“Manufactories of the 17th century in Russia” - Widespread sales. Specialization of trades. Serf farming. Serf and civilian manufactory. Posad population. Brief description of the economic system of serf Russia. Types and types of manufactories. Large production. Manufactories that used the labor of assigned peasants. State industry. Manufactory. Dutchman Andrei Vinius. Economy of feudal Russia.
“Life in Russia in the 17th century” - Family of a merchant. Class life of the 17th century. Hen-party. Ryabushkin. Life and customs of peasants. Life of the townspeople. A scene from the life of the Russian Tsars. Throne Chamber. Merchant's house. Peasant hut. Life of the nobles. Home life of Russian tsars. Poet. Royal mansions. Wedding train.
“Culture and life of the 17th century” - Lesson assignment. Development of science. A new style. Publishing books. Genres in Russian literature. Education. Architecture. Painting. Wooden architecture. Oil paints. Culture and life of the 17th century. The history of homeland.
“Estates of Russia in the 17th century” - Cathedral Code. Peasantry. Hierarchy of Russian estates. Urban population. White settlements. The main classes of Russian society in the 17th century. The class system of Russian society. Merchants. Black clergy. Boyars. Society. Nobles. Posad people. Clergy. Boyars. Nobility. Duties of peasants. Cathedral Code of 1649. Feudal lords. The trial of the peasants. Owner's peasants. Posad artisans.
“Russian culture of the 16th-17th centuries” - Theater. Education and printing. The story of the Grand Duke of Moscow. Artistic gold embroidery. Painting. Socio-political thought. Portrait of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Architecture. The rapprochement of religious and civil stone architecture. Moscow Kremlin. Frescoes of Dionysius. The advent of printing was inevitable. Wedding in Cana. Ivan Fedorov. The first parsuns. Symbol of the unification of Russian lands.
“Russian life of the 17th century” - Life of peasants and townspeople. The girl was strictly supposed to guard her honor. The clothing of men and women was an undershirt - a chemise. The windows were filled with bullish bubbles. Church marriage did not recognize divorce. The usual drink was bread kvass. Food of Russian people. Clothes of peasants and townspeople. Women's usual clothing included a sundress, a skirt, and a warmer. The head of the family is a man. Marriage was allowed no more than three times.
The “Regulations” of February 19, 1861 established a number of basic principles for the elimination of duties and the allocation of land to peasants. “The general provision on peasants who have emerged from peasant dependence” was based on the recognition of the property rights of landowners to all lands, but established the mandatory surrender of peasants with estate and field land (with the exception of those who did not have land before the reform) first for duties and then for ransom . Preference was given to an “amicable” agreement between peasants and landowners, and the conditions could be very different. If such an agreement was not reached, then strict rules determined by “local provisions” came into play. The reform was based on the principle of gradualism, a favorite hobby of conservatives of all times. Gradually - over two years - statutory charters were to be drawn up, defining the specific conditions for the liberation of the peasants. After that, the peasants were transferred to the position of “temporarily obliged” until the transition to redemption. Then there followed a period of 49 years of payment of redemption payments (or rather, state loans), after which the land plots were to become the full property of the peasants.
The size of the plots was determined by local regulations, of which there were four. One was for 29 Great Russian, Novorossiysk and Belarusian provinces with a communal form of land use. The second is for three Little Russian (left bank) provinces with household land use. There was a special local situation for Right Bank Ukraine and a fourth one for Western Belarus and Lithuania. According to the last two provisions, the peasants received all the lands that they had before the reform. This was done for political reasons, since the peasants there were Ukrainians and Belarusians, and the landowners were mostly Catholic Poles. After the uprising of 1863, the peasants of these provinces were immediately transferred to redemption and their plots increased somewhat (to the previous inventory standards).
Local regulations also divided the provinces into three stripes (chernozem, non-chernozem and steppe), and within the stripes areas were identified and allotment norms were established for them. In the steppe zone, a single statutory allotment per male soul was introduced (it varied in different areas from six to twelve dozen). In the remaining zones in each locality, the highest and lowest norms of allotments were determined. Moreover, the highest allotment was three times larger than the lowest. The law was based on the fact that the peasants were given the actual allotment that they enjoyed before the reform. In this case, if this allotment was more than the highest norm, the landowner had the right to cut off the “surplus” to this norm. If the actual allotment was less than the lowest norm, the landowner was obliged to cut off the land
excess to this norm.
