At the root rast-/ros- before st (also before sch) the letter a is written; in other cases the letter o is written: grow, increase; grown up, grown up, since then.
Exceptions: industry, rostok, vyrostok, moneylender, Rostov, etc.
10. In the root skak-//skoch- without emphasis, the letter a is written before the k, and the letter o is written before the h: podsk a kat, speed up a kat, podsk about chit, zask about chit.
Exceptions: jump, jump.
11. In the root tvar-//tvor-, a vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation, without stress - the letter o: tv a r, tv o ́ rchestvo; tv about rit, tv about rets.
Exception: utv a r (this word is no longer associated with the root tvar-//tvor-).
12. In the roots ber- // bir- , der- // dir- , mer- // mir- , per- // pir- , ter- // tyr- , shine- // blist- , burn- // zhig-, stel- // stil-, chet- // chit- the letter and is written without stress, if there is a suffix -a: sob and rat, ass and rat, zam and rat, lock and raq, erase, bl and become, burn, spread, subtract; in other cases, the letter e is written: beru, deru, die, lock, erase, shine, burn, spread, subtract.
Exceptions: combine, combination.
13. In roots with alternation a(ya) // im, a(ya) // in without stress, they are written im and in, if there is a suffix -a-, szhat’ and szhat’ – szha’ i mother, pony i’ – pon and mother , start - start and begin. Wed: attentive, close and close, remind and close, acknowledge and etc.
In derivative forms it is preserved by it, even if there is no suffix -a- in the word: sn and mu, sn and mi, lift and mu, lift and mi, etc.
§ 4. Vowels after sibilants in the root
1. After hissing (f, ch, sh, shch) the letters a, y, and are written in the root (but not i, yu, s!) : heat, buzz, fat; seagull, feeling, clean; checker, joke, sew; farewell, squint, defense.
Exceptions: brosh yu ra, zhu ri, parash yu t, psh yu t, fish yu and some other words of foreign origin.
Note. This rule does not apply to foreign-language proper names ( Jules, Julie, Siauliai etc.), as well as complex abbreviated words and letter abbreviations in which any combination of letters is possible (Interlegal Bureau, etc.).
2. After sibilants, under stress, e(е) is written in the root, corresponding in pronunciation to the sound o [o], if the letter e is written in the same root word or in another form of the same word: black (cf. chеrnet), desh evy (cf. cheap e vle).
twine
evening
cheap
chewed
gutter
acorn
bile
millstone
hard
test
wallet
liver
slap in the face
hairstyle
bee
millet
wheat
comb
accounting
shit
bang
canoe
crap
black
dash
tap dance
whisper
dandy
lye
brush
In the absence of such relations, the letter o is written under the stress after the sibilants. Moreover, the letter o after sibilants is also written in cases where, when changing the form of a word or in a derived word, the stress moves to another syllable: sh o mpol - sh o mpola.
artichoke
junk
pulp
zhor
zhokh
heartburn
gooseberry
cruchon
major
glutton
voracious
ratchet (the suffix -otk-a is not highlighted)
slum
thicket (the suffix -ob-a is not highlighted)
clink glasses
prim
cluck
the seam
shock
ramrod
shuffle
saddler
rustle (the word rough is not considered to have the same root)
blinders
Notes: 1. It is necessary to distinguish between the spelling of nouns burn o g, burn o g, set fire to g, burn o g and verbs in the past tense form burn е g, burn е g, burn е g, burn е g (verbs are compared with the root of the verb burn - burned).
2. A “runaway” vowel under stress after sibilants is indicated by the letter o: gut - kish o ́ k, scabbard, - knife o ́ n.
3. In words of foreign language origin in an unstressed syllable, it is possible to write o after hissing words: jo kay, z o lner, j o ngler, maj o rdom, chauvinism, shock, sh o colad, sh o sse, Scottish , shofer et al.
