Plutarch Plutarch

(about 45 - about 127), ancient Greek writer and historian. The main work is “Comparative Lives” of outstanding Greeks and Romans (50 biographies). The remaining numerous works that have come down to us are united under the code name “Moralia”.

PLUTARCH

PLUTARCH (c. 46 - c. 120), ancient Greek writer, historian, author of moral, philosophical and historical-biographical works. From Plutarch's vast literary heritage, which amounted to ca. 250 works, no more than a third of the works have survived, most of which are united under the general title “Morals”. Another group - “Comparative Lives” - includes 23 pairs of biographies of outstanding statesmen of Ancient Greece and Rome, selected according to the similarity of their historical mission and the similarity of characters.
Biography
The ancient tradition has not preserved the biography of Plutarch, but it can be reconstructed with sufficient completeness from his own writings. Plutarch was born in the 40s of the 1st century in Boeotia, in the small town of Chaeronea, where in 338 BC. e. A battle took place between the troops of Philip of Macedon and the Greek troops. In the time of Plutarch, his homeland was part of the Roman province of Achaia, and only carefully preserved ancient traditions could testify to its former greatness. Plutarch came from an old, wealthy family and received a traditional grammatical and rhetorical education, which he continued in Athens, becoming a student at the school of the philosopher Ammonius. Returning to his hometown, from his youth he took part in its management, holding various master's degrees, including the prominent position of archon-eponym (cm. EPONYMS).
Plutarch repeatedly went on political errands to Rome, where he established friendly relations with many statesmen, among whom was a friend of Emperor Trajan, consul Quintus Sosius Senekion; Plutarch dedicated “Comparative Lives” and “Table Talks” to him. Proximity to influential circles of the empire and growing literary fame brought Plutarch new honorary positions: under Trajan (98-117) he became proconsul, under Hadrian (117-138) - procurator of the province of Achaia. A surviving inscription from the era of Hadrian indicates that the emperor granted Plutarch Roman citizenship, classifying him as a member of the Mestrian family.
Despite his brilliant political career, Plutarch chose a quiet life in his hometown, surrounded by his children and students, who formed a small academy in Chaeronea. “As for me,” Plutarch points out, “I live in a small town and, so that it does not become even smaller, I willingly remain in it.” Plutarch's public activities earned him great respect in Greece. Around 95, his fellow citizens elected him a member of the college of priests of the sanctuary of Apollo of Delphi. A statue was erected in his honor in Delphi, from which, during excavations in 1877, a pedestal with a poetic dedication was found.
Plutarch's life dates back to the era of the "Hellenic Renaissance" of the early 2nd century. During this period, the educated circles of the Empire were overwhelmed by the desire to imitate the ancient Hellenes both in the customs of everyday life and in literary creativity. The policy of Emperor Hadrian, who provided assistance to Greek cities that had fallen into decay, could not but arouse among Plutarch's compatriots hope for a possible revival of the traditions of the independent policies of Hellas.
Plutarch's literary activity was primarily educational and educational in nature. His works are addressed to a wide range of readers and have a pronounced moral and ethical orientation associated with the traditions of the genre of teaching - diatribes (cm. DIATRIBE). Plutarch's worldview is harmonious and clear: he believes in a higher mind that governs the universe, and is like a wise teacher who never tires of reminding his listeners of eternal human values.
Small works
The wide range of topics covered in Plutarch's works reflects the encyclopedic nature of his knowledge. He creates “Political Instructions”, essays on practical morality (“On envy and hatred”, “How to distinguish a flatterer from a friend”, “On love for children”, etc.), he is interested in the influence of literature on a person (“How can young men get acquainted with poetry") and questions of cosmogony ("On the generation of the world soul according to Timaeus").
Plutarch's works are permeated with the spirit of Platonic philosophy; his works are full of quotes and reminiscences from the works of the great philosopher, and the treatise “Plato's Questions” is a real commentary on his texts. Plutarch is concerned with problems of religious and philosophical content, which are the subject of the so-called. Pythian dialogues (“On the sign “E” at Delphi”, “On the decline of the oracles”), the essay “On the daimony of Socrates” and the treatise “On Isis and Osiris”.
A group of dialogues, presented in the traditional form of conversations between table mates at a feast, is a collection of entertaining information from mythology, deep philosophical remarks and sometimes curious natural science concepts. The titles of the dialogues can give an idea of ​​the variety of questions that interest Plutarch: “Why do we not believe autumn dreams”, “Which hand of Aphrodite was wounded by Diomedes”, “Various legends about the number of the Muses”, “What is the meaning of Plato’s belief that God always remains a geometer” . The “Greek Questions” and “Roman Questions” belong to the same circle of works by Plutarch, containing different points of view on the origin of state institutions, traditions and customs of antiquity.
Comparative biographies
Plutarch's main work, which became one of the most famous works of ancient literature, was his biographical works. “Comparative biographies” have absorbed enormous historical material, including information from works of ancient historians that have not survived to this day, the author’s personal impressions of ancient monuments, quotes from Homer, epigrams and epitaphs. It is customary to reproach Plutarch for his uncritical attitude towards the sources he uses, but it must be taken into account that the main thing for him was not the historical event itself, but the trace it left in history.
This can be confirmed by the treatise “On the Malice of Herodotus”, in which Plutarch reproaches Herodotus for partiality and distortion of the history of the Greco-Persian Wars (cm. GREECO-PERSIAN WARS). Plutarch, who lived 400 years later, in an era when, as he put it, a Roman boot was raised over the head of every Greek, wanted to see great commanders and politicians not as they really were, but as the ideal embodiment of valor and courage. He did not seek to recreate history in all its real completeness, but found in it outstanding examples of wisdom, heroism, and self-sacrifice in the name of the homeland, designed to capture the imagination of his contemporaries.
In the introduction to the biography of Alexander the Great, Plutarch formulates the principle that he used as the basis for the selection of facts: “We write not history, but biographies, and virtue or depravity is not always visible in the most glorious deeds, but often some insignificant act, word or joke better reveal the character of a person than battles in which tens of thousands die, the leadership of huge armies and sieges of cities.” Plutarch's artistic mastery made Comparative Lives a favorite reading for youth, who learned from his writings about the events of the history of Greece and Rome. Plutarch's heroes became personifications of historical eras: ancient times were associated with the activities of the wise legislators of Solon (cm. SOLON), Lycurgus (cm. LYCURG) and Numa (cm. NUMA POMPILIUS), and the end of the Roman Republic seemed a magnificent drama driven by the clashes of characters of Caesar (cm. CAESAR Gaius Julius), Pompeii (cm. POMPEI Gnaeus), Crassa (cm. KRASS), Antony, Brutus (cm. BRUTUS Decimus Junius Albinus).
Without exaggeration, we can say that thanks to Plutarch, European culture developed an idea of ​​ancient history as a semi-legendary era of freedom and civic valor. That is why his works were highly valued by thinkers of the Enlightenment, figures of the Great French Revolution and the generation of Decembrists. The very name of the Greek writer became a household word, since numerous editions of biographies of great people were called “Plutarchs” in the 19th century.

encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .

See what “Plutarch” is in other dictionaries:

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- (c. 46 c. 127) philosopher, writer and historian, from Chaeronea (Boeotia) The highest wisdom when philosophizing is not to seem philosophizing and to achieve a serious goal with a joke. Conversation should be as common property of the feasters as wine. The boss... ... Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms

Plutarch- Plutarch. PLUTARCH (about 45 about 127), Greek writer. The main work “Comparative biographies” of outstanding Greeks and Romans (50 biographies). The rest of the numerous works that have come down to us are united under the code name “Moralia”... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

And husband. Star. ed. Report: Plutarkhovich, Plutarkhovna. Derivatives: Tarya; Arya.Origin: (Greek personal name Plutarchos. From plutos wealth and arche power.) Dictionary of personal names. Plutarch a, m. Star. rare Report: Plutarkhovich, Plutarkhovna. Derivatives... Dictionary of personal names

Plutarch, Plutarchos, from Chaeronea, before 50 after 120. n. e., Greek philosopher and biographer. He came from a wealthy family living in a small town in Boeotia. In Athens he studied mathematics, rhetoric and philosophy, the latter mainly from... ... Ancient writers

PLUTARCH Dictionary-reference book on Ancient Greece and Rome, on mythology

PLUTARCH- (c. 46 – c. 126) Greek essayist and biographer, born in Chaeronea (Boeotia), studied in Athens, was a priest of Pythian Apollo at Delphi, traveled to Egypt, Italy, lived in Rome. Most of Plutarch’s works devoted to scientific,... ... List of Ancient Greek names

- (c. 45 c. 127) ancient Greek writer and historian. The main work: Comparative biographies of outstanding Greeks and Romans (50 biographies). The rest of the numerous works that have come down to us are united under the code name Moralia... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (Plutarchus, Πλούταρχος). Greek writer who lived in Boeotia in the 1st century AD, traveled a lot and spent some time in Rome. He died about 120 AD. Of his works of historical and philosophical content, the most remarkable are... ... Encyclopedia of Mythology

Culture of the Greek polis

The Achaeans and other Greek tribes settled in valleys among the mountains, which became a natural defense and border of settlements. From their tops there was a wide view of the entire surrounding territory, as well as the sea, from where a pirate attack could always be expected. Therefore, it was not an integral state that was taking shape, but separate policies, which included an administrative center with a fortification (acropolis) and surrounding peasant settlements. The policy is easier to protect, it is easier to manage, but at the same time the policies were disunited, they constantly competed and were at enmity with each other. All this formed the basis for the development of a special mentality of the polis man with his passion for competition and belligerence. Therefore, when speaking about the culture of Greece, one always has to clarify which people of the polis we are talking about: the Boeotians, Lydians, Spartans or Athenians.