The landowners established norms in such an amount that they could cut off part of the peasants' lands for their benefit. The landowners submitted to the Editorial Commissions underestimated data on the size of the actual plots of the peasants, and therefore, even after some increase in the highest norms by these commissions in most provinces, the peasants' lands were still reduced. The land was also cut off according to additional rules: the landowner could cut off land for himself up to 1/3 of his former estate (in the steppe zone up to 1/2) even if the peasants' allotments did not exceed the highest norm.
According to official data, the size of the plots in favor of the landowners in 27 provinces as a whole amounted to 13% of the peasant plots that were before the reform. Studies by Soviet historians of archive documents (statutory charters) showed that in reality about 20% of their land was cut off from the peasants, and in some provinces up to 30%. The landowners were given the right to determine for themselves which lands to allocate to the peasants and which to keep for themselves. The landowners cut off the best lands for themselves, and also took such plots into sections so that the peasants would be forced to rent them at an expensive price. For example, they took for themselves all the pastures and watering places that the peasants could not do without, and more often they wedged sections into the middle of the peasants' field lands. According to the recollections of one of the statisticians, in the village of Khomuty, Oryol province, the lands of the peasants were in five sections, and it was possible to get to them only through the lands of the landowner. Thus, the landowners were able to exploit the peasants in bondage.
As a result of the reform, 10 million male souls of former landowner peasants received about 34 million dessiatines. land or 3.4 dessiatines. per capita. According to the calculations of liberal economists, for the subsistence minimum it was necessary to have at least 5.5 dessiatines in the black earth zone. per capita, and in other areas 6-8 dessiatines. The allotments were uneven. Almost 5 percent of the peasants received up to 2 dessiatines, 28% from 2 to 3 dessiatines, 26% from 3 to 4 dessiatines, and 27% over 4 dessiatines. The least wealthy were the peasants of the black earth strip, the most northern and steppe provinces.
The allocation of land to peasants was dictated by two reasons. Tsarism was concerned that the peasants would continue to pay taxes, which they could not do without land. In addition, the landowners were afraid of losing their workers, since without land, the peasants would begin to scatter around the cities and go to the land-rich outskirts. Taking into account the interests of the peasants required a significant increase in the pre-reform allotments of the peasants, which could be done through the landowners' latifundia and the organization of the resettlement of peasants in the outskirts. But the landowners won. The pre-reform, clearly insufficient norms were taken as the basis for the allotments, but at the same time the peasants were robbed, taking away vital “segments” from them. When switching to redemption, the former landowner peasants received the title of peasant owners, but in reality they, unlike the landowners, did not receive full ownership of the land. The community was considered the legal owner, but it also did not have the right to sell the plots. With household land ownership, peasants also could not sell their plots. A new form of land tenure, “allotment”, was created.
Some peasants (461 thousand) received quarter, or gift, plots, on average 1.1 dessiatines. per capita. Half of them were in the Lower Volga region, and a quarter in the North Chernozem region. 724 thousand household servants and 137 thousand peasants and small landed gentry did not receive any land at all. They were released after two years free of charge, but without a piece of land.
Before the transfer to the redemption, the peasants had to perform temporary duties in favor of the landowner in the form of a monetary quitrent or corvee. The period of transition from duties to redemption was not firmly established by regulation; it stretched from 1863 to 1883 (the law of 1881 established the mandatory transition to redemption for all landowners' estates). By February 19, 1870, 55% of the peasants in European Russia switched to ransom, not counting the western provinces, where all peasants were immediately transferred to the category of peasant owners. By 1881 15% of the former landowner peasants of the internal provinces remained in the position of temporarily obliged.
Temporary duties were essentially the same as feudal corvée and quitrents, the difference was as follows: their sizes were determined by local regulations, small duties (in-kind payment in poultry, berries, mushrooms, etc., additional hauling work and outfits) were abolished, quitrents were recognized as the main duty (peasants were not allowed it was possible to transfer to corvee without their consent if they had previously paid quitrent, and after two years they could transfer from corvee to quitrent without the consent of the landowner). Corvée was limited to 40 men's and 30 women's tax days per year, with 3/5 worked in the summer half of the year, the rest in the winter. The peasants did not work productively in corvée; the landowners no longer had such power over them. Therefore, the proportion of corvee peasants in the first two years decreased by half (from 71 to 35%) and then the reduction continued.
