The Russian government approved a resolution, one of the main goals of which is “to ensure Russia’s national interests in the Antarctic region.” Although officially these interests are largely limited to scientific research, much more is at stake - control of vast mineral reserves. However, Russia can hardly count on unhindered access to them: there are too many competitors.
Land of Seven Capitals
The Antarctic region referred to in the Russian government decree represents the territories located south of 60 degrees south latitude. The southern basin of the World Ocean falls within the outlined boundaries (this sector is usually called the umbrella term Southern Ocean), but Antarctica has traditionally been of greatest interest to states. Unlike all other continents, Antarctica has essentially remained a no-man's land since its discovery in 1820. More precisely, seven countries have claimed the rights to it, but so far their claims remain largely unrecognized.
Russian navigators Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev are considered the discoverers of Antarctica. On January 28, 1820, the members of the expedition they led became the first people to see the icy continent. Just two days later, ships as part of a British expedition led by Edward Bransfield approached the shores of Antarctica. The first to land on the continent were, presumably, American hunters led by Captain John Davis. In search of seals, on February 7, 1821, they landed on the coast of West Antarctica, where they spent about an hour.
Great Britain was the first to announce claims to land in Antarctica in 1908, declaring sovereignty over a number of islands located next to the Falklands, which already belonged to the British crown. True, then London “took” only a small piece of Antarctica, but later, in 1917, the entire sector of the continent (up to the South Pole), limited by 20 and 80 degrees west longitude, was declared British Antarctic Territory.
The claims of other countries to the southern continent were formalized in a similar way - in the form of sectors. In 1923, London “annexed” the Ross Territory, a narrow section of Antarctica between 150 degrees east and 160 degrees west longitude, to New Zealand, which was subordinate to it. It was staked out for the British crown back in 1841 by the navigator James Clark Ross, but the lands were officially declared royal possessions only 82 years later. The Australian Antarctic Territory was transferred by the mother country to its former colony in 1933. It occupied the sector between 44 and 160 degrees east longitude.
In 1924, France acquired the Antarctic territory - Adélie Land - and filed claims to the site, which was discovered in 1840 by the traveler Jules Dumont-D'Urville. This sector was limited to 136 and 142 degrees east longitude and wedged itself into the Australian Antarctic Territory, which the British agreed to.
Another Antarctic power appeared in 1939 - then the sector between 20 degrees west and 44 degrees east longitude was declared to belong to Norway. The territory was named Queen Maud Land - in honor of the wife of the Norwegian king Haakon VII Maud of Wales. The last to file claims to Antarctic territories in 1940 and 1942 were Chile and Argentina. Moreover, the segments indicated by their authorities overlapped not only with each other, but also with the British one. Another site, Mary Byrd Land, located between 90 and 160 degrees west longitude, remained unoccupied - not a single state in the world put forward official claims to it.
Antarctic Treaty
From the very beginning, the situation around Antarctica threatened a major international conflict. The claims of seven states to Antarctic territories expectedly provoked objections from many other countries - both those that also laid claim to a piece of the continent and others that preferred to see Antarctica as neutral territory. The uncertainty over the status of Antarctica also complicated scientific research: by the middle of the 20th century, scientists were actively using the continent as a unique research platform, and the presence of national segments did not contribute to international cooperation.
Attempts to stop the division of Antarctica were made by the United States and India back in the late 1940s. However, the meetings and conferences they held did not produce any results. Progress was achieved only in 1959, when 12 states signed the Antarctic Treaty - a kind of international set of rules for behavior on the continent. In addition to the seven countries claiming territory in Antarctica, the document was signed by representatives of Belgium, the USSR, the USA, South Africa and Japan. All of them were conducting active research on the continent at the time of the creation of the treaty. Now the number of signatories to the treaty has increased to 50 countries, and only 22 of them have the right to vote - those whose researchers are most actively involved in the study of Antarctica.