Even during the archaic period, a special polis form of government and way of life were formed. For a long time they were in power aristocrats (Greek aristos“best”+ kratos“power”), who received influence, property, and then land since the collapse of the communal system. But gradually the reins of power passed to to tyrants (Etruscan. tiran“Mister”, “Madam”) - to rulers chosen from among the people who exercised their power individually. There were, of course, such policies where power belonged to a group of rich or most significant people - oligarchs (Greek oligos“few” + arche"power"). The monarchy of Sparta had a peculiar character. There were two kings, whose power was limited to a supervisory body - ephorate(Greek ephoroi"observer").

But still, gradually, step by step, in many cities, and above all in Athens, the greatest invention of Greek antiquity arose - democracy (VI century BC).

The translation of this word is known - “power of the people.” However, with all the achievements of statehood, power could never belong to the entire people - this was possible only in a primitive society based on consanguineous ties. In Greece, as in any state, consanguinity did not affect the relationships of the people inhabiting the polis. There was also no question of equality. Power belonged only to the “citizens” of the policy, and among them two categories of people initially stood out: “there were nobles, descendants of the first settlers of the country, members of clans... These nobles, who were also rich at the same time, cultivated the land for the most part themselves with members of their “house” ". Besides them, there were other free citizens of the city, small land owners, artisans who “were always on the verge of slavery, being the owners only of their own hands” [ibid., p. 142].

While Greece did not know money, people lived in conditions of subsistence farming and exchange, although attempts were already made to streamline this exchange. The measure of value was oxen. Homer speaks about this in the Iliad: Zeus sent temporary madness to one of the heroes, Glaucus, and

He gave the hero Diomedes his armor of gold and copper,

The worth of a hundred taurus was exchanged for the worth of nine.

Copper and iron bars used for payment are also mentioned there:

The rest of the wine is the bushy-haired children of the Achaeans

Everyone bought, some paid with iron, some with bright copper,

Some with bull skins, some with the bulls themselves

Or slaves - people...

Iron and copper were sometimes rod-shaped and were first called skewers, Later - obolom, and a handful of obols - drachma. But this is not money in its direct form: real money must have a state seal on it, guaranteeing its weight and purity.

Money first appeared in the Asia Minor part of Greece, in Lydia (7th century BC). They were made from a metal called electron. It was gold mixed with silver: the gold mined near the Pactolus River contained from 25 to 95% silver admixture.

Money changed the relationships between people in society: a trading class arose, moneylenders appeared who made profit from the money itself, and with this the opportunity to accumulate wealth that was not subject to spoilage, like other products of labor. Then debt slavery appears, and then civil wars begin, the way out of the bloody drama of which was the emergence of democracy, which reached its heyday in Athens already in the classical period.

At the origins of democracy in Athens was Solon, who can be considered the founder of political culture, since his reforms were aimed at creating a society of humanism and justice in Athens. Of course, this was the humanism of antiquity, which in many ways does not coincide with modern ideas, but the step forward that Solon took is not comparable to the most enlightened and wise utopias of the East. Greek historian Plutarch(c. 45-c. 127) wrote: “...When he (Solon) was asked whether he gave the best laws to the Athenians, he replied: “Yes, the best that they could accept.” Solon himself said about himself: “I combined coercion with the law!” . According to the same Plutarch, “where things were quite good, he did not apply healing and did not introduce anything new for fear that “if everything in the state was turned upside down, then he would not have enough strength to put everything in place and put it in order.” in the best possible way” [ibid.].

Solon began reforms in 594 BC. e. with the abolition of debt slavery, prohibiting lending against people's security. This law became the basis of future law throughout Attica, the center of which was Athens. In addition, he introduced a law allowing the division of property after the death of the father of the family (this marked the beginning of the fragmentation of large property and an attempt to equalize people in society). Under Solon, the power of the “noble” aristocrats ended: those who were at the lowest level among the free began to be allowed to participate in government. The main place in the policy was still occupied by rich people, but they also had the most difficult responsibilities. Plutarch mentions this in detail: “Solon introduced the valuation of citizens’ property. Those who produced a total of five hundred measures of products, both dry and liquid, he placed first and called them “pentacosiomedimni” (i.e., five-hundreds.- A. B.); he placed second those who could maintain a horse and produce three hundred measures; these were called “belonging to the horsemen” (or hippeas.- A. B.);“Zevgites” were people of the third qualification who had two hundred measures of both products together. All the rest were called “fetas”; he did not allow them to perform any position; They participated in government only in that they could be present in the people's assembly and be “judges.” This is how one or another was determined qualification: those who received 500 medimnus of grain (1 medimni = 52.5 liters) or the same number of metrets (1 metret = 39 liters) of olive oil belonged to the first class, the zeugites had to have a team of two oxen and heavy weapons, the fetae were artisans . Only the first three categories could occupy high positions in the state (five hundred men, horsemen, zeugites), fetas also participated in the people's assembly and court.

The heart of Greek culture, the focus of its best achievements, the “Hellenic Hellas” was Athens during the heyday of democracy.

The basis of polis democracy was landowners with voting rights. After the civil wars and Solon's reforms, an increasing number of free people gained this right, but still few participated in government: only 28% of the adult male population could vote, and only those who owned land and had reached the age of 20. Immigrants from other regions - tags, those engaged in crafts and trade were deprived of political rights: they were considered free, lived permanently in Athens, but had no citizenship. The chosen one could be a man who had reached the age of 30 and met all the above requirements. Slaves were not perceived as people at all; they were considered talking tools even by such prominent scientists as Aristotle.

Women also had no rights, since they did not own land. They did not participate in the affairs of their husbands, almost did not appear at feasts and celebrations, had to walk along the street with their faces covered and spent their lives on genetics(the female half of the house), doing housework and raising children.

The main governing body in the policy was the general meeting. “General meetings were convened up to 40 times a year; they aroused the keenest interest of the Athenians and sometimes took place very violently.” The rest of the time, leadership was exercised first, during the time of Solon, by the Council of Four Hundred, then by the Council of Five Hundred. To manage the most responsible aspects of Athenian life, for example, finances, religious rites, command of troops, they were separately elected archons(Greek: “regent”). They had to pass a special exam that gave them the right to this position. The remaining members of the Council were elected by lot, and to avoid the temptation to abuse power, “the law prohibited the repeated election of one person to the same position.”

Becoming a member of the Council was considered an honorable matter, pleasing to the gods. Persons elected to it wore myrtle wreaths, had special places at all festivals and meetings, and were exempt from military service for the period of their election. It was a shame to be the one who did not live up to expectations and disgraced himself. For some offenses, the perpetrators were subjected to ostracism (Greek ostrakon“shard”) - condemnation to ten years of exile. The decision on this was made as follows: everyone who had the right to vote wrote on a clay shard the name of a person who, in his opinion, was dangerous for the people, and the one whose name was found more often was expelled.

The peculiarities of the social organization of Greek society influenced customs, traditions, moral standards, and even art. Some European theorists (C. Lévi-Strauss, for example) believe that human behavior can be determined by its basic motivation - this could be a “culture of shame” or “culture of guilt.” The “culture of guilt,” more typical of Christianity, is addressed to the “voice of conscience,” that is, to internal judgment of oneself, while the “culture of shame” is focused on assessing a person’s behavior from the outside, by members of a particular social group. In this case, “the main motives of behavior... are imitation of the best (those who are considered the best) and competition. ...The feeling of inner sinfulness was alien to the Greeks. But they were highly characterized by a sense of shame before their fellow citizens. ...Fear of shame, fear of appearing stupid or funny were among the most important motives that determined the behavior of the ancient Greek in society. The other side of this was the desire for primacy, to become the best among many.”

This also explains the sports traditions of the Greeks, many of which had a cult character. The Olympic Games dedicated to Zeus first took place in 776 BC. e. From that time on, every four years, military conflicts ceased and those who could, for the glory of Zeus and their polis, demonstrate strength, dexterity and talent, and affirm the physical virtues of man, gathered from all over Hellas. arete - and gain their public recognition. Participants and spectators could only be free Greeks, full citizens, untainted by the shedding of anyone’s blood. The Olympic Games included athletic and equestrian competitions, herald and trumpet competitions. After the adult men, boys competed. Scientists and artists also performed, and although they were not awarded victories, they had an excellent opportunity to introduce thousands of people to their creations, and their fame became the property of all of Hellas. Victory at the Olympic Games was considered a victory for the polis, not for an individual. The winner became a hero, he was crowned with a laurel wreath or a wreath of olive branches, honored as a person protected by Zeus, and on special occasions a monument was built for him in his homeland. For the Greeks, this was a great honor and served as confirmation of their importance to society. Even famous philosophers such as Socrates and Plato participated and won various competitions at the Olympic Games.

The spirit of competition also reigned in the fields of science, rhetoric and politics, and even in general meetings. Any member of the polis who participated in the discussion of public problems could express his opinion and even persuade voters to his side, influence the decision, competing with others in eloquence and oratory skills, which were learned from sophists(Greek sophos"wise"). To do this, the speaker had to have a love “for beautiful words, lengthy and lush speech, replete with various epithets, metaphors, comparisons,” as well as be able to think logically and cogently express thoughts, refuting the arguments of opponents.