The principle of determining the amount of quitrent, on which the size of the ransom depended, was of great importance. The government and the tsar himself repeatedly emphasized that they would not allow even a discussion of the issue of ransoming the personal dependence of the peasants, which was proposed by the right-wing landowners. But among the new bureaucracy, a way around this principle was found: to make the size of the quitrent dependent not on the profitability of the land, but on the income of the peasants in a given area. According to local regulations, the highest quitrent was established near St. Petersburg - 12 rubles. From a full allotment, then in non-black earth provinces (Moscow, Yaroslavl, parts of Vladimir and Nizhny Novgorod) - 10 rubles. In the black earth and steppe provinces the quitrent was set at 9 rubles. Consequently, quitrents were lower where land was valued higher. This happened because the quitrent standards were approximately equal to the size of the pre-reform quitrent, and it was higher in non-black earth provinces, near the capitals, where it was possible to earn more. And in the black earth provinces the main income was from land and the rent was lower. Here the landowners were compensated by plots of land and the opportunity to receive income from them. The assignment of quitrent according to its pre-reform size was intended to preserve for the landowner the income that the peasant gave, and not to compensate for the land.
The introduction of the so-called gradation of quitrents and corvée was a clever fraud. This principle came into force only when the peasants did not receive a full allotment. For example, when receiving half of the highest allotment, it would seem that the peasant must pay half of the quitrent. But the gradation consisted in the uneven distribution of quitrent (as well as corvee) among the tithes of the allotment. In the non-chernozem zone, 50% of the quitrent was collected for the first tithe received, 25% for the second, and the remainder of the quitrent was distributed equally among the rest. In the Yaroslavl province, the highest allotment of four dozen rents was set at 10 rubles. If the peasants received two tens each, then they paid 5 rubles for the first tithe, as would have been the case without the introduction of gradation. The establishment of gradation was beneficial to the majority of landowners, since the bulk of the peasants received plots less than the highest norm. They received particular benefit from this due to the fact that the ransom, as we will see later, directly depended on the actual value of the post-reform quitrent. The peasants of the black earth strip found themselves in the most difficult situation, where land was cut off in excess of the highest norm.
Peasant duties.
The agrarian reform provided for uniform duties for peasants. The main ones were corvee (panshchina) and chinsh. Drives were considered an additional duty - urgent agricultural work associated with harvesting, haymaking, and plowing the soil. All family members came out to fulfill them. To protect themselves from fire, only one disabled person was left in the house. The hubbub differed from the drives in that they were caused by emergency circumstances - for example, fire, flood. An additional duty was considered to be food rent - dyaklo.
Those peasants who performed corvée for the use of land were called tax workers. From one portage they had to work two days a week of corvée, four days a year of driving, pay 21 groschen chinsha, give a dyaklo in the following amount: two barrels of oats, one load of hay, one goose, two chickens, 20 eggs. Peasants who paid chinsh for the use of land were called siege peasants (chinsh). The size of the basic duties of besieged peasants for one haul of good land was 106 groschen, and for a haul of very bad land - 66 groschen. In addition, they carried out 12 days of collections per year and supplied dyaklo in the same amount as the tax yards.
The third group of peasants were peasant servants. They were divided into military peasants (armoured boyars, worthwhile boyars, servants), rural administration (voits, tiuns), servants (cooks, brewers, etc.), fishermen (sedge growers, beaver growers, grooms, fishermen, etc.), village artisans ( blacksmiths, carpenters, potters, etc.). Their duties were not strictly specified. For example, armored boyars, in exchange for free use of land during the war, were required to “have a good Cossack horse, a pike, a pair of pistols... and a musket on their belt.” Since 1557, the good boyars used one horse from two portages for war. But gradually their responsibilities became courier service and payment of chinsha.
After the agrarian reform, involuntary servants were transferred to the category of peasant gardeners. They received small plots of land. For using it, gardeners had to work one day of corvée per week in the farm.
Feudal estate.
Feudal estate: fiefdom, seigneury (France) and manor (England).
The feudal estate is the main production unit. The estate was formed in the Karasin era, finally in the 9th century, and existed throughout mature capitalism. The feudal estate is based on a peasant community, and the community had a special type of organization:
1. Settlement
2.Usage
Land tenure system– a system that was used by communities.