The core of the agreement was the postulate that Antarctica is declared a peaceful zone, where it is prohibited to place any military bases, conduct maneuvers and test weapons, including nuclear weapons. Instead, the region was to become a platform for large-scale scientific research, the results of which the parties could freely exchange.
The political aspect of the document became no less important: according to its Sixth Article, it actually froze all territorial claims to Antarctica. On the one hand, the agreement is drawn up in such a way that attempts on its basis to challenge the claims of one or another participant are simply impossible. On the other hand, the “owners” of the Antarctic territories did not have any tools to confirm their sovereignty over these areas. As a result, this deprived both camps of arguments - both those who had territorial claims in Antarctica and those who disagreed with them. At the same time, the agreement established the principle of free access for its participants to any territory of the continent.
Minerals
Having eliminated the danger of political conflict, the agreement, however, left out another equally important issue: access to mineral resources. As geologists suggest, in Antarctica there are vast deposits of a large number of resources: coal, iron ore, copper, zinc, nickel, lead and other minerals. However, oil and gas reserves are of greatest interest to most countries. Their exact volumes are unknown, however, according to some data, the Ross Sea region alone (Australian sector) contains about 50 billion barrels of oil and more than 100 trillion cubic meters of gas. For comparison, Russian reserves of these hydrocarbons amount to 74 billion barrels and 33 trillion cubic meters, respectively.
Participants in the Antarctic Treaty made an attempt to discuss the possibility of mining in 1988 by adopting the corresponding convention. However, the document never came into force, and instead, in 1991, the parties signed the Madrid Protocol, which entered into force in 1998. According to this document, mining of any minerals is strictly prohibited in Antarctica. True, this ban is not indefinite: the text of the protocol must be revised 50 years after its entry into force - in 2048. At the same time, some countries laying claim to territories in Antarctica do not exclude the possibility that industrial development of the continent may eventually be allowed. In addition, there is a possibility that one of the participants in the protocol will simply refuse to participate in it.
Obviously, such scenarios give cause for concern, especially for those countries that consider Antarctica theirs. In practice, this led to the fact that during the implementation of the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which entered into force in 1994, a serious conflict arose over the need to determine the boundaries of the continental shelves. Claimants for the Antarctic shelf immediately appeared from among the “owners” of the continents. On the other hand, the Antarctic Treaty expressly prohibits its participants from expanding their holdings.
However, a solution was found. Three countries - Australia, Argentina and Norway - indicated the coordinates of the proposed shelf properties in the Antarctic, but asked the UN not to consider their status until the territorial dispute is resolved. Three other countries - New Zealand, France and the UK - simply reserved the right to make a request later. The only state of the seven that has not yet indicated its position in any way is Chile.
The filing of "Antarctic" applications caused a flood of objections. Naturally, Great Britain and Argentina, which lay claim to the same territories, began to argue among themselves (and in addition to Antarctica, they are trying to dispute the Falklands and other islands in the South Atlantic from each other). Representatives of Russia, the USA, Japan, the Netherlands, India and other countries submitted statements on the need to maintain the “no man's” status of Antarctica.
Equal chances
Few people dare to have open conversations about mining in Antarctica. Meanwhile, nervousness is clearly growing around the icy continent: almost any movement by any country in its direction is immediately perceived by counterparties as an attempt to push back the “legitimate” owners.
Photo: Alexey Nikolsky / RIA Novosti
For example, in a report by the Lowy Institute for International Policy (.pdf), prepared in 2011 for the Australian authorities, the Kremlin’s actions are described as real economic expansion. “The government decree of 2010 on the Antarctic strategy until 2020 categorically speaks of the importance of Antarctic resources for the energy and economic security of Russia,” write the authors of the report. “It cites comprehensive research on minerals and hydrocarbons, as well as the development of a ‘progressive’ strategy for the post-2048 debate, as government policy priorities.”