The main importance was attached to judicial speeches. The Greek court was as public as all public life. In Greece, there was no institution of prosecutors: any person could act as a prosecutor, and the accused himself was the defense lawyer: “speaking before the judges, he sought not so much to convince them of his innocence as to pity them, to attract their sympathy to his side.” Historian and theorist of Hellenistic rhetoric Dionysius of Halicarnassus(1st century BC) wrote: “When judges and accusers are the same persons, it is necessary to shed copious tears and utter thousands of complaints in order to be listened to with favor” [ibid.].

At the same time, rules for creating and delivering speeches are developed. One of the famous sophist speakers, Gorgias(485-380 BC) advised orators: “Refute the enemy’s serious arguments with a joke, jokes with seriousness.” He developed special speech techniques: repetitions, symmetrically constructed phrases, a special rhythm. Here is an example that not only demonstrates the beauty of the speech of the ancient orator, but also confirms the idea of ​​​​the special mentality of the Athenian citizen - the desire for glory: “Courage serves the city with glory, beauty serves the body, intelligence serves the spirit, truthfulness serves the speech given; everything contrary to this is only disgrace.” Great politician and orator Demosthenes(384-322 BC) made each of his speeches unusually lively, since he used not only logic and rules for constructing speech, but also intonation, facial expressions, and gestures, which made a strong impression on the listeners.

All the peculiarities of relations between people of the Greek polis fostered a special feeling of patriotism, which was never ostentatious - speakers talk about this, every Hellen feels this, poets write about this:

And it is praiseworthy and glorious for a husband to fight for his homeland,

Fight for small children, for a young wife

With an evil enemy. Death will only come when it is our lot

The Moirai will strain her...

Let it be with a raised spear

Everyone strives forward and covers his chest with a shield,

Powerful in spirit, as soon as a hot battle begins!

(Callin, 7th century BC)

A wonderful fate - to fall in the front ranks of the militia,

Defending the motherland from enemies in battle;

To leave your native land, which fed you and bread

Asking from strangers is the worst fate.

(Tyrteus, 7th century BC)

This is how they wrote in the archaic period, and in the era of the heyday of Greek culture, these motifs became the main meaning of the relationship of each Hellene with his polis; He who did not have love, respect and pride for his homeland covered himself with shame. These qualities of the Greeks were not an accidental manifestation of character. Society consciously and in a variety of ways developed and strengthened them in its citizens.

In every culture there is some basis for preserving basic social values ​​and maintaining traditions: religion, rituals, moral standards, education system.

In Athens, almost all free citizens were literate, even women were taught reading, writing and arithmetic in elementary school. Education was three-stage. First, six-year-old children, accompanied by a house slave - teacher(lit. “leading the child”) went to the teacher, and after class they received a small amount of treats from their teacher. They studied three subjects: grammar, which included reading, writing and counting, music - they learned to play the cithara (a type of lyre) - and gymnastics. There were no textbooks, they read mainly the texts of Homer, and learned to write from I'll draw- images of letters cut into plates in the form of a stencil, which were outlined with a sharp stick on the wax coating of the writing board. When the hand got used to making the necessary movements, the stencil was removed.

The youths entered gymnasiums(sports schools) for physical improvement and cultivation of courage, later they introduced other compulsory subjects - “musical” arts (Apollo Musagete and the muses were considered their patron): “they included knowledge of various types of poetry, musical theory, and the ability to play musical instruments ( kithara, lyre, flute) and, finally, dance, usually accompanied by singing (trochea).” The Greeks believed that a person who does not understand music cannot be taken into the ranks of warriors, since he can betray, he cannot be trusted with someone wounded in battle or raising a child, since he does not know how to empathize and sympathize.

Higher education, starting from the 5th century BC. e., could be obtained from the sophists who taught rhetoric, and later philosophy. For the Greeks, the main thing was not the possession of a variety of information about the world, but the harmonious combination of the physical and spiritual principles.

Greek culture was a predominantly male culture. This was not due to the fact that constant wars placed the man and the warrior at the center of attention; not because only men participated in the national assembly, but mainly because from ancient times only men owned property, since the most ancient tribes of the Achaeans had a patriarchal organization of society. Always and everywhere the main character was a man, and all art glorified the image of a citizen, a hero, a warrior.

It is impossible to overestimate the importance of the works written by the ancient sages, their discoveries and other heritage inherited by humanity since those times. Unfortunately, many works have not survived to this day, and this is a serious loss. However, there is no point in regretting something that cannot be changed; you should act based on the current situation. At least, this is what the ancient Greek and Roman sages themselves claimed, including Plutarch of Chaeronea.

Childhood and youth

Little is known about the childhood of the ancient Greek writer and philosopher. He was born in 46 AD. The boy’s parents, although they were wealthy people, did not belong to aristocrats or other privileged classes. However, this fact did not prevent Plutarch and his brother Lamprey from reading books and receiving a good education in Athens.

While studying philosophy, rhetoric and mathematics, Plutarch became friends with the teacher Ammonius, an adherent of the doctrine. This friendship led to the fact that, after completing his studies, Plutarch went to Delphi with his brother and teacher.

The purpose of this trip was personal acquaintance with the cult of Apollo, as well as the activities of the oracles and Pythia. This event seriously influenced the young Plutarch; in subsequent years, he recalled this more than once (including in his works).

Returning back to his hometown of Chaeronea, Plutarch entered public service, becoming an eponymous archon. The young archon's first task was to report to the proconsul of the province of Achaia about the demands of the city's inhabitants. Having successfully completed the assignment, Plutarch continued to work as a public figure.

Philosophy and literature

Plutarch always considered himself a follower of the teachings of Plato. However, it would be more correct to classify him as an eclectic - adherents of a movement that was fully formed after the death of Plutarch by the Alexandrian philosopher Potamon.

The formation of Plutarch's views was influenced by many factors, among which the Platonist Ammonius played a major role. However, it is worth noting that even during his studies, the future philosopher managed to make acquaintances with the Peripatetics (disciples) and the Stoics. And if the followers of Aristotle seemed to him more or less convincing, then Plutarch later seriously criticized the Stoics, like the Epicureans.

Also, during one of his travels around the world, Plutarch managed to meet the Roman Neo-Pythagoreans. The philosopher's literary heritage is truly extensive. According to the catalog compiled by the philosopher's brother Lamprius, Plutarch wrote about 210 works, the bulk of which have survived to this day. From this mass, researchers single out the “Comparative Lives” and the “Moralia” cycle, consisting of 78 works (plus 5 more with disputed authorship).

“Comparative Lives” are 22 paired biographies of the ancient Greeks and Romans, including the Spartan king Leonidas, as well as orators and. The pairs were selected based on similarity of characters and activities.

When describing life, the philosopher freely operated with facts, claiming that he was writing a biography, not history. The main task of this essay was to get acquainted with the great figures of the past and was purely educational in nature. By the way, in the original there were more pairs for comparison, but some were not preserved.

The Moralia cycle also had an educational function, since the bulk of the works included in it were written when Plutarch was a lecturer and mentor. The most striking examples include the following works: “On Excessive Timidity”, “On Talkativeness”, “On How to Use Lectures”, “On Wisdom”, “On Raising Children”.

There were also works of a political nature - “Instructions on State Affairs” and “On Monarchy, Democracy and Oligarchy.” Plutarch wrote them after receiving citizenship and a government position in Rome (this happened thanks to his acquaintance with Quintus Sosius Senecion). When the persecution of scientists and philosophers by the emperor Titus Flavius ​​Domitian began, he returned back to Chaeronea, risking being executed for his statements.

Plutarch visited all major cities of Greece (including Corinth), visited Sardis, Alexandria and a number of other cities. Based on his travels around the world, the philosopher wrote such works as “On Isis and Osiris,” in which he outlined his point of view on understanding ancient Egyptian mythology, and the two-volume book “Greek Questions” and “Roman Questions.”

These works examined the history of two influential states, two biographies of Alexander the Great (in addition to the one included in the “Comparative Lives”) - “On the Glory of Alexander” and “On the Fortune and Valor of Alexander the Great,” as well as a number of other works.

Plutarch outlined his philosophical views in the interpretation of the works of Plato (“Plato’s Questions”), in critical works (“On the contradictions of the Stoics”, “On the fact that even a pleasant life is impossible if you follow Epicurus”), in the collection “Table Talks”, consisting of 9 books, as well as in Pythian dialogues (“That the Pythians no longer prophesy in verse”, “On the decline of the oracles”, “Let the deity delay in retribution”).

Personal life

Plutarch loved his family, which he repeatedly mentioned in his works. He had 4 sons and a daughter, but the daughter and one of the sons died in infancy. In order to somehow reassure his wife Timoxena, the philosopher wrote the essay “Consolation to his wife,” which has survived to this day.

When his sons grew up, Plutarch decided to educate them himself. Later, his students included the children of other townspeople. This gave the philosopher the idea of ​​teaching people all over the country, which is what he did.

Death

The exact date of the philosopher's death is unknown, however, presumably, it happened between 125 and 127. Plutarch died of natural causes - from old age. This happened in his hometown of Chaeronea, but Plutarch was buried in Delphi - according to his will.

A monument was erected at the philosopher’s burial site, which archaeologists discovered in 1877 during excavations. Plutarch left behind a good memory - numerous biographies of great people are named after the philosopher, as well as a crater on the visible side of the Moon.