1. Slash-and-burn: trees were cut down, stumps were burned.
2. Relog: moving to a new field, abandoning the old one.
3. Two-field: one is sown and the other is fallow.
4. Three-field: 1 – winter (autumn), 2 – spring (spring), 3 – fallow
5. Multi-field (fruit-bearing): fertility is restored when the crop is changed during sowing.
With a three-field system, the field was divided into sections (wedges). In each wedge, strips were cut corresponding to the number of peasants and the needs of the landowners. The strips ran alternately (one for the peasant, the other for the landowner), so that each peasant had land in all natural conditions. The harvest was collected in this way. After this, the fences were removed from the strips, and the entire field was used for grazing. The landowner's economy was subordinated to the rhythm of the peasant economy, i.e. the economic entity was the community, and the patrimony was only a superstructure over this community for the withdrawal of surplus product. Such a system is called open field system – after the harvest the fields were opened; Mediterranean in France - grapes, fences were not removed, each was processed entirely. The entire organization of production is in the hands of the community, and the means of production are in the hands of the peasants. Therefore, the feudal lord could not influence the production process foreign economic exploitation.
Domain- land on which the feudal lord's farm is conducted; consists of the sum of the stripes on the margins
Degree of exploitation: This is always a fraction - the ratio of the surplus product to the necessary.
In a corvée economy: surplus product = S domain, and necessary product = sum S of allotment. The degree of exploitation is not >1/3, 2/3 is for oneself, but 1/3 is for the feudal lord.
Conclusion: the estate represented a large economy based on small-scale production.
Duties of peasants.
In the 10th century the peasants leveled off; 10th-13th centuries in France - serfs.
Servs are peasants who are personally and judicially dependent on the feudal lord.
Personal addiction ( servage ):
1. Menmort – “the right of the dead hand.” Upon the death of the peasant holder, the land legally passed to the feudal lord. Economically it was expressed in the confiscation of quitrent from the son.
2. Formariage – payment for permission to marry. “The right of the first foot” belongs to the feudal lord, but there was a payment to the feudal lord.
3. Banalities - the duty of the peasant to use the means of production of the feudal lord.
4. Chevage - a total extortion.
5. Easements – payment for the use of the almenda.
6. Taglia - payments to the feudal lord for holding the land.
Land dependence:
Corvee: ordinary (2-3 days a week work in the field or on the farm) and extraordinary (during the harvesting period the peasant was torn from his farm).
In the 13th century - rent commutation:
1. Labor - corvée
2. Grocery – natural rent
3. Monetary – monetary quitrent
Reasons for commuting rent:
1. The development of commodity-money relations expanded the needs of feudal lords and increased their need for money.
2. In the 13-14 centuries, active colonization of new lands in Europe took place; it was difficult to establish a corvee economy on them.
3. Crusades and other wars. Some of the peasants received freedom during these wars.
4. Epidemics: in 1348 – plague; wars reduced the population, devastated the lands. And the feudal lords could populate these lands only by attracting peasants with favorable conditions: low rent and freedom.
5. Peasant uprisings.
Peasants pay a fixed rent - qualification / or chinsh(German). The freed peasants in the 13th and 14th centuries are called in France - villans. Later they will be called Censitaries. The entire system of fixed rent is censorship.
(based on "The Poem of the Versonian Villans")
"The Poem of the Verson Villans" was written in Old French by a certain Estou le Goz in the middle of the 13th century. The action takes place in the village of Verson, near the city of Caen (Normandy). The lord of Verson was the rich monastery of St. Michael. The author of the work is entirely on the side of the monastery and is hostile and ironic towards the peasants.
Again I bring my complaint to Saint Michael - the messenger of the heavenly king - against all the Versona villans...
Villans must carry the stone - every day there is a need for it - without disputes and without resistance. And in the furnaces and in the mills - after all, they are more treacherous than humble! - they are constantly guilty of service. Whether a house is being built, they must supply the masons with stone and cement."
The first work of the year is for Midsummer 2. Villans must mow the meadows, rake and collect hay into shocks and stack it in stacks in the meadows, and then take it to the master's yard when indicated. Bordarii 3 will put the hay in the barn. They do this work all the time.
Then they must clean the mill ditches - each one comes with his own shovel; With a shovel around their necks, they go to rake out dry and liquid manure. Villan does this work.
But then August comes, and with it new work (that’s what they were missing!). They owe corvée, and it should not be forgotten. The villans must reap the grain, collect and tie it into sheaves, stack it in stacks in the middle of the field and take it immediately to the barns. They have carried out this service since childhood, just as their ancestors did. This is how they work for the lord.
"Apparently, a mixture of clay and straw.
3 Bordarii - peasants obliged to work primarily on the estate, in contrast to villans - holders of small plots on estates, carrying corvee labor and paying rent in kind and in cash.