On the one hand, the strategy is only about “geological and geophysical research that allows us to carry out the necessary predictive assessments of the mineral and hydrocarbon potential of the Antarctic.” In other words, the authors of the program propose not to extract fuel, but only to research it. However, on the other hand, it is unlikely that a purely scientific interest is a prerequisite for such research. Especially if the “comprehensive study of mineral, hydrocarbon and other types of natural resources of the Antarctic” is intended to contribute to “strengthening the economic potential of Russia.”
In a similar vein, Australians evaluate the activities of the Chinese, whose goal is called “assessing the potential of resources and methods of their use.” The report's author all but accuses Beijing of imperial ambitions: according to him, at one of the Chinese polar stations "there is a 'Welcome to China' sign, which indicates a desire for isolation and a refusal to recognize Australia's claims."
It is clear that in the run-up to the expiration of the moratorium on mining, nervousness around Antarctica will only intensify. At the same time, the likelihood that, given the global energy shortage, the ban on exploration and production of hydrocarbons will remain in effect forever is not very high. It is possible that in order to prevent full-scale confrontations, a new agreement will be signed regulating the procedure for work in Antarctica and on its shelf. But Russia, most likely, will have no more arguments in this division than any other country.
. Antarctica- the southernmost continent. It has a unique geographical position: the entire territory except. The Antarctic Peninsula lies within. Arctic Circle from the nearest continent -. South. America -. Antarctica is separated by a wide (more than 1000 km) strait. Drake. The shores of the continent are washed by waters. Quiet. Atlantic and. Indian Oceans. Off the coast. In Antarctica, they form a series of seas (Weddell, Bellingshaus, Amundsen, Ross), and extend shallowly into the land. The coastline along almost its entire length consists of glacial cliffs.
The peculiar geographical position in the cold high latitudes determines the main features of the continent’s nature. The main feature is the presence of continuous ice cover
Research and development
Humanity did not know about its existence for a long time. Antarctica. In the 17th century, scientists and travelers made assumptions about the existence. Southern land, but it was not possible to find it. Famous navigator. J.. Kuuk crossed three times during his trip around the world in 1772-1775. In 1774, he reached the Antarctic Circle at 71 ° 10 "S, but when he encountered solid ice, he turned. The results of this expedition for some time diverted the attention of researchers from the sixth continent.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the British discovered small islands south of 50° S. In 1819, the first Russian Antarctic expedition was organized for the purpose of searching. The southern continent led it. F. Bellingsgau. Uzen and. MLazarev on the ships "Vostok" and "Mirniy".
Among researchers. Antarctica was conquered for the first time. South Pole, were Norwegian. R. Amundsen (December 14, 1911) and Englishman. R. Scott(18 January 1912)
For the first half of the 20th century. More than 100 expeditions from different countries visited Antarctica. A comprehensive study of the mainland began in the second half of the 20th century in 1955-1958 during preparation and implementation. The International Geophysical Year was organized by large expeditions of a number of countries using modern technology. 1959 was signed by a number of countries. Agreement about Antarctica. It prohibits the use of the continent for military purposes, and presupposes freedom of scientific research and the exchange of scientific information.
Today. Antarctica is a continent of science and international cooperation. There are more than 40 scientific stations and bases belonging to 17 countries that carry out research in. In Antarctica in 1994, at the former English and scientific station Faraday, a group of scientists from Ukraine began work (today it is the Ukrainian station Academician Vernadsky).
Relief and minerals
. Relief. Antarctica two-story: above - glacial, below - indigenous (earth's crust). The continental ice sheet formed more than 20 million years ago. Average height of subglacial surface. Antarctica is 410 m. On the continent there are high mountains with a maximum height of more than 5000 m and huge (up to 30% of the continent's area) troughs, lying in some places 2500 m below sea level. All these relief elements, with a few exceptions, are covered with odovic shell, the average thickness of which is 2200 m, and the maximum thickness is 4000-5000 m. If we take the ice cover as the surface of the continent, then. Antarctica is the highest continent. Earth (average height - 2040 m). Glacial shell. Antarctica has a dome-shaped surface, slightly raised in the center and lowered to the edge of the edges.