Bibliography

• "Comparative Lives"
• "Morals"
• "Table Talk"
• "Greek Questions"
• "Roman Questions"
• "On monarchy, democracy and oligarchy"
• "On Contradiction among the Stoics"
• "On Isis and Osiris"
• “That the Pythia no longer prophesies in verse”
• "On the Fortune and Valor of Alexander the Great"
• "Plato's Questions"

Quotes

• “Traitors betray, first of all, themselves.”
• “A chatterbox wants to force himself to be loved - and causes hatred, wants to provide a service - and becomes intrusive, wants to cause surprise - and becomes funny; he insults his friends, serves his enemies, and all this to his own destruction.”
• “Whoever expects to ensure his health by being lazy acts as stupidly as a person who thinks to improve his voice by silence.”
• “We often ask a question, not needing an answer, but trying to hear the voice and ingratiate ourselves with the other person, wanting to draw him into the conversation. Getting ahead of others with answers, trying to capture someone else’s ears and occupy other people’s thoughts is the same as going to kiss a person who is thirsty for another’s kiss, or trying to attract someone’s gaze fixed on another to oneself.”
• “Sometimes it is not without benefit to shut the offender’s mouth with a witty rebuke; such a rebuke should be brief and show neither irritation nor rage, but let her know how to bite a little with a calm smile, returning the blow; just as arrows fly from a solid object back to the one who sent them, so an insult seems to fly back from an intelligent and self-controlled speaker and hit the insulter.”

PLUTARCH(c. 46 - c. 120), ancient Greek writer and historian. The main work is “Comparative Lives” of outstanding Greeks and Romans (50 biographies). The rest of the numerous works that have come down to us are united under the code name “Moralia”.

PLUTARCH(c. 46 - c. 120), ancient Greek writer, author of moral, philosophical and historical-biographical works. From Plutarch's vast literary heritage, which amounted to ca. 250 works, no more than a third of the works have survived, most of which are united under the general title “Morals”. Another group - "Comparative Lives" - includes 23 pairs of biographies of outstanding statesmen of Ancient Greece and Rome, selected according to the similarity of their historical mission and the similarity of characters.

Biography

The ancient tradition has not preserved the biography of Plutarch, but it can be reconstructed with sufficient completeness from his own writings. Plutarch was born in the 40s of the 1st century in Boeotia, in the small town of Chaeronea, where in 338 BC. e. A battle took place between the troops of Philip of Macedon and the Greek troops. In the time of Plutarch, his homeland was part of the Roman province of Achaia, and only carefully preserved ancient traditions could testify to its former greatness. Plutarch came from an old, wealthy family and received a traditional grammatical and rhetorical education, which he continued in Athens, becoming a student at the school of the philosopher Ammonius. Returning to his hometown, from his youth he took part in its administration, holding various magistrates, including the prominent position of archon-eponym. Plutarch repeatedly went on political errands to Rome, where he established friendly relations with many statesmen, among whom was a friend of Emperor Trajan, consul Quintus Sosius Senekion; Plutarch dedicated “Comparative Lives” and “Table Talks” to him. Proximity to influential circles of the empire and growing literary fame brought Plutarch new honorary positions: under Trajan (98-117) he became proconsul, under Hadrian (117-138) - procurator of the province of Achaia. A surviving inscription from the era of Hadrian indicates that the emperor granted Plutarch Roman citizenship, classifying him as a member of the Mestrian family.

Despite his brilliant political career, Plutarch chose a quiet life in his hometown, surrounded by his children and students, who formed a small academy in Chaeronea. “As for me,” Plutarch points out, “I live in a small city and, so that it does not become even smaller, I willingly remain in it.”

Plutarch's public activities earned him great respect in Greece. Around 95, his fellow citizens elected him a member of the college of priests of the sanctuary of Apollo of Delphi. A statue was erected in his honor in Delphi, from which, during excavations in 1877, a pedestal with a poetic dedication was found.

Plutarch's life dates back to the era of the "Hellenic Renaissance" of the early 2nd century. During this period, the educated circles of the Empire were overwhelmed by the desire to imitate the ancient Hellenes both in the customs of everyday life and in literary creativity. The policy of Emperor Hadrian, who provided assistance to Greek cities that had fallen into decay, could not but arouse among Plutarch's compatriots hope for a possible revival of the traditions of the independent policies of Hellas.

Plutarch's literary activity was primarily educational and educational in nature. His works are addressed to a wide range of readers and have a pronounced moral and ethical orientation associated with the traditions of the teaching genre - diatribes. Plutarch's worldview is harmonious and clear: he believes in a higher mind that governs the universe, and is like a wise teacher who never tires of reminding his listeners of eternal human values.

Small works

The wide range of topics covered in Plutarch's works reflects the encyclopedic nature of his knowledge. He creates “Political Instructions”, essays on practical morality (“On envy and hatred”, “How to distinguish a flatterer from a friend”, “On love for children”, etc.), he is interested in the influence of literature on a person (“How young men get acquainted with poetry") and questions of cosmogony ("On the generation of the world soul according to Timaeus").

Plutarch's works are permeated with the spirit of Platonic philosophy; his works are full of quotations and reminiscences from the works of the great philosopher, and the treatise “Plato's Questions” is a real commentary on his texts. Plutarch is concerned with problems of religious and philosophical content, which are the subject of the so-called. Pythian dialogues (“On the sign “E” at Delphi”, “On the decline of oracles”), the essay “On the daimony of Socrates” and the treatise “On Isis and Osiris”.

A group of dialogues, presented in the traditional form of conversations between table mates at a feast, is a collection of entertaining information from mythology, deep philosophical remarks and sometimes curious natural science concepts. The titles of the dialogues can give an idea of ​​the variety of questions that interest Plutarch: “Why do we not believe in autumn dreams”, “Which hand of Aphrodite was wounded by Diomedes”, “Various legends about the number of the Muses”, “What is the meaning of Plato’s belief that God always remains a geometer” etc.

The “Greek Questions” and “Roman Questions” belong to the same circle of works by Plutarch, containing different points of view on the origin of state institutions, traditions and customs of antiquity.

"Comparative Lives"

Plutarch's main work, which became one of the most famous works of ancient literature, was his biographical works.

“Comparative biographies” have absorbed enormous historical material, including information from works of ancient historians that have not survived to this day, the author’s personal impressions of ancient monuments, quotes from Homer, epigrams and epitaphs. It is customary to reproach Plutarch for his uncritical attitude towards the sources he uses, but it must be taken into account that the main thing for him was not the historical event itself, but the trace it left in history.

This can be confirmed by the treatise “On the Malice of Herodotus,” in which Plutarch reproaches Herodotus for partiality and distortion of the history of the Greco-Persian Wars. Plutarch, who lived 400 years later, in an era when, as he put it, a Roman boot was raised over the head of every Greek, wanted to see great commanders and politicians not as they really were, but as the ideal embodiment of valor and courage. He did not seek to recreate history in all its real completeness, but found in it outstanding examples of wisdom, heroism, and self-sacrifice in the name of the homeland, designed to capture the imagination of his contemporaries.

In the introduction to the biography of Alexander the Great, Plutarch formulates the principle that he used as the basis for the selection of facts: “We write not history, but biographies, and virtue or depravity is not always visible in the most glorious deeds, but often some insignificant act, word or joke better reveal the character of a person than battles in which tens of thousands die, the leadership of huge armies and sieges of cities."

Plutarch's artistic mastery made Comparative Lives a favorite reading for youth, who learned from his writings about the events of the history of Greece and Rome. Plutarch's heroes became the personification of historical eras: ancient times were associated with the activities of the wise legislators Solon, Lycurgus and Numa, and the end of the Roman Republic seemed to be a majestic drama, driven by the clashes of the characters of Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Antony, Brutus.

Without exaggeration, we can say that thanks to Plutarch, European culture developed an idea of ​​ancient history as a semi-legendary era of freedom and civic valor. That is why his works were highly valued by thinkers of the Enlightenment, figures of the Great French Revolution and the generation of Decembrists.

The very name of the Greek writer became a household word, since numerous editions of biographies of great people were called “Plutarchs” in the 19th century.

Definition

Biography

Essays

Comparative biographies

Other works

Literature

Plutarch in Russian translations

Quotes and aphorisms

Definition

Plutarch of Chaeronea (ancient Greek: Πλούταρχος) (c. 45 - c. 127) - ancient Greek philosopher, biographer, moralist.

Plutarch This(c. 46 - c. 120) - ancient Greek writer, author of moral, philosophical and historical-biographical works. From the vast literary heritage Plutarch, which amounted to about 250 works, no more than a third of the works have survived, most of which are united under the general title “Morals”. Another group - “Comparative Lives” - includes 23 pairs of biographies of prominent political figures of Ancient Greece and Rome, selected according to the similarity of their historical mission and the similarity of characters.

Biography

He came from a wealthy family living in a small town in Boeotia.

In Athens he studied mathematics, rhetoric and philosophy, the latter mainly from the Platonist Ammonius, but Peripates and Stoa also had a significant influence on him. In his philosophical views he was an eclectic; in philosophy he was interested in its practical application.

In his youth he traveled a lot. He visited Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, was in Rome, where he met with the Neopythagoreans, and also struck up friendships with many prominent people, including Lucius Mestrius Florus, a close associate of Emperor Vespasian, who helped Plutarch receive the Roman title.

However, Plutarch soon returned to Chaeronea. He served his city faithfully in public office. He gathered young people in his house, and, teaching his own sons, created a kind of “private academy”, in which he played the role of mentor and lecturer.

In the fiftieth year of his life, he became a priest of Apollo in Delphi, trying to return the sanctuary and the oracle to their former meaning.