If their lands are subject to shampar, then they will never bring their sheaves from the fields: they go to look for the collector and bring him with great reluctance; if the villan sins against the established account, the collector will shame him and impose a large fine if he did not give him anything. And so he loads the champar on his gig, not daring to throw off a single sheaf, and takes the common champar to the barn. His own harvest remains exposed to the rain and wind, and the villan yearns for his bread, which lies in the field, where it suffers all sorts of damage! And so he rides up to the barn, where they take a fine from him if he has lost even one sheaf that fell from the cart in the field or on the road. He ties his horses, but they will not be given a crumb of feed; and if the measurer sees him, he will also be able to upset the villan by demanding wine from him. A lot of money has to be paid to someone who has three or four clerks hanging over him: one receives, another unloads, the third leads to the measurer - the poor man has only tears! Having handed over the bread, he finally leaves (it’s been a long time since he knew such joy!), swearing in his dialect that he had handed over such a lot to him, and therefore such a mockery of him.
And then the time comes for the fair “in the meadow” and the September Day of the Virgin Mary, when it is necessary to carry the piglets. If a villan has eight piglets, then he takes the two best, one of them for the lord, who, of course, will not take the worst! And on top of that, you need to contribute 3 deniers for each of the remaining piglets. The villan must pay all this.
Then comes the day of St. Dionysius 4. Here the villans clutch their heads - after all, they have to submit a qualification, and they are in fear.
But the deadline for paying for the fencing is approaching - after all, the villans keep large fences. If a villan has been cultivating his field for a long time, he still cannot and will not dare to fence it off before he has paid a fee to the lord and received his consent.<...>
Then they are again guilty of corvée. When they have plowed the land, they go to the barn for grain, sow and harrow. Each share is one acre 5...
The chickens must be turned in by Christmas; if they are not good and gentle enough, the clerk will take away the villan's pledge 6 .
Next comes the beer duty; two nets of barley and three cartiers of 7 wheat each.
“Champar (part from the field) is the giving to the lord of a certain share of the harvest. Sometimes this is the ninth, tenth or eleventh sheaf, but there are cases when the fourth sheaf was also given.
3 Denier = "/12 sous. 20 sous = 1 livre.
""St. Dionysius's Day is October 9. Villan, as the holder of the feudal land, paid him a qualification. The peasant paid ^enz or champar, and sometimes both.
5 Norman acre = 12.1 hectares.
"Alone from There was a system of bails for coercive measures against the villans. ·
7 Medieval measures of bulk solids fluctuated. In the 13th century in one cart of wheat there were 3 bushels, in one net there were 12 bushels.
Come on, make them pay! They must pay in full! Go, take their horses, take away the cows and calves, hold their deposits in all the yards. Bring more, don’t leave them anything as a gift! Because all Villans are treacherous traitors...
If a villan gives his daughter in marriage outside the seigneury, then the seigneur receives a "culage" fee. Three sous are due to him in the form of a marriage fee, and, sir, I swear that there is something for which he receives these three sous. For in ancient times it was so, that the villan led his daughter by the hand and handed her over to the lord...
Then comes Palm Sunday. A divinely established holiday when it is necessary to pay a duty for sheep, since the villans received this duty by inheritance. But if they fail to pay on time, then they thereby hand over themselves to the mercy of the lord.
On Easter they are again guilty of corvée. When the Villans have plowed the land, they go to the barn for grain, sow and harrow. Each one cultivates one acre for barley.
After that, we need to go to the forge to shoe the horses, because it’s time to go to the forest for firewood...
Then comes the cart duty, called sommage: after all, every year they transported grain to Domzhan. And then they mocked them quite a bit...
In addition, there is a mill ban 2 on them. If the villan does not pay the miller as he is supposed to, then the miller will take his own on the grain, measuring it out in such a bushel as to compensate for his grinding; and with a spatula he will scoop up the flour for himself so that barely half of the full measure remains, and he will also grab a handful...
Then they have a stove bath on top of them and that's the worst part. When the villan's wife goes there (she hasn't been sent there for a long time) and regularly pays her fornage, brings a cake and help, then the baker, arrogant and important, grumbles, and the baker is dissatisfied and scolds, saying that he did not receive what he deserved; he swears on the teeth of God that the oven will be poorly heated and that he will not have to eat good bread - it will be unbaked.
Sire, let it be known to you that there is no more vile people under heaven than the Versonian villans; we know this for sure...