§ 5. Vowels after c in the root
1. After ts in the root, the letters yu and i are written only in non-Russian proper names (geographical names, surnames, etc.): Ts yu rikh, Ts ya nshan; Tsyurupa, Tsyavlovsky.
cyanide
cibik
cibula
civilization
cigarette
beaver lamb
tsidulka
cicada
cycle
chicory
dulcimer
scurvy
mat
circus
compass
barber
quote
citvar
digit
number, etc.
Exceptions: tsygan, tsy plenok, on tsy buds, tsy tsy and cognate words (gypsy, tsy plyatina, tsy pka, tsy p-tsy p, tsy e b, k epi , lady, pince-nez, stand, tender, etc.
Exceptions: m e r, p e r, s e r and derivatives, words (m e riya, p e rstvo); plen er (‘painting or filming in the open air’); proper names: B e kon, B e la, Ulan-Ud e, etc.
Recently, the number of foreign words in which the letter e is written after hard consonants has increased: r e ket, m et tr (‘mentor’), etc.
3. After a vowel and at the root, as a rule, the letter e is written: avi e tka, di e z, dieta, pie tet, requiem, etc.
Writing after and the letter e occurs:
1) after prefixes with -i: anti-esthetic;
2) in complex foreign words, the first part of which ends in -i: polyester, quasi aesthetic;
3) in proper names: Assoshi agency e ted Press.
After the remaining vowels (except and), the letter e is written in accordance with pronunciation: alo e, kano e, ma e stro, po e zia, po et, due el, due et, power et i etc. But: about eqt, reg e str, fe riya, etc.
4. At the beginning of foreign words, a combination of letters yo is written if pronounced ё [yo]: yogi, iodine, yorkshire, yot('sound'), iota ('letter'). But: ions, Jordanian- with separate pronunciation of initial vowels.
There are roots in which writing letters in place of unstressed vowels does not correspond to the general rule, but is subject to tradition. These include the following roots with alternating vowels with letters A And O, and also with letters And And e .
gar - mountains letter O , although under emphasis - A , eg: burn, scorch, scorch, burn out, tanned, fire victim, combustible; But: soot, tan, soot, fumes. Exceptions ( gar without accent): residue, dross, scorch, cinder(along with option cinder).
zar – zar. In place of an unstressed vowel it is written A : dawn, lightning, glow, illuminate, illuminate, illumination, robin(bird), morning lightning; under stress - A And O , cf.: glow, radiant, radiant And dawns(plural words dawn), dawn, dawn, dawn, dawn(military signal, usually in the expression beat or tattoo).
kas - kos. In this root it is written A , if the root is followed by A ; in other cases it is written O : Wed touch, touch, touch, touching, touching, But touch, touch, contact, inviolable(the vowel of the root does not occur under stress).
clan - clone. In place of an unstressed vowel it is written O , eg: bow down, bow down, bow down, bow down, bow down, bow down, bow down, bow down; under stress - O And A : Wed bow, incline, bend, inclined, inflexible And bow, bow, bow .
speck - crop. The letter is written without accent O in words meaning ‘to cover with drops, splashes’: sprinkle, sprinkling(from sprinkle), sprinkle, sprinkled, sprinkle; letter A – in words with the meaning ‘to cover with small specks, dots’: marked, marked(from mottle meaning ‘to cover with specks, to apply specks’), inclusion. Only a is stressed: speck, speck, speck, intersperse, interspersed, speck .
lag - log - lie. In place of the unstressed vowel before G is written A , before and – O , eg: state, impose, assume, attach, decompose, urgent, delay, vagina, adjective, term, versifier, But: lay down, lay out, set aside, lay down, offer, attach, presentation, position, sentence, versification, cover, put aside. Always stressed O : tax, pledge, forgery, forged, put, put. In a word canopy, where is the root −log in modern language it no longer stands out, without emphasis before G is written O .