Plutarch was not an original writer. Basically, he collected and processed what other, more original writers and thinkers had written before him. But in Plutarch’s treatment, an entire tradition, marked by the sign of his personality, acquired a new appearance, and it was in this form that it defined European thought and literature for many centuries. The richness of Plutarch's interests (they mainly revolved around family life, the life of the Greek city-states, religious problems and issues of friendship) corresponded to a significant number of his writings, of which less than half have survived. It is extremely difficult to establish their chronology. Thematically, we can divide them into 2 groups: the first, very heterogeneous, covers works created in different periods, mainly philosophical and didactic, uniting them under the general name Ethics (Moralia); the second consists of biographies. (All titles are usually quoted in Latin.) In the Ethics we find approximately 80 works. The earliest of them are those that are rhetorical in nature, such as praises of Athens, discussions of Fortuna (Greek Tychus) and her role in the life of Alexander the Great or in the history of Rome.

A large group also consists of popular philosophical treatises; Of these, perhaps the most characteristic of Plutarch is the short essay On the State of Spirit. For educational purposes, other essays were conceived containing advice on what to do in order to be happy and overcome shortcomings (for example, On excessive curiosity, On talkativeness. On excessive timidity). For the same reasons, Plutarch dealt with issues of love and marriage.

All these works reflect Plutarch’s pedagogical interests; it is not surprising that he also raised similar questions in his works How a Young Man Should Listen to Poets. How to use lectures, etc. Thematically close to them are the political writings of Plutarch, especially those that contain recommendations for rulers and politicians. Essays on topics of family life also include a consolidation (that is, a consoling essay after a bereavement), addressed to Plutarch’s wife Timoxena, who lost her only daughter.

Along with the most popular works in a dialogical form, the Ethics also included others - similar in nature to a scientific report, in which Plutarch, without going deeply into theoretical reasoning, nevertheless provides a lot of valuable information on the history of philosophy. These should include works on the teachings of Plato, such as Plato's Questions. or On the Creation of the Soul in the Timaeus, as well as polemical works directed against the Epicureans and Stoics.

Plutarch also wrote about the human soul, was interested in psychology, perhaps even in the psychology of animals, if writings about the intelligence and intelligence of animals really came from his pen.

Plutarch devoted numerous works to issues of religion, among them the so-called “Pythian” dialogues concerning the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. The most interesting in this group is the work On Isis and Osiris, in which Plutarch, himself initiated into the mysteries of Dionysus, outlined a wide variety of syncretic and allegorical interpretations of the mysteries of Osiris. Plutarch’s interest in antiquities is evidenced by two works: Greek Questions (Aitia Hellenika; Latin Quaestiones Graecae) ​​and Roman Questions (Aitia Romaika; Latin Quaestiones Romanae), which reveal the meaning and origin of various customs of the Greco-Roman world (a lot of space is devoted to questions cult).

Plutarch's essay On the Face on the Lunar Disc presents various theories regarding this celestial body; at the end, Plutarch turns to the theory adopted in Plato's Academy (Xenocrates), seeing in the Moon the homeland of demons. Plutarch's predilections, so clearly manifested in his biographies, were also reflected in the collection of Lacedaemonian proverbs (another collection of famous sayings of Apothegmata is probably, for the most part, not genuine). A variety of topics are revealed in the form of dialogue in such works as the Feast of the Seven Wise Men or Conversations at the Feast (in 9 books).

Plutarch's Ethics also includes inauthentic works by unknown authors. The most important of them include: On Music, which represents one of the main sources of our knowledge about ancient music (Aristoxenus, Heraclides of Pontus), and On the Education of Children, an extremely famous work and translated during the Renaissance into many languages. However, Plutarch owes his fame not to Ethics, but to biographies.

In the introduction to the biography of Aemilius Paulus, Plutarch himself outlines the goals he pursues: communication with the great people of antiquity carries educational functions, and if not all biographies are attractive, then a negative example can also have an intimidating effect and lead one to the path of a righteous life.

In his biographies, Plutarch follows the teachings of the Peripatetics, who in the field of ethics attributed decisive importance to human actions, arguing that every action gives rise to virtue. Plutarch arranges them according to the scheme of peripatetic biographies, describing in turn the birth, youth, character, activity, death of the hero and its circumstances. Wanting to describe the deeds of his heroes, Plutarch used the historical material available to him, which he handled quite freely, since he believed that he was writing a biography, not history. He was primarily interested in the portrait of a person, and in order to visually represent him, Plutarch willingly used anecdotes.

This is how colorful, emotional stories were born, the success of which was ensured by the author’s talent of the storyteller, his craving for everything human and moral optimism that elevates the soul. However, Plutarch's biographies also have great historical value, for he repeatedly turned to sources inaccessible to us today. Plutarch began writing biographies in his youth. At first he turned his attention to the famous people of Boeotia: Hesiod, Pindar, Epaminondas - later he began to write about representatives of other regions Greece: about Leonidas, Aristomenes, Aratus of Sicyon and even about the Persian king Artaxerxes II.

While in Rome, Plutarch created biographies of Roman emperors intended for the Greeks. And only late period he wrote his most important work, Comparative Lives (Bioi paralleloi; lat. Vitae parallelae). These were biographies of prominent historical figures Greece and Rome, compared in pairs. Some of these pairs are successfully composed, such as the mythical founders of Athens and Rome - Theseus and Romulus, the first legislators - Lycurgus and Numa Pompilius, the greatest leaders - Alexander and Caesar. Others are compared more arbitrarily: the “children of happiness” - Timoleon and Aemilius Paulus, or a couple illustrating the vicissitudes of human destinies - Alcibiades and Coriolanus. After the biographies, Plutarch gave a general description, a comparison of two images (syncrisis). Only a few pairs lack this comparison, notably Alexander and Caesar. There were 23 pairs in total, presented in chronological order. 22 pairs have survived (the biographies of Epaminondas and Scipio have been lost) and four single biographies of an earlier one period: Aratus of Sicyon, Artaxerxes II, Galba and Otho. Plutarch devoted his entire life to social and political activities, and above all to pedagogy. He tried his best to show the cultural role of Greece. Until the end of antiquity and in Byzantium, Plutarch enjoyed great fame as the greatest educator and philosopher. During the Renaissance (XV century), the found works of Plutarch, translated into Latin, again became the basis of European pedagogy. The treatise on the upbringing of children was most often read until the beginning of the 19th century. considered authentic.

The biography of Plutarch is very meager and can be studied mainly on the basis of the writings of Plutarch himself, in which he often shares with the reader memories from his life.

First of all, the exact years of his life are completely unknown, and an idea of ​​them can only be obtained from indirect data. According to these indirect data we can say with complete confidence that Plutarch was born in the late 40s of the 1st century AD and died between 125-130, that is, he lived about 75 years. His father was undoubtedly a wealthy man, but he was not an aristocrat. This gave Plutarch the opportunity to start school early and become a highly educated person at a young age. Plutarch's hometown is Chaeronen, in the Greek region of Boeotia.

All representatives of his family are necessarily educated and cultured, necessarily high in spirit and distinguished by impeccable behavior. Plutarch often speaks about his wife Timoxene in his writings, and always speaks in the highest tone. She was not only a loving wife, but she was disgusted by various women's weaknesses, such as dresses. She was loved for the simplicity of her character, for the naturalness of her behavior, for her moderation and attentiveness.

Plutarch had four sons and one daughter, who, like one of his sons, died in infancy. Plutarch loved his family so much that he even dedicated his writings to its members, and on the occasion of his daughter’s death, a tender and sublime consoling message to his own wife.

Many of Plutarch's travels are known. He visited Alexandria, the center of education at that time, received education in Athens, visited Sparta, Plataea, Corinth near Thermopia, Rome and other historical places in Italy, as well as Sardis (Asia Minor).

Available intelligence about the philosophical and moral school he founded in Chaeronea.

Even if we exclude the forged and dubious works of Plutarch, the list of completely reliable and, moreover, works that have reached us is, in comparison with other writers, huge. Firstly, works of a historical and philosophical nature have reached us: 2 works about Plato, 6 against the Stoics and Epicureans. In addition, there are works devoted to problems of cosmology and astronomy, psychology, ethics, politics, family life, pedagogy, and ancient history.

Plutarch wrote several treatises of religious and religious-mythical content. It is especially necessary to highlight his works of moralistic content, where he analyzes, for example, human passions such as love of money, anger, and curiosity. Very complex topics include table and feast conversations, which, one might say, constitute a special literary genre, as well as collections of sayings. All these works represent one general section, usually bearing the obscure title Moralia. In this section, moral works, however, are presented very widely, and Plutarch does not write almost a single treatise without this morality.

A special section of Plutarch’s works, and also a huge one, also very popular in all centuries, and perhaps even more popular than Moralia, is the “Comparative Lives”. Here you can find strictly historical data, moralism, a passion for the art of portraiture, philosophy, and fiction.

The ancient worldview and ancient artistic practice are based on the intuition of a living, animate and intelligent cosmos, always visible and audible, always sensually perceived, a completely material cosmos with a motionless earth in the middle and with the sky as an area of ​​eternal and correct movement of the firmament. All this, of course, is predetermined by the very nature of the socio-historical development of the ancient world. While subsequent cultures first proceeded from the individual, absolute or relative, as well as from society, and only then came to nature and the cosmos, ancient thought, on the contrary, proceeded from the visual reality of the sensory-material cosmos and only then drew conclusions from this for the theory of personality and society. This forever determined the emphatically material, that is, architectural and sculptural imagery of ancient artistic structures, which we certainly find in Plutarch. So, sensory-material cosmology is the starting point of Plutarch’s worldview and creativity.