At the core of most of it. Antarctica lies. Antarctic Precambrian platform. The Trans-Antarctic Mountains divide the continent into western and eastern parts. Western shores. Antarctica is very rugged, and the ice cover here is less powerful and broken by numerous ridges. In the Pacific part of the continent, mountain systems arose during the period of Alpine mountain formation - continued. Andes. South. America -. Antarctic. Andes. They contain the highest part of the continent - the massif. Vinson (5140 m0 m).
V. Eastern. Antarctica's subglacial terrain is predominantly flat. In some places, sections of the bedrock surface lie significantly below ocean level. Here the ice sheet reaches its maximum thickness. It drops off at a steep ledge towards the sea, forming ice shelves. The largest ice shelf in the world is the glacier. Rossa, whose width is 800 km and length is 1100 km.
In the depths. Various minerals have been discovered in Antarctica: ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, coal, diamonds and others. But extracting them in the harsh conditions of the mainland is associated with great difficulties.
Climate
. Antarctica is the coldest continent on. Earth. One of the reasons for the severity of the continent's climate is its altitude. But the root cause of glaciation is not altitude, but geographical location, which determines the very small angle of incidence of the sun's rays. During the polar night, the continent is greatly cooled. This is especially evident in inland areas, where even in summer the average daily temperatures do not rise above -30 °. C, and in winter they reach -60 ° -70 °. At the Vostok station, the lowest temperature on Earth was recorded (-89.2 ° C). On the coast of the mainland, temperatures are much higher: in summer - up to 0 ° C, in winter - up to -10-25 ° to -10.. .-25 °C.
As a result of strong cooling, a high-pressure area (baric maximum) is formed in the interior of the continent, from which constant winds blow towards the ocean, especially strong on the coast in a strip 600-800 kW wide.
On average, about 200 mm of precipitation falls per year on the mainland, in the central parts its amount does not exceed several tens of millimeters
Inland waters
. Antarctica is the region of greatest glaciation. Earth 99% of the continent's territory is covered by a thick ice sheet (ice volume - 26 million km3). The average thickness of the cover is 1830 m, the maximum is 4776 m. 87% of the volume of ice on earth is concentrated in the Antarctic ice cover.
From the inner powerful parts of the dome, the ice spreads to the outskirts, where its thickness
much less. In summer on the outskirts at temperatures above 0 °. Ice melts, but the land is not freed from ice cover, since there is a constant influx of ice from the center
Along the coast there are small areas of land free from ice - Antarctic oases. These are rocky deserts, sometimes with lakes, their origin is not fully understood
Organic world
Features of the organic world. Antarctica is associated with a harsh climate. This is an area of Antarctic deserts. The species composition of plants and animals is not rich, but diverse. Life is predominantly concentrated in oases. Antarctida. Mosses and lichens grow on these areas of rocky surfaces and rocks, and microscopic algae and bacteria sometimes live on the surface of snow and ice. Higher plants include some species of low grasses that are found only at the southern tip. Antarctic Peninsula and Islands. Antarctica.
There are quite a lot of animals on the coast whose lives are connected with the ocean. There is a lot of plankton in coastal waters, especially small crustaceans (krill). They feed on fish, cetaceans, pinnipeds, and birds. Whales, sperm whales, and killer whales live in the Arctic waters. Seals, leopard seals, and elephant seals are common animals on icebergs and the icy shores of the mainland. Antarctica is home to penguins - birds that do not drink in summer, but swim well. In summer, gulls, petrels, cormorants, albatrosses, and skuas nest on the coastal cliffs - their main enemies. Penguinguins.
Because the. Antarctica has a special status; today only its gigantic fresh water reserves are of economic importance. Antarctic waters are a fishing area for cetaceans, pinnipeds, marine animals, and fish. However, marine riches. The Antarctic is depleted, and many animal species are now under protection. Hunting and fishing of marine animals in Ogeni.