poppy – mok – moch. In place of an unstressed vowel it is written before To letter A in words meaning ‘to dip, immerse in liquid’: dip, dunk, dunk; letter O – in words meaning ‘get wet’: get wet, get wet, get wet, get wet (under rain), in words derived from wet(eg. wet, phlegm, phlegm, woodlice) (under stress - in words wet, get wet, get wet, get wet etc.), and in words with the meaning ‘drain than n. moisture-absorbing’: get wet, get wet, blotter, blotter. Before h – always a letter O , eg: wet, wet, wet, soaked(cf. under emphasis: wets, soaked) about verbs in −to give type wet, soak see § 34, Note 2).
sing - sing(in verb solder and cognates). It is written without accent A : solder, solder, unsolder, soldering iron etc. Under stress - A And O : Wed sealed, sealed, soldered, soldered And solder, sing .
swim - swim. It is written without accent A : floating, fin, floater, floater(grass; beetle; water possum), swimmer(bug), phalarope(bird), float, floatable, afloat, floating; But: swimmer And swimmer with a letter O . Under stress - only A : swim, timber rafting .
equal - equal The letter a is written in words related in meaning to an adjective equal‘same’, e.g.: equate(who what n. with whom what n.), dress(what n. or with whom what n.), equate, equalize, compare (Xia), comparison, compare(what n.), level(check), straighten, level out(eg. lines– ‘make equal in length’), equalize, equation, leveling, equal, equal, equal, balance, equinox, equal, equal .
Letter O written in words related in meaning to the adjective smooth‘smooth, straight, without irregularities’, e.g.: level(bed, road surface), level out, level out, level out, level out(make it even, smooth, straight).
However, in words equally, same age, related in meaning to equal, the letter is written O ; in a word plain, related in value to smooth, – letter A . In words with unclear correlation the following is written: letter A – in a verb dress(in a line, during construction) and words derived from it equalize, equalize, level out(in service); letter O - in combination it's not exactly the hour, in a word level .
different - different In numerous compound words with the first part different (heterogeneous, versatile, discordant etc.) the letter is written without accent A, in a word apart– letter O . Under stress - A (different, difference, vary) And O (discord, discord, scattered).
grew(t) – ras(t) – rasch. In place of the unstressed vowel it is written:
A) before With (no follow-up T ) – letter O : grew, grew, grew, grown, thicket, overgrowth, algae, undergrowth; exception - industry and its derivatives ( sectoral, intersectoral, multi-sectoral);
b) before st – letter A , eg: grow, grow, grow, grow, grow, grow, grow, grow, germinate, grow, grow, increase, increase, age, plant, vegetation, wild; exceptions: sprout, growth, usurer, outgrowth, outgrowth, outgrowth, outgrowth, sprouting, teenage(along with option teenage);
V) before sch Always A , eg: grow, grow, grown, increase, build-up, fusion .
Accented before With (followed by T and without it) – only O , eg: growth, growth, outgrowth, teenager, overgrowth; grew up, overgrown, grown up, tall, wild plants .
jump - jump - jump - jump. If the root ends in To , then in place of the unstressed vowel the letter is written A , eg: gallop, gallop, gallop, gallop, skipping rope, galloping, galloping, galloping, although under emphasis - O , eg: jump, jump, bounce, jump, jump(about verbs in −to give type pounce see § 34, Note 2).
If the root ends in h , then they write: letter A in forms of the verb skaka ́ There are also verbs derived from it (for example: I'm galloping, galloping, galloping, galloping, galloping, galloping), as well as in the word leap(the test is the forms of the same verbs - e.g. gallop, let's gallop, and derivatives jump, gallop); letter O - in prefixed verbs −download(eg: jump up, jump up, jump up, jump out, jump out, jump out, jump off, jump up) and in the word upstart(check - forms of the same verbs, except jump out: jump up, jump off and so on.).
Wed: I'll skip(one hundred versts), skip it(verb forms gallop, gallop) And I'll pass, I'll pass(verb forms slip through, slip through); I'll jump, I'll jump(verb forms jump up, jump up‘approach at a gallop’) and I'll jump, I'll jump(verb forms jump, jump‘approach someone or something with a quick movement. or rise sharply’).