Since ancient literature existed for more than a millennium, it went through many different periods of development. The cosmology of the classical period, namely the high classics, is the doctrine of the universe in Plato's Timaeus. Here is a clear and distinct picture of the living and material-sensory cosmos with all the details of the material sphere of the cosmos. Therefore, Plutarch is primarily a Platonist.

Plutarch found in classical Platonism, first of all, the doctrine of divinity, but not in the form of a naive doctrine, but in the form of a thoughtful demand for being, and, moreover, a single being, which is the limit and possibility for all partial being and for all multiplicity. Plutarch is deeply convinced that if there is a partial, changeable and incomplete being, then this means that there is a single and whole being, unchanging and all-perfect. “After all, the divine is not plurality, like each of us, representing a diverse aggregate of a thousand different particles that are in change and artificially mixed. But it is necessary that the essence be one, since only one exists. Diversity, due to the difference from the essence, turns into non-existence " ("On "E" at Delphi", 20). “It is inherent in the eternally unchangeable and pure to be one and unmixed” (ibid.). “To the extent that it is possible to find a correspondence between a changeable sensation and an intelligible and unchangeable idea, this reflection somehow gives some kind of illusory idea of ​​​​divine mercy and happiness” (ibid., 21). Such a reflection of divine perfection is, first of all, the cosmos. This is already stated in the treatise quoted here (21): “Everything that is inherent in one way or another in the cosmos, the deity unites in its essence and keeps the weak bodily substance from destruction.”

On the cosmological problem, Plutarch devotes two entire treatises in connection with his work with his comments on Plato’s Timaeus. In the treatise “On the Origin of the Soul in Plato’s Timaeus,” Plutarch develops in a purely Platonic spirit the doctrine of idea and matter, the eternal but disordered existence of matter, the transformation of this matter by the divine Demiurge into the beauty, structure and order of the now existing cosmos, the creation the eternal and unchanging movement of the firmament with the help of the ordering activity of the world soul and the eternal beauty of the living, animate and intelligent cosmos. Indeed, Plato himself, in his construction of an ideally beautiful cosmos, as we find in his dialogue “Timaeus,” was at the height of precisely the classical idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe cosmos. And the same classical idea is the dream of Plutarch, who praises in every way the beauty of a perfect, albeit completely sensual-material, cosmos.

But even here, at the height of his theoretical worldview, Plutarch begins to show a certain kind of instability and even duality in his general philosophical position. When Plato built his cosmos, it never occurred to him to contrast good and evil. For him, it was enough that the eternal divine Mind with its eternal ideas formed once and for all formless and disordered matter, from where the also eternal and also forever beautiful cosmos appeared. Plutarch brings a completely new shade to this classical optimism. In the aforementioned treatise on the origin of the soul according to Timaeus, he suddenly begins to argue that not all disordered matter was brought into order by the Demiurge, that significant areas of it remain disordered to this day, and that this disordered matter (being, obviously, also eternal) and now and always will be the beginning of all disorder, all catastrophes both in nature and in society, that is, simply put, the evil soul of the world. In this sense, Plutarch interprets all the most important old philosophers - Heraclitus, Parmenides, Democritus, even Plato and even Aristotle.

Behind the classics of the VI-IV centuries. BC followed by that reworking of the classics, which is usually called not the Hellenistic period, but the Hellenistic period. The essence of Hellenism lies in the subjective reconstruction of the classical ideal, in its logical construction and emotional and intimate experience and embrace. Since Plutarch acted in the Hellenistic era, his worldview and artistic practice were built not on pure Platonism, but on its subjectivist and immanent-subjective interpretation. Plutarch is a subjectivist-minded interpreter of Platonism in the context of the preservation of cosmological objectivism as a whole.

Plutarch lived not in the age of initial Hellenism (III-I centuries BC), but immediately after it. And yet, the stamp of this initial Hellenism turned out to be decisively characteristic of the whole of Plutarch. This initial Hellenism did not influence Plutarch with its three schools of philosophy - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism. These schools arose as a protective measure for the then emerging individualism and subjectivism. It was necessary to educate a strict and stern subject and protect his inner peace in front of the then growing enormity of the Hellenistic-Roman empires. Plutarch turned out to be alien to the stern rigorism of the Stoics, and the carefree pleasure of the Epicureans, and the complete rejection of any logical construction by the skeptics.

Of all the aspects of the then growing subjectivism, Plutarch found himself closest to the small, modest and simple human personality with its everyday affections, with its love for family and native places and with its soft, heartfelt patriotism.

The initial period of Hellenism, with its three philosophical schools - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism - turned out to be too harsh a philosophical position for Plutarch. As a Hellenistic philosopher, Plutarch, of course, also emphasized the human personality and also wanted to give a personally thoughtful and intimately experienced picture of objective cosmology. But the indicated three main schools of elementary Hellenism were clearly too harsh and demanding for him, too abstract and uncompromising. It has already been said above that the intimate human subject that emerged in those days was not as severe as among the Stoics, not as principled as among the Epicureans, and not as hopelessly anarchic as among the skeptics. The human subject showed himself here in a very unique way, starting from his everyday attitudes and ending with various forms of sentimentalism, romanticism and any psychological whims. There were two such tendencies of early Hellenism, which not only had a positive influence on Plutarch, but often even exceeded other forms of subjective orientation of a person in Plutarch.

The first such tendency in Plutarch is everydayism and a completely philistine personal orientation. This everydayism filled Plutarch’s absolutely every mood and reached the point of complete ease, everyday limitations, meaningless verbosity and, one might say, chatter. But several centuries passed from Menander to Plutarch, and purely everyday analyzes in the time of Plutarch were already outdated. What, then, was the point of devoting tens and hundreds of pages to idle chatter on everyday topics and random anecdotes? And for Plutarch there was a very big meaning here. On the basis of such continuous everydayism, the psychology of a small person emerged, and there was a tendency to protect oneself from grandiose and too severe problems. Or, more correctly, the severe problems were not removed here, but a psychological opportunity was created to experience them not very painfully and not very tragically. Menander is not a Platonist, but a painter of everyday life. But Plutarch is a Platonist, and along with Platonism loomed for him a long series of deep, often tragic and often intolerable problems. He managed to endure and endure these great problems, often significant and even solemn for him, but always demanding and responsible. The everyday life of a small person was precisely what helped Plutarch to maintain peace of mind and not to fall on his face before the insoluble and impossible. That is why even in his “Comparative Lives” Plutarch, depicting great people, not only does not avoid any everyday details, but often even attaches deep meaning to them.

Everydayism of the initial period of Hellenism was of great importance both for the worldview and for the writing style of Plutarch. But in this initial Hellenism there was another, also new and remarkable and also enormous in its strength, tendency, which Plutarch deeply perceived, once and for all. This tendency, or rather this spiritual element, was what we must now call moralism.

This was unconditional news for Greek philosophy and literature because all classical, and especially all pre-classical, never knew any special moralism. The fact is that all classics live by heroism, but heroism could not be learned, heroism was given only by nature itself, that is, only by the gods. All ancient heroes were either direct or indirect descendants of the gods themselves. It was, of course, possible to perform heroic deeds only after undergoing preliminary heroic training. But it was impossible to become a hero. One could be born a hero and perfect oneself in heroism. But ancient Greek classical heroism is not a pedagogical, not educational, and therefore not moralistic area. Heroism in those days was a natural human phenomenon or, what is the same, divine. But then the classics ended, and then during the Hellenistic period, the most ordinary person appeared, not a descendant of the gods, not a hero by nature, but just a man. For his daily affairs, such a person had to be specially brought up, specially trained and trained, always consulting with the elders and the most experienced. And it was here that the moralism that was unknown to the classical hero arose. To become a decent and worthy person, you had to know thousands of personal, social and, generally speaking, moral rules.

Plutarch is a moralist. And not just a moralist. Moralism is his true element, the selfless tendency of all his work, never fading love and some kind of pedagogical pleasure. Just to teach, just to instruct, just to clarify difficult issues, just to put your reader on the path of eternal self-analysis, eternal self-correction and relentless self-improvement.

In short, from this initial period of Hellenism, everydayism and good-natured moralism passed to Plutarch. In other words, Plutarch was a complacent Platonist, for whom literary-moralistic forms of everyday life turned out to be much closer instead of the grandiose and majestic forms of classical Platonism and with its interpretation in the spirit of a kind-hearted and sincerely minded writer of everyday life and moralist.

Finally, in addition to direct criticism of the three philosophical schools of initial Hellenism and in addition to the everyday-descriptive moralism of the small man, Plutarch inherited from early Hellenism also the courage of progressive subjectivism, which required serious consideration of evil in nature, personality and society, despite undivided cosmological optimism. It was the modest and philistine-minded Plutarch who demanded recognition of not only the good, but also the evil soul of the world. In this sense, he dared to criticize even Plato himself. So, Plutarch, a subjectivist-minded interpreter of Plato, used this interpretation to protect the small and modest person, for constant everyday life and moralism, and to recognize a colossal cosmic force behind evil (and not just one good).

Plutarch, who lived at the turn of the 1st-2nd centuries. AD involuntarily found himself not only under the influence of early Hellenism, but also under the influence of that later Hellenism, which in ancient science was called the century of the Hellenic Renaissance. It is necessary to be strictly aware of what this Hellenic revival is, in what Plutarch is similar to it and in what it sharply differs.