B. Antarctica has no permanent indigenous population. International status. Antarctica is such that it does not belong to any state
The article talks about the difficulties of geological exploration. Provides information about the presence of minerals on the mainland.
Minerals of Antarctica
Antarctica is a continent that is the coldest, and at the same time full of mysteries, place on Earth.
The area is completely covered with an ice crust. This is the reason why information about mineral resources on this part of the land is extremely scarce. Under the thickness of snow and ice there are deposits:
- coal;
- iron ore;
- precious metals;
- granite;
- crystal;
- nickel;
- titanium.
Extremely limited information about the geology of the continent can be justified by the difficulties of carrying out exploration work.
Rice. 1. Geological exploration.
This is influenced by low temperatures and the thickness of the ice shell.
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Primary information regarding the accumulation of minerals, ore deposits and precious metals was obtained at the beginning of the last century.
It was during this period that coal seams were discovered.
Today, over two hundred points have been found throughout Antarctica with deposits of iron ore and coal. But only two have the status of a deposit. Industrial production from these deposits in Antarctic conditions has been recognized as unprofitable.
Antarctica also contains copper, titanium, nickel, zirconium, chromium and cobalt. Precious metals are expressed in gold and silver veins.
Rice. 2. West coast of the Antarctic Peninsula.
They are located on the Western coast of the peninsula. On the Ross Sea shelf, we managed to find gas manifestations that are located in drilling wells. This is evidence that natural gas may lie here, but its exact volume is difficult to determine.
Geology of Antarctica
The geology of the continent is such that almost its entire surface (99.7%) is hidden in ice, and its average thickness is 1720 m.
Many millions of years ago, the mainland was so warm that its shores were decorated with palm trees, and the air temperature exceeded 20 C°.
On the Eastern Plain there are differences from 300 meters below sea level to 300 meters above. The Transantarctic mountain peaks cross the entire continent and are 4.5 km long. height. Slightly smaller is the Dronning Maud Land mountain range, which has a length of 1500 km. along, and then rises 3000 m up.
Rice. 3. Queen Maud Lands.
The Schmidt Plain has an altitude range from -2400 to +500 m. The Western Plain is located approximately at the level corresponding to sea level. The Gamburtsev and Vernadsky mountain range has a length of 2500 km.
The regions most suitable for mining are on the periphery of the continent. This is explained by the fact that the interior regions of Antarctica have been studied to an insignificant extent, and any kind of research is doomed to failure due to the significant distance from the coast.
What have we learned?
From the article we learned what minerals the land of Antarctica is rich in. They found out that on the continent there are deposits of coal, granite, precious metals, crystal, nickel, titanium, and iron ore. We also learned that low temperatures make mining difficult.
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Many people have no idea how important Antarctica is. The importance of Antarctica in the life of our planet is very great. Why is it illegal to mine minerals in Antarctica?
What is the significance of Antarctica?
Antarctica is an absolute potential resource reserve for humanity. And its significance is quite great both for science and in economic terms.
Why is it illegal to mine minerals in Antarctica? Economic activity can cause snow to melt, which will lead to a natural disaster.
Scientific significance of Antarctica
The bowels of the mainland are rich in minerals - iron ore, coal and ore. Scientists also noticed traces of nickel, copper, zinc, lead, rock crystal, molybdenum, graphite and mica. In addition, it is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth.
Researchers are observing meteorological and climate processes and have come to the conclusion that the coldest continent on the planet is a colossal climate-forming factor for our planet. Thanks to permafrost, you can find out what our planet was like thousands of years ago, just study the ice sheet of Antarctica. It literally freezes data on the Earth's climate and the components of the atmosphere. Scientists have proven that on the mainland you can find water that was frozen during the life of Jesus Christ.
Economic importance of Antarctica
Antarctica is widely used in the tourism and fishing industries. Despite the fact that the mainland is rich in coal, it is prohibited to mine mines to extract the natural resource. The main area of economic activity in Antarctica is the active use of its biological resources. Here they engage in whaling, small-scale sealing, fishing, and krill fishing.