If we take the Hellenic revival as a principle, then this could not be a literal restoration of an outdated classic several centuries ago. This was the transformation of classics not into literal, that is, not into literally life, but only into aesthetic objectivity, into a self-sufficient and completely isolated contemplation of long-past beauty. Plutarch was never such a pure aesthetician, and such isolated, self-sufficient aesthetic objectivity was always deeply alien to him. He was not capable of the delicately sensual impressionism of the Philostratas, of the Athenaeus's choking on interesting philological trifles, the dry and methodical description of the mythographers, or the shameless humor of Lucian's mythological sketches.

Perhaps some distant result of the Hellenic revival, typically referred to as the second sophistry, was Plutarch’s very frequent verbosity, which sometimes amounted to some kind of idle chatter. This was not just talkativeness, but again a protective measure to protect the rights of an ordinary person to his existence, to his own, albeit small, but purely human needs and moods.

This true significance must be stated in the method Plutarch uses in his inclination towards the revivalist methodology. It is precisely this visually given, contemplatively self-sufficient and aesthetically isolated objectivity that Plutarch never used literally, was never “pure” art for him, was never art for art’s sake. In this aesthetically isolated self-sufficiency, seemingly completely disinterested and not interested in anything vitally, Plutarch always drew strength precisely for life. Such aesthetic self-sufficiency always revived him, strengthened him, freed him from vanity and trifles, always had a transformative effect on the psyche, on society, easing the struggle, enlightening the vanity and comprehending everyday hardships and tragic hopelessness. That is why Plutarch’s everydayism and moralism are always peppered with mythological and literary examples, legends, fables and arbitrarily invented situations, anecdotes and sharp words, which at first glance seem to violate the smooth flow of the presentation and seem to pointlessly lead to the side. All this mythology and literature, all these anecdotes and witty situations never and nowhere had independent meaning for Plutarch, and in this sense they were not attracted at all for the purposes of isolated narcissism. All this was introduced into the life practice of a really active person, all this exposed the low and mediocre nature of vicious human passions, and all this facilitated, refreshed, elevated and made wise the most ordinary little person. Thus, the Renaissance-Hellenic theory of art for art’s sake, without depriving a person of his rights to everyday life, immediately and simultaneously turned out to be aesthetically self-oppressive and morally elevating, spiritually strengthening. Platonism in this sense underwent another new transformation in Plutarch, and classical cosmology, without losing its sublime beauty, became a justification for everyday man.

As a result of our examination of Plutarch’s extensive literary heritage, it must be said that at present it is a true fall for a philologist to reduce Plutarch’s work to any one abstract principle. True, its socio-historical basis, chronologically very precise, imperatively requires us to consider it as a transition from initial Hellenism, namely, to the Hellenic revival of the 2nd century. ad. But this is already too general a principle. A closer examination of his worldview and creative results indicates that Plutarch is an extremely complicated Platonist who was unable to rise to Platonic monism, but instead used its numerous ideological shades, often contradictory, and making this Platonism unrecognizable. In an approximate enumeration, in this form one could imagine all these contradictory and, in the full sense of the word, antinomian features of Plutarch with his synthetism, if not always philosophical, then always clear and simple, complacent and good-natured, naive and wise. Namely, Plutarch combined universalism and individualism, cosmologism and everyday life, monumentality and everyday life, necessity and freedom, heroism and moralism, solemnity and everyday prose, ideological unity and incredible diversity of images, self-sufficient contemplation and practical factography, monism and dualism, the desire of matter to perfection. The whole art of a historian of ancient literature and philosophy in relation to Plutarch lies in revealing and socio-historically substantiating precisely this antinomic-synthetic character of his worldview and creativity. Such art requires the use of enormous materials, and now this can only be remotely approached.

Plutarch was strongly influenced by the Hellenic revival, although he used it to argue for the rights of everyday people. But what Plutarch was certainly far from was the grandiose completion of all Hellenism in the last four centuries of antiquity, when the philosophical school of Neoplatonists arose, flourished and declined. These Neoplatonists also could not accept the theory of self-sufficient contemplation as final. They brought this purely poetic self-pressure to the end, thinking it through to that logical end when a poetic and purely mental image, instead of a metaphor, became a living reality, a living thing and an independently acting substance. But a poetic image, given as an independent material substance, is already a myth; and Neoplatonism of the 3rd-4th centuries. AD became precisely the dialectics of myth. Plutarch had a positive attitude towards myths, but not in the sense of recognizing in them the primary substances of existence itself. For him, myths, in the end, also remained at the stage of metaphorical moralism, although, of course, they still went into cosmological depths.

Essays

Most of his numerous works have survived to this day. As can be seen from the catalog of a certain Lampria, a supposed student of Plutarch, there were about 210 of them.

Plutarch's surviving works fall into two main groups:

Biographies, or historical works, and

Philosophical and journalistic works, known under the general name “Ἠθικά” or “Moralia”.

46 parallel biographies have reached us, adjacent to which are 4 more separate biographies (Artaxerxes, Aratus, Galba and Otho). Several biographies have been lost.

Comparative biographies

The combination of two parallel biographies - a Greek and a Roman - corresponded to the long-standing custom of biographers, noticeable even in Cornelius Nepos, and, moreover, was very consistent with the views of Plutarch, who was wholeheartedly devoted to the past of his people, but willingly recognized the amazing strength of the Roman state and had among his closest friends both Greeks and Romans alike.

In most pairs, the reason for the connections is clear in itself (for example, the greatest orators - Cicero and Demosthenes, the most ancient legislators - Lycurgus and Numa, the most famous generals - Alexander the Great and Caesar). For 19 couples, Plutarch gives, at the end of the biographies, a brief indication of the common features and major differences of the compared husbands. The author is nowhere a historian who critically examines the facts. Its purpose is to give philosophical characteristics, to present a given personality as comprehensively as possible, in order to paint an instructive picture, to encourage readers to virtue and to educate them for practical activity.

This goal explains a large number of facts from the private lives of the depicted persons, anecdotes and witty sayings, an abundance of moral reasoning, and various quotes from poets. The lack of historical criticism and depth of political thought did not, and still does not, prevent the biographies of Plutarch from finding numerous readers interested in their varied and instructive content and highly appreciating the warm, humane feeling of the author. As if an addition to the biographies are the “Apothegmas of Kings and Generals”, to which in the manuscripts is added a forged letter from Plutarch to Trajan and equally forged small collections of various other “apophegmas”.

Plutarch's main work, which became one of the most famous works of ancient literature, was his biographical works.

“Comparative biographies” have absorbed enormous historical material, including information from works of ancient historians that have not survived to this day, the author’s personal impressions of ancient monuments, quotes from Homer, epigrams and epitaphs. It is customary to reproach Plutarch for his uncritical attitude towards the sources he uses, but it must be taken into account that the main thing for him was not the historical event itself, but the trace it left in history.

This can be confirmed by the treatise “On the Malice of Herodotus,” in which Plutarch reproaches Herodotus for partiality and distortion of the history of the Greco-Persian Wars. Plutarch, who lived 400 years later, in an era when, as he put it, a Roman boot was raised over the head of every Greek, wanted to see great commanders and statesmen not as they really were, but the ideal embodiment of valor and courage. He did not seek to recreate history in all its real completeness, but found in it outstanding examples of wisdom, heroism, and self-sacrifice in the name of the homeland, designed to capture the imagination of his contemporaries.

In the introduction to the biography of Alexander the Great, Plutarch formulates the principle that he used as the basis for the selection of facts: “We write not history, but biographies, and virtue or depravity is not always visible in the most glorious deeds, but often some insignificant act, word or joke better reveal the character of a person than battles in which tens of thousands die, the leadership of huge armies and sieges of cities."

Plutarch's artistic mastery made Comparative Lives a favorite reading for youth, who learned from his writings about the events of the history of Greece and Rome. Plutarch's heroes became the personification of historical eras: ancient times were associated with the activities of the wise legislators Solon, Lycurgus and Numa, and the end of the Roman Republic seemed to be a majestic drama, driven by the clashes of the characters of Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Antony, Brutus.

Without exaggeration, we can say that thanks to Plutarch, European culture developed an idea of ​​ancient history as a semi-legendary era of freedom and civic valor. That is why his works were highly valued by thinkers of the Enlightenment, figures of the Great French Revolution and the generation of Decembrists.

The very name of the Greek writer became a household word, since numerous editions of biographies of great people were called “Plutarchs” in the 19th century.

Other works

The standard edition contains 78 treatises, of which several are considered not to be Plutarch's.

Literature

On the comparative merits of Plutarch's manuscripts, see the critical apparatus for the editions of Reiske (Lpts., 1774-82), Sintenis ("Vitae", 2nd ed., Lpts., 1858-64); Wyttenbach (“Moralia”, Lpc., 1796-1834), Bernardakes (“Moralia”, Lpc. 1888-95), also Treu, “Zur Gesch. d. berlieferung von Plut. Moralia" (Bresl., 1877-84). Dictionary of Plutarchian language - with the name. published by Wyttenbach. Svida gives scant information about the life of Plutarch. From new op. Wed Wesiermann, "De Plut. vita et scriptis" (Lpts., 1855); Volkmann “Leben, Schriften und Philosophie des plutarch” (B., 1869); Muhl, “Plutarchische Studien” (Augsburg, 1885), etc. Among the translators of Plutarch into new European languages, Amio enjoyed particular fame.

Plutarch in Russian translations

Plutarch began to be translated into Russian from the 18th century: See Pisarev’s translations, “Plutarch’s Instructions on Childrearing” (St. Petersburg, 1771) and “The Word of Persistent Curiosity” (St. Petersburg, 1786); Ivan Alekseev, “The Moral and Philosophical Works of Plutarch” (St. Petersburg, 1789); E. Sferina, “On Superstition” (St. Petersburg, 1807); S. Distounis et al. “Plutarch’s comparative biographies” (St. Petersburg, 1810, 1814-16, 1817-21); "The Lives of Plutarch" ed. V. Guerrier (M., 1862); biographies of Plutarch in a cheap edition by A. Suvorin (translated by V. Alekseev, vols. I-VII) and under the title “The Life and Affairs of Famous People of Antiquity” (M., 1889, I-II); “Conversation about the face visible on the disk of the moon” (“Philological Review” vol. VI, book 2). Wed. study by Y. Elpidinsky “The religious and moral worldview of Plutarch of Chaeronea” (St. Petersburg, 1893).

The best Russian edition of “Comparative Lives,” where most of the translation was done by S. P. Markish:

Quotes and aphorisms

Conversation should be as common property of the feasters as wine.

A chatterbox wants to force himself to be loved and causes hatred, wants to provide a service - and becomes intrusive, wants to cause surprise - and becomes funny; he insults his friends, serves his enemies.

Any matter between reasonable spouses is decided by mutual consent, but in such a way that the primacy of the husband is obvious and the last word remains with him.

The highest wisdom is to not appear to be philosophizing when philosophizing, and to achieve a serious goal with a joke.

The two main assets of human nature are intelligence and reasoning.

Movement is the storehouse of life.

If it is commendable to do good to friends, then there is no shame in accepting help from friends.

There are three ways to answer questions: say what is necessary, answer with friendliness, and say too much.

The wife is unbearable, such that she frowns when her husband is not averse to playing with her and being nice to her, and when he is busy with serious business, she frolics and laughs: the first means that her husband is disgusting to her, the second - that she is indifferent to him.

You should marry not with your eyes and not with your fingers, as some do, calculating how much the bride’s dowry will be, instead of finding out what she will be like in life together.

A wife should not make her own friends; She's had enough of her husband's friends.

Anger and hot temper have no place in married life. Severity suits a married woman, but let this harshness be healthy and sweet, like wine, and not bitter, like aloe, and unpleasant, like medicine.

A slanderous tongue betrays a foolish person.

Drinking poison from a golden cup and accepting advice from a treacherous friend are one and the same thing.

The wildest foals make the best horses. If only they were properly educated and sent out.

A husband and wife and a wife and her husband should avoid clashes everywhere and always, but most of all on the marital bed. Quarrels, quarrels and mutual insults, if they began on the bed, are not easily put to an end at another time and in another place.

Either as short as possible, or as pleasant as possible.

Just as ravens swoop down to peck out the eyes of the dead, so flatterers, sifting through, steal away the wealth of the foolish.

One must beware of slander and slander, like a poisonous worm on a rose - they are hidden in thin and polished phrases.

When the sun leaves the world, everything becomes dark, and conversation, devoid of insolence, is all unhelpful.

When you scold others, make sure that you yourself are far from what you reprimand others for.

Whoever behaves too harshly with his wife, without deigning jokes and laughter, forces her to seek pleasure on the side.

Anyone who expects to ensure his health by being lazy is acting just as stupidly as a person who thinks to improve his voice through silence.

Flattery is like a thin shield, painted with paint: it is pleasant to look at, but there is no need for it.

Fishing with poison makes it easy and quick to catch fish, but spoils it, making it inedible; Likewise, wives who try to keep their husbands with them through witchcraft or love potions, captivate them with sensual pleasures, but then live with the insane and insane.

Love is always diverse, both in many respects and in the fact that the jokes affecting it are painful for some and cause indignation in them, while others are pleasant. Here we must comply with the circumstances of the moment. Just as a breath can extinguish an emerging fire due to its weakness, and when it flares up, it gives it nourishment and strength, so love, while it is still secretly growing, is indignant and indignant against the revelation, and when it flares up with a bright flame, it finds food in banter and responds to them with a smile.

I don’t need a friend who, agreeing with me on everything, changes views with me, nodding his head, because a shadow does the same thing better.

People need courage and fortitude not only against the weapons of enemies, but also against any blows.

We often ask a question, not needing an answer, but trying to hear the voice and ingratiate ourselves with the other person, wanting to draw him into the conversation. Getting ahead of others with answers, trying to capture someone else's ears and occupy someone else's thoughts, is the same as going to kiss a person who is thirsty for the kiss of another, or trying to attract someone's gaze fixed on another to oneself.

Learn to listen and you can benefit even from those who speak poorly.

A wife should not rely on a dowry, not on nobility, not on her beauty, but on what can truly bind her husband to her: courtesy, kindness and compliance, and these qualities should be demonstrated every day, not through force, as if reluctantly, but willingly, joyfully and willingly.

Herodotus was wrong when he said that a woman carries with her shame along with her clothes; on the contrary, a chaste woman, taking off her clothes, puts on shame, and the more modesty between spouses, the greater love this means.

A few vices are enough to darken many virtues.

Constantly learning, I come to old age.

Not a single spoken word has brought as much benefit as many unspoken ones.

No body can be so strong that wine cannot damage it.

The winners sleep sweeter than the losers.

Like a fire that easily flares up in reeds, straw or hare's hair, but quickly goes out if it finds no other food, love blazes brightly with blooming youth and physical attractiveness, but will soon fade away if it is not nourished by the spiritual virtues and good character of young spouses .

Sometimes it is not without benefit to shut the offender’s mouth with a witty rebuke; such a rebuke should be brief and show neither irritation nor rage, but let her know how to bite a little with a calm smile, returning the blow; how arrows fly off a solid object back to the one who sent them. so the insult seems to fly back from an intelligent and self-controlled speaker and hit the insulter.

At first, newlyweds should especially beware of disagreements and clashes, looking at how recently glued pots easily crumble at the slightest push; but over time, when the places of fastening become strong, neither fire nor them are damaged.

A decent woman should not even show off her conversations, and she should be as ashamed to raise her voice in front of strangers as to undress in front of them, for the voice reveals the character of the speaker, the qualities of her soul, and her mood.

Honors change morals, but rarely for the better.

A true cause, if correctly stated, is indestructible.

Traitors betray themselves first of all.

A wife should talk only with her husband, and with other people - through her husband, and should not be upset by this.

The speech of a statesman should not be either youthfully ardent or theatrical, like the speeches of ceremonial orators who weave garlands of elegant and weighty words. The basis of his speeches should be honest frankness, true dignity, patriotic sincerity, foresight, reasonable attention and care. It is true that political eloquence, much more than judicial eloquence, allows for maxims, historical parallels, fictions and figurative expressions, the moderate and appropriate use of which has a particularly good effect on listeners.

The power of speech lies in the ability to express a lot in a few words.

A voluptuous husband makes his wife wanton and lustful; the wife of a decent and virtuous person becomes modest and chaste.

Courage is the beginning of victory.

To do bad things is low, to do good when it is not associated with danger is a common thing. A good person is one who does great and noble things, even if he risks everything.

A just husband commands his wife not as the owner of property, but as the soul of the body; taking into account her feelings, and invariably benevolently.

The marital union, if it is based on mutual love, forms a single fused whole; if it is concluded for the sake of a dowry or procreation, then it consists of conjugate parts; if it is only to sleep together, then it consists of separate parts, and such a marriage is correctly considered not as living together, but as living under one roof.

Severity makes a wife's chastity repulsive, just as untidiness makes her simplicity repulsive.

Those who are greedy for praise are poor in merit.

The person being punished has no reason to persist against correction if he realizes that he was punished not in a fit of anger, but on the basis of impartial exposure.

A woman is adorned by what makes her more beautiful, but what makes her so is not emeralds and purple, but modesty, decency and bashfulness.

A smart wife, while her angry husband screams and scolds, remains silent, and only when he falls silent does she start a conversation with him in order to soften him and calm him down.

Character is nothing more than a long-term skill.

A chaste wife should appear in public only with her husband, and when he is away, remain invisible while sitting at home.

A sane person should beware of hostility and bitterness.

Sources

Plutarch. Comparative biographies. In 2 volumes / Ed. preparation S. S. Averintsev, M. L. Gasparov, S. P. Markish. Rep. ed. S. S. Averintsev. (Series “Literary Monuments”). 1st ed. In 3 volumes. M.-L., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 1961-1964. 2nd ed., rev. and additional M., Science. 1994. T.1. 704 pp. T.2. 672 pp.

For editions of ethical works, see the article Moralia (Plutarch)

Losev, “Plutarch. Essay on life and creativity.”;

Plutarch. Essays.

Kuvshinskaya I.V. Plutarch // Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius-2004

Botvinnik M.N., Rabinovich M.B., Stratanovsky G.A. Lives of famous Greeks and Romans: Book. for students. - M.: Education, 1987. - 207 p.

Famous Greeks and Romans / 35 biographies of outstanding figures of Greece and Rome, compiled according to Plutarch and other ancient authors M.N. Botvinnik and M.B. Rabinovich. - St. Petersburg: Epoch, 1993. - 448 p.

Glory of distant ages: From Plutarch / From ancient Greek. retold by S. Markish. — M.: Det. lit., 1964. - 270 pp.: ill. - (School b-ka).

- (c. 40 120 AD) Greek writer, historian and philosopher; lived during the era of stabilization of the Roman Empire, when the economy, political life and ideology of ancient society entered a period of prolonged stagnation and decay. Ideological... ... Literary encyclopedia