Antarctica is the highest continent on Earth. The average height of the surface of the ice sheet is 2040 m, which is 2.8 times higher than the average height of the surface of all other continents (730 m). The average height of the bedrock subglacial surface of Antarctica is 410 m.
Based on differences in geological structure and relief, Antarctica is divided into Eastern and Western. The surface of the ice sheet of East Antarctica, rising steeply from the shores, becomes almost horizontal in the interior of the continent; its central, highest part reaches 4000 m and is the main ice divide, or the center of glaciation in East Antarctica. In Western there are three centers of glaciation with a height of 2-2.5 thousand m. Vast low-lying ice shelves often extend along the coast, two of which are enormous in size (Rossa - 538 thousand km 2, Filchner - 483 thousand km 2).
The relief of the bedrock (subglacial) surface of East Antarctica is an alternation of high mountain rises with deep depressions. The deepest part of East Antarctica is located south of the Knox Coast. The main elevations are the subglacial mountains of Gamburtsev and Vernadsky. The Transantarctic Mountains are partially covered with ice. West Antarctica is more complex. Mountains more often “break through” the ice sheet, especially on the Antarctic Peninsula. The Sentinel Range in the Ellsworth Mountains reaches an altitude of 5140 m (Vinson Massif) - the highest point in Antarctica. In close proximity to the ridge there is also the deepest depression of the subglacial relief of Antarctica - 2555 m. Antarctica lies lower than other continents (at a depth of 400-500 m).
Most of the continent is formed by the Precambrian Antarctic, which is framed on the coast by Mesozoic folded structures (coastal areas and the Antarctic Peninsula). The Antarctic platform is structurally heterogeneous and of different ages in different parts. Most of it within the coast of East Antarctica is an Upper Archean crystalline basement. The platform cover is composed of sediments of different ages (from Devonian to Cretaceous).
Deposits have been discovered in Antarctica, signs of deposits of mica, graphite, rock crystal, beryl, as well as gold, molybdenum, copper, lead, zinc, silver and titanium have been established. The small number of deposits is explained by the poor geological knowledge of the continent and its thick ice cover. The prospects for the Antarctic subsoil are very great. This conclusion is based on the similarity of the Antarctic platform with the Gondwanan platforms of other continents of the Southern Hemisphere, as well as on the similarity of the Antarctic fold belt with mountain structures.
The Antarctic ice sheet has apparently existed continuously since the Neogene, sometimes shrinking and sometimes increasing in size. Currently, almost the entire continent is occupied by a thick ice sheet; only 0.2-0.3% of the entire continental area is free of ice. The average ice thickness is 1720 m, the volume is 24 million km 3, i.e. approximately 90% of the volume of fresh water on the Earth's surface. All types of glaciers are found in Antarctica - from huge ice sheets to small glaciers and cirques. The Antarctic ice sheet descends into the ocean (excluding very small areas of the coast, composed of bedrock), forming over a considerable distance shelf - flat ice plates floating on the water (up to 700 m thick), resting at certain points on the rise of the bottom. Depressions in the subglacial relief running from the central regions of the continent to the coast are ice exit routes to the ocean. The ice in them moves faster than in other areas; it is broken into countless blocks by systems of cracks. These are outlet glaciers, reminiscent of mountain valley glaciers, but flowing, as a rule, on icy banks. The glaciers are fed by about 2,200 km3 of which accumulate over the entire area of the ice sheet per year. The consumption of matter (ice) occurs mainly due to spalling, surface and subglacial melting, and water is very small. Due to incomplete observations, the arrival and especially the flow of ice are not determined accurately enough. Most researchers accept the balance of matter in the Antarctic ice sheet (until more accurate data is obtained) to be close to zero.
The areas of the surface that are not covered with ice are bound by permafrost, which penetrates some distance under the ice sheet and to the ocean